The importance of human needs upon food causes an opinion that agricultural sector is a productive sector with its surplus between the production and consumption results. The role of land is very essential for realizing the fulfilment of food needs. The combination between land and other production factors will result in food.
The economic thinkers from Physiocracy and Classical School stated that a theory on land rent which initially found in the framework of Turgot (1766) and David Ricardo (1821), as well as Thomas Robert Malthus (1820), brought a consequence on the application of Diminishing Returns law in agricultural production.
Mellor`s model of agriculture developmentVaibhav verma
Mellor divides agriculture into 3 phases: 1) Traditional agriculture characterized by small family farms with low productivity. 2) Technologically dynamic agriculture with low capital inputs like fertilizers and improved seeds. 3) High capital agriculture utilizing machinery. Mellor argues traditional agriculture must transition to phase 2 using institutional and educational reforms to boost inputs before moving to phase 3 with increased farm sizes and mechanization supported by a developed non-farm sector.
This document summarizes the theory of induced innovation in agriculture. It discusses how increases in input prices, such as labor and capital, lead to technological innovations that allow farms to produce the same or greater outputs using fewer inputs. The document presents three scenarios of how induced innovation may occur and cites examples from agricultural history. It concludes that government research and development helps farms innovate new production methods to offset rising input costs through technical changes.
The document provides an introduction to agricultural economics and rural development. It discusses three main topics: 1) farming as part of the rural system and how agriculture influences and is influenced by its surroundings, 2) the role of agricultural policy, and 3) the role of agriculture in economic development. It also defines key concepts in economics like systems, marginal analysis, and opportunity cost. Graphs are presented as a way to understand economic relationships between variables like price and quantity.
Dr. Katundu is a lecturer at the Moshi Co-operative University (MoCU). He works under the Department of Community and Rural Development specializing in the area of rural development. He holds a PhD and Master of Arts in Rural development from the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Morogoro Tanzania and a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Geography and Environmental Studies from the University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania. His research interests include: Agriculture and rural development, rural land reform, rural livelihoods and cooperatives, community driven development, environment and natural resource management, entrepreneurship development, impact evaluation. His PhD thesis is titled: Entrepreneurship Education and Business Start Up: Assessing Entrepreneurial Tendencies among University Graduates in Tanzania whereas; Master dissertation is titled: Evaluation of the Association of Tanzania Tobacco Traders’ Reforestation Programme: The Case of Urambo District.
Schultz’s transformation of traditional agricultureVaibhav verma
Schultz proposes ways to transform traditional agriculture into modern agriculture. He defines traditional agriculture as occurring when technology and farmer preferences remain unchanged for long periods, resulting in equilibrium between input marginal productivities and costs. Characteristics include allocative efficiency and no zero-value labor. Schultz suggests supplying new higher-yielding factors through R&D, distribution, and extension. Farmers will demand new factors if they are profitable. The transformation process involves shifting supply and demand curves outwards to a new equilibrium with lower input prices, higher output, and returns. However, critics argue Schultz's concept is too general, ignores disguised unemployment, questions efficiency under his assumptions, and takes a command approach rather than considering farmer responsiveness
This document discusses several indices for assessing land use in cropping systems:
- Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) measures total area cropped as a percentage of total land area.
- Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) calculates land area and duration of each crop as a percentage of total land area and time.
- Diversity Index (DI) measures crop diversity based on revenue from individual crops.
- Crop Intensity Index (CII) assesses actual land use over area and time compared to total available land and time.
- Harvest Diversity Index (HDI) is similar to DI but uses crop harvest values instead of revenues.
- Simultaneous Cro
The_Wonderful_World_of_Adam_Smith_(Topic_2 final)Carlos da Maia
Adam Smith was a famous 18th century Scottish philosopher and economist. He was born in 1723 in Scotland and taught moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow, where he gained renown as a lecturer and published his influential books The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759 and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776. Though his religious views brought criticism from some peers, Smith was beloved by his students and renowned throughout Europe as a leading thinker of his era.
1) Keynes believed that aggregate demand could be inadequate to achieve full employment because supply does not necessarily create its own demand.
2) The chapter discusses the consumption function and how consumption is determined by disposable income with a marginal propensity to consume. It also discusses how investment is determined by expectations of future profits rather than interest rates.
3) The Keynesian cross model shows how consumption and investment determine aggregate demand and income in the economy.
Mellor`s model of agriculture developmentVaibhav verma
Mellor divides agriculture into 3 phases: 1) Traditional agriculture characterized by small family farms with low productivity. 2) Technologically dynamic agriculture with low capital inputs like fertilizers and improved seeds. 3) High capital agriculture utilizing machinery. Mellor argues traditional agriculture must transition to phase 2 using institutional and educational reforms to boost inputs before moving to phase 3 with increased farm sizes and mechanization supported by a developed non-farm sector.
This document summarizes the theory of induced innovation in agriculture. It discusses how increases in input prices, such as labor and capital, lead to technological innovations that allow farms to produce the same or greater outputs using fewer inputs. The document presents three scenarios of how induced innovation may occur and cites examples from agricultural history. It concludes that government research and development helps farms innovate new production methods to offset rising input costs through technical changes.
The document provides an introduction to agricultural economics and rural development. It discusses three main topics: 1) farming as part of the rural system and how agriculture influences and is influenced by its surroundings, 2) the role of agricultural policy, and 3) the role of agriculture in economic development. It also defines key concepts in economics like systems, marginal analysis, and opportunity cost. Graphs are presented as a way to understand economic relationships between variables like price and quantity.
Dr. Katundu is a lecturer at the Moshi Co-operative University (MoCU). He works under the Department of Community and Rural Development specializing in the area of rural development. He holds a PhD and Master of Arts in Rural development from the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Morogoro Tanzania and a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Geography and Environmental Studies from the University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania. His research interests include: Agriculture and rural development, rural land reform, rural livelihoods and cooperatives, community driven development, environment and natural resource management, entrepreneurship development, impact evaluation. His PhD thesis is titled: Entrepreneurship Education and Business Start Up: Assessing Entrepreneurial Tendencies among University Graduates in Tanzania whereas; Master dissertation is titled: Evaluation of the Association of Tanzania Tobacco Traders’ Reforestation Programme: The Case of Urambo District.
Schultz’s transformation of traditional agricultureVaibhav verma
Schultz proposes ways to transform traditional agriculture into modern agriculture. He defines traditional agriculture as occurring when technology and farmer preferences remain unchanged for long periods, resulting in equilibrium between input marginal productivities and costs. Characteristics include allocative efficiency and no zero-value labor. Schultz suggests supplying new higher-yielding factors through R&D, distribution, and extension. Farmers will demand new factors if they are profitable. The transformation process involves shifting supply and demand curves outwards to a new equilibrium with lower input prices, higher output, and returns. However, critics argue Schultz's concept is too general, ignores disguised unemployment, questions efficiency under his assumptions, and takes a command approach rather than considering farmer responsiveness
This document discusses several indices for assessing land use in cropping systems:
- Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) measures total area cropped as a percentage of total land area.
- Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) calculates land area and duration of each crop as a percentage of total land area and time.
- Diversity Index (DI) measures crop diversity based on revenue from individual crops.
- Crop Intensity Index (CII) assesses actual land use over area and time compared to total available land and time.
- Harvest Diversity Index (HDI) is similar to DI but uses crop harvest values instead of revenues.
- Simultaneous Cro
The_Wonderful_World_of_Adam_Smith_(Topic_2 final)Carlos da Maia
Adam Smith was a famous 18th century Scottish philosopher and economist. He was born in 1723 in Scotland and taught moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow, where he gained renown as a lecturer and published his influential books The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759 and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776. Though his religious views brought criticism from some peers, Smith was beloved by his students and renowned throughout Europe as a leading thinker of his era.
1) Keynes believed that aggregate demand could be inadequate to achieve full employment because supply does not necessarily create its own demand.
2) The chapter discusses the consumption function and how consumption is determined by disposable income with a marginal propensity to consume. It also discusses how investment is determined by expectations of future profits rather than interest rates.
3) The Keynesian cross model shows how consumption and investment determine aggregate demand and income in the economy.
Lecture 3 Evolution of Global Economies Bullionism & Mercantilism part 2Pearson College London
This document provides an overview of mercantilism, the American Revolution, and the work of John Maynard Keynes. It discusses how mercantilism used protectionist policies like tariffs and quotas to promote industrial growth and national power. It explains how the Navigation Acts restricted colonial trade for England's benefit and angered colonists. The document also summarizes Keynes' contributions to developing macroeconomics and theories like government spending to stimulate demand and employment during recessions.
1. The chapter presents an overview of Real Business Cycle theory and New Keynesian economics.
2. Real Business Cycle theory views fluctuations as optimal responses to exogenous productivity shocks, while New Keynesian economics sees deviations from full employment due to sticky wages and prices.
3. There is debate around issues in Real Business Cycle theory like the flexibility of prices and whether fluctuations truly reflect voluntary changes, as well as debate around explanations for price stickiness in New Keynesian economics.
There are variety of approaches (school of thoughts) exist in the economics theory, various economics classify the various SoT in variety of phases: Economic thought may be divided into three following phases but the methodical economic theory has been developed mainly from the establishment of the last phase i.e, “modern” era.
Pre modern period “start form Chinese civilization, and Greco Roman
Early-modern period of mercantilist & physiocrate thoughts
Modern period start from 1776 from great economist Adam Smith till to the classical economies era 1930,
The Chicago school of economics having a thought of neoclassical school inside the hypothetical community of economists, they usually have a strong focus around the faculty of the University of Chicago, some of whom have constructed and popularized its principles.
1. Geography influenced the development of mercantilism by affecting what raw materials could be produced and exported from the colonies to Europe. The colonies provided goods like wood, fish, and cotton to strengthen European countries.
2. Under mercantilism, European countries like Britain passed laws requiring colonies to trade exclusively with the mother country. This led the colonies to develop plantation economies using slave labor for crops like tobacco and sugar to maximize profits for European merchants.
3. The triangular slave trade system emerged, with Europeans exchanging goods for African slaves. Slaves endured the horrific Middle Passage to the colonies, where they were forced to work plantations producing goods for export back to Europe under mercantilism
This document provides an overview of Keynesian economics and the development of macroeconomic thought after Keynes. It discusses:
1) Key aspects of Keynes' work including his critique of classical assumptions, development of aggregate demand and supply analysis, and emphasis on unemployment equilibrium.
2) Post-Keynesian developments like the Hicks-Hansen IS-LM model, the Phillips curve, and the emergence of inflation in the 1960s.
3) Milton Friedman's monetarist critique which emphasized the stability of demand for money and argued that monetary policy focused on steady money growth was better than Keynesian fiscal policies at achieving price stability and low unemployment.
John Maynard Keynes was born in 1883 in Cambridge, England to an economics professor. He was a gifted student who attended Eton and King's College at Cambridge. After college, Keynes worked for the British government during World War 1. In the 1930s, he developed his theory of Keynesian economics, which argued that government intervention is needed to increase aggregate demand and stabilize the economy. Keynesian economics influenced governments to take a more active role in stimulating their economies and helped lessen the impact of the Great Depression. However, Keynesian policies faced limitations with high government spending leading to inflation and unemployment in the postwar period.
Classical economics believes that free markets are self-regulating and that government intervention harms the economy. In contrast, Keynesian economics emerged after the Great Depression to argue that markets are imperfect, unemployment and low growth can occur in equilibrium, and the government should intervene to stimulate demand when the economy is lacking growth. Keynes argued for government policies to boost consumer income and demand to promote economic growth, unlike classical economists who felt the economy would automatically adjust on its own.
This document summarizes an academic paper that examines how increasing returns to scale in industry can allow for unlimited economic growth even with diminishing returns in agriculture. It presents a model of an economy with three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and investment goods. Agriculture has constant returns to scale while manufacturing and investment goods have increasing returns at the plant level. The model analyzes short, medium, and long run equilibriums under different assumptions about factor supplies and returns to scale. The key finding is that large enough increasing returns in investment goods can outweigh decreasing returns in agriculture, allowing overall growth without constraints from agricultural productivity.
This document summarizes an urban agriculture report for the Region of Waterloo that explores the benefits of community gardens, rooftop gardens, and backyard gardens. It finds that urban agriculture can positively impact the social, economic, and environmental aspects of a community's health. Specifically, urban agriculture can improve stormwater management, reduce the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, increase local food production and biodiversity, provide economic opportunities, promote social cohesion, and improve physical and mental health. The report also inventories existing urban agriculture activities in Waterloo Region, including 31 community gardens and at least 6 green roofs or rooftop gardens, and recommends expanding these efforts to support future population growth.
Diminishing marginal returns refers to how the marginal production of a factor of production starts to progressively decrease as the factor is increased, in contrast to the increase that would otherwise be normally expected. As additional units of a variable input like labor are added to a fixed input like factory size, each additional unit yields smaller increases in output and reduces worker productivity. Producing each additional unit of output also costs increasingly more. This concept is also known as the law of diminishing marginal returns or the law of increasing relative cost.
NATURE VOL 387 15 MAY 1997 253articlesThe value of.docxhallettfaustina
NATURE | VOL 387 | 15 MAY 1997 253
articles
The value of the world’s ecosystem
services and natural capital
Robert Costanza*†, Ralph d’Arge‡, Rudolf de Groot§, Stephen Farberk, Monica Grasso†, Bruce Hannon¶,
Karin Limburg#✩, Shahid Naeem**, Robert V. O’Neill††, Jose Paruelo‡‡, Robert G. Raskin§§, Paul Suttonkk
& Marjan van den Belt¶¶
* Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, Zoology Department, and † Insitute for Ecological Economics, University of Maryland, Box 38, Solomons,
Maryland 20688, USA
‡ Economics Department (emeritus), University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
§ Center for Environment and Climate Studies, Wageningen Agricultural University, PO Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageninengen, The Netherlands
kGraduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
¶ Geography Department and NCSA, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
# Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York, USA
** Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA
†† Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
‡‡ Department of Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Buenos Aires, Av. San Martin 4453, 1417 Buenos Aires, Argentina
§§ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California 91109, USA
kkNational Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, Department of Geography, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106,
USA
¶¶ Ecological Economics Research and Applications Inc., PO Box 1589, Solomons, Maryland 20688, USA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theservicesofecological systemsand thenatural capital stocksthatproduce themarecritical to the functioningof the
Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent
part of the total economic value of the planet.Wehave estimated the current economic value of 17ecosystemservices
for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of
which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16–54 trillion (1012) per year, with an average of
US$33 trillionperyear.Becauseof thenatureof theuncertainties, thismustbeconsideredaminimumestimate.Global
gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.
Because ecosystem services are not fully ‘captured’ in commercial
markets or adequately quantified i.
The document summarizes the law of variable proportions, also known as the law of diminishing returns. It states that as a variable input (like labor) is increased while fixed inputs (like land and capital) are held constant, marginal and average product will initially increase, then diminish and eventually become negative. There are three stages: 1) increasing returns, 2) diminishing returns, and 3) negative returns. Causes of each stage are explained. A table and graph are provided to illustrate the three stages of the law of variable proportions.
2010, Vol 11, o1 69 A comparison of the economic and e.docxgertrudebellgrove
2010, Vol 11, �o1 69
A comparison of the economic and environmental
performances of conventional and organic farming:
evidence from financial statements
Josep Mª. Argilés and �éstor Duch Brown
∗
Abstract
While conventional farming systems face serious problems of sustainability, organic
agriculture is seen as a more environmentally friendly system since it favours renew-
able resources, recycles nutrients, uses the environment’s own systems for controlling
pests and diseases, sustains ecosystems, protects soils, and reduces pollution. At the
same time organic farming promotes animal welfare, the use of natural foodstuffs,
product diversity and the avoidance of waste, among other practices. However, the fu-
ture of organic agriculture will depend on its economic viability and on the determina-
tion shown by governments to protect these practices. This paper performs panel re-
gressions with a sample of Catalan farms (Spain) to test the influence of organic farm-
ing on farm output, costs and incomes. It analyses the cost structures of both types of
farming and comments on their social and environmental performance.
Keywords: organic farming, conventional farming, social/environmental/financial
performance, social and environmental accounting
JEL Classification: Q01, Q12, Q51, M41
Introduction
Over the last few decades world agriculture has introduced increasing levels of mod-
ernization and productivity. Key factors in this evolution of modern, or conventional,
farming have been intensive capital endowments, farming specialization, the wide-scale
application of chemical fertilizers and nutrients and the selection of high-yield crops and
livestock, including genetically modified organisms in some countries.
In spite of these recent advances, intensive farming systems face a number of serious
problems: the declining effectiveness of land, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the
ongoing loss of biodiversity, environmental and health risks, economic and social costs,
as well as various kinds of unpredictable future risks (Matson et al. 1997; Altieri 1998;
Boschma et al. 2001; Tilman 1998; Drinkwater et al. 1998). In particular, Dupraz
(1997), Mishra et al. (1999), Hornbaker et al. (1989), Kurosaki (1997), Popp and Rud-
strom (2000) and Omamo (1998) have highlighted the economic problems that arise
from specialization and monoculture. More specifically, Melfou and Papanagioutou
∗
Josep Mª. Argilés: University of Barcelona (Department of Accounting)
Néstor Duch Brown: University of Barcelona (Dep. Econometria, Estadística i Economia Espanyola)
and IEB
70 AGRICULTURAL ECO�OMICS REVIEW
(2003) measured the effect of nitrate pollution on the growth rate of total factor produc-
tivity in Greek agriculture, while Pretty et al. (2000, 2001) assessed a wide array of ex-
ternalities of modern agriculture in the UK, USA.
2010, Vol 11, o1 69 A comparison of the economic and e.docxShiraPrater50
2010, Vol 11, �o1 69
A comparison of the economic and environmental
performances of conventional and organic farming:
evidence from financial statements
Josep Mª. Argilés and �éstor Duch Brown
∗
Abstract
While conventional farming systems face serious problems of sustainability, organic
agriculture is seen as a more environmentally friendly system since it favours renew-
able resources, recycles nutrients, uses the environment’s own systems for controlling
pests and diseases, sustains ecosystems, protects soils, and reduces pollution. At the
same time organic farming promotes animal welfare, the use of natural foodstuffs,
product diversity and the avoidance of waste, among other practices. However, the fu-
ture of organic agriculture will depend on its economic viability and on the determina-
tion shown by governments to protect these practices. This paper performs panel re-
gressions with a sample of Catalan farms (Spain) to test the influence of organic farm-
ing on farm output, costs and incomes. It analyses the cost structures of both types of
farming and comments on their social and environmental performance.
Keywords: organic farming, conventional farming, social/environmental/financial
performance, social and environmental accounting
JEL Classification: Q01, Q12, Q51, M41
Introduction
Over the last few decades world agriculture has introduced increasing levels of mod-
ernization and productivity. Key factors in this evolution of modern, or conventional,
farming have been intensive capital endowments, farming specialization, the wide-scale
application of chemical fertilizers and nutrients and the selection of high-yield crops and
livestock, including genetically modified organisms in some countries.
In spite of these recent advances, intensive farming systems face a number of serious
problems: the declining effectiveness of land, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the
ongoing loss of biodiversity, environmental and health risks, economic and social costs,
as well as various kinds of unpredictable future risks (Matson et al. 1997; Altieri 1998;
Boschma et al. 2001; Tilman 1998; Drinkwater et al. 1998). In particular, Dupraz
(1997), Mishra et al. (1999), Hornbaker et al. (1989), Kurosaki (1997), Popp and Rud-
strom (2000) and Omamo (1998) have highlighted the economic problems that arise
from specialization and monoculture. More specifically, Melfou and Papanagioutou
∗
Josep Mª. Argilés: University of Barcelona (Department of Accounting)
Néstor Duch Brown: University of Barcelona (Dep. Econometria, Estadística i Economia Espanyola)
and IEB
70 AGRICULTURAL ECO�OMICS REVIEW
(2003) measured the effect of nitrate pollution on the growth rate of total factor produc-
tivity in Greek agriculture, while Pretty et al. (2000, 2001) assessed a wide array of ex-
ternalities of modern agriculture in the UK, USA ...
Abstract— Land subsidence caused by groundwater overdraft has been a severe problem in most developing economies, such as Taiwan. Groundwater is a renewable resource that can be depleted by overdraft, and it is also a common resource which incites overdraft. To alleviate the overdraft problem, we set up a decentralized game-theoretical common resource utilization model. In this model, we examine the self-enforcing factors and the condition of getting a cooperative outcome hence we might be able to alleviate the overdraft problem.
Computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor ta...FAO
http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/ess-events/afcas/afcas25/en/
Computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor target 2.3 of the 2030 agenda
COMPUTING PRODUCTIVITY AND INCOME OF SMALL-SCALE FOOD PRODUCERS TO MONITOR ...FAO
The document discusses computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor Target 2.3 of the 2030 Agenda. It proposes defining small-scale producers based on the bottom 40% of land/livestock distributions and total revenues. Productivity (Indicator 2.3.1) is calculated as revenues divided by labor inputs. Income (Indicator 2.3.2) refers to gross on-farm income from crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries expressed in constant purchasing power parity. Challenges include defining small-scale producers, collecting labor and income data, but integrated agricultural surveys and databases may help monitor the indicators. Countries are asked about the definition, data challenges, and interest in capacity building.
Time Series Analysis of Philippine Agricultural Rice Productivity using Cobb-...IJAEMSJORNAL
One of the main agricultural industries in the Philippines, particularly in Central Luzon, has been rice production. This study investigated the influences and determinants on national rice production. Labor, capital, credit to agriculture, spending, irrigated areas, land, and fertilizer are the relevant factors. The Cobb-Douglas Production Function was used in the study. The relationship between production output and production inputs (factors) is modeled by the Cobb-Douglas Production Function. It is used to calculate ratios of inputs to one another for efficient production and to estimate the technological change in production methods. It measured the elasticity, marginal rate of contribution, and marginal returns of capital, labor, fertilizer, irrigation, production loan, farm area, and government spending to the total agricultural rice productivity of the Philippines. This paper also analyzed the production in terms of its input and output and estimated the relationship between each input and output. The results of this study showed that capital, expenditure, and land do not significantly affect the volumes of production of rice. While labor, credit to agriculture, irrigated areas, and fertilizer significantly affect the volume of production of rice.
The circular flow model shows the basic economic relationships within a market economy. Money flows in one direction as consumers purchase goods and services from businesses, and goods and services flow in the opposite direction. Businesses use the money received to purchase resources from households. This continuous circular flow demonstrates how the economy functions as a whole.
1. Economists measure societal well-being as the sum of individual well-being, which includes satisfaction derived from environmental resources. Willingness to pay is used to quantify these preferences.
2. The environment supplies raw materials for production and absorbs waste, linking the environment and economy circularly.
3. Market allocation of resources is determined by supply and demand, but markets can fail to account for environmental costs, resulting in inefficient allocation. Government intervention aims to correct these market failures.
Lecture 3 Evolution of Global Economies Bullionism & Mercantilism part 2Pearson College London
This document provides an overview of mercantilism, the American Revolution, and the work of John Maynard Keynes. It discusses how mercantilism used protectionist policies like tariffs and quotas to promote industrial growth and national power. It explains how the Navigation Acts restricted colonial trade for England's benefit and angered colonists. The document also summarizes Keynes' contributions to developing macroeconomics and theories like government spending to stimulate demand and employment during recessions.
1. The chapter presents an overview of Real Business Cycle theory and New Keynesian economics.
2. Real Business Cycle theory views fluctuations as optimal responses to exogenous productivity shocks, while New Keynesian economics sees deviations from full employment due to sticky wages and prices.
3. There is debate around issues in Real Business Cycle theory like the flexibility of prices and whether fluctuations truly reflect voluntary changes, as well as debate around explanations for price stickiness in New Keynesian economics.
There are variety of approaches (school of thoughts) exist in the economics theory, various economics classify the various SoT in variety of phases: Economic thought may be divided into three following phases but the methodical economic theory has been developed mainly from the establishment of the last phase i.e, “modern” era.
Pre modern period “start form Chinese civilization, and Greco Roman
Early-modern period of mercantilist & physiocrate thoughts
Modern period start from 1776 from great economist Adam Smith till to the classical economies era 1930,
The Chicago school of economics having a thought of neoclassical school inside the hypothetical community of economists, they usually have a strong focus around the faculty of the University of Chicago, some of whom have constructed and popularized its principles.
1. Geography influenced the development of mercantilism by affecting what raw materials could be produced and exported from the colonies to Europe. The colonies provided goods like wood, fish, and cotton to strengthen European countries.
2. Under mercantilism, European countries like Britain passed laws requiring colonies to trade exclusively with the mother country. This led the colonies to develop plantation economies using slave labor for crops like tobacco and sugar to maximize profits for European merchants.
3. The triangular slave trade system emerged, with Europeans exchanging goods for African slaves. Slaves endured the horrific Middle Passage to the colonies, where they were forced to work plantations producing goods for export back to Europe under mercantilism
This document provides an overview of Keynesian economics and the development of macroeconomic thought after Keynes. It discusses:
1) Key aspects of Keynes' work including his critique of classical assumptions, development of aggregate demand and supply analysis, and emphasis on unemployment equilibrium.
2) Post-Keynesian developments like the Hicks-Hansen IS-LM model, the Phillips curve, and the emergence of inflation in the 1960s.
3) Milton Friedman's monetarist critique which emphasized the stability of demand for money and argued that monetary policy focused on steady money growth was better than Keynesian fiscal policies at achieving price stability and low unemployment.
John Maynard Keynes was born in 1883 in Cambridge, England to an economics professor. He was a gifted student who attended Eton and King's College at Cambridge. After college, Keynes worked for the British government during World War 1. In the 1930s, he developed his theory of Keynesian economics, which argued that government intervention is needed to increase aggregate demand and stabilize the economy. Keynesian economics influenced governments to take a more active role in stimulating their economies and helped lessen the impact of the Great Depression. However, Keynesian policies faced limitations with high government spending leading to inflation and unemployment in the postwar period.
Classical economics believes that free markets are self-regulating and that government intervention harms the economy. In contrast, Keynesian economics emerged after the Great Depression to argue that markets are imperfect, unemployment and low growth can occur in equilibrium, and the government should intervene to stimulate demand when the economy is lacking growth. Keynes argued for government policies to boost consumer income and demand to promote economic growth, unlike classical economists who felt the economy would automatically adjust on its own.
This document summarizes an academic paper that examines how increasing returns to scale in industry can allow for unlimited economic growth even with diminishing returns in agriculture. It presents a model of an economy with three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and investment goods. Agriculture has constant returns to scale while manufacturing and investment goods have increasing returns at the plant level. The model analyzes short, medium, and long run equilibriums under different assumptions about factor supplies and returns to scale. The key finding is that large enough increasing returns in investment goods can outweigh decreasing returns in agriculture, allowing overall growth without constraints from agricultural productivity.
This document summarizes an urban agriculture report for the Region of Waterloo that explores the benefits of community gardens, rooftop gardens, and backyard gardens. It finds that urban agriculture can positively impact the social, economic, and environmental aspects of a community's health. Specifically, urban agriculture can improve stormwater management, reduce the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, increase local food production and biodiversity, provide economic opportunities, promote social cohesion, and improve physical and mental health. The report also inventories existing urban agriculture activities in Waterloo Region, including 31 community gardens and at least 6 green roofs or rooftop gardens, and recommends expanding these efforts to support future population growth.
Diminishing marginal returns refers to how the marginal production of a factor of production starts to progressively decrease as the factor is increased, in contrast to the increase that would otherwise be normally expected. As additional units of a variable input like labor are added to a fixed input like factory size, each additional unit yields smaller increases in output and reduces worker productivity. Producing each additional unit of output also costs increasingly more. This concept is also known as the law of diminishing marginal returns or the law of increasing relative cost.
NATURE VOL 387 15 MAY 1997 253articlesThe value of.docxhallettfaustina
NATURE | VOL 387 | 15 MAY 1997 253
articles
The value of the world’s ecosystem
services and natural capital
Robert Costanza*†, Ralph d’Arge‡, Rudolf de Groot§, Stephen Farberk, Monica Grasso†, Bruce Hannon¶,
Karin Limburg#✩, Shahid Naeem**, Robert V. O’Neill††, Jose Paruelo‡‡, Robert G. Raskin§§, Paul Suttonkk
& Marjan van den Belt¶¶
* Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, Zoology Department, and † Insitute for Ecological Economics, University of Maryland, Box 38, Solomons,
Maryland 20688, USA
‡ Economics Department (emeritus), University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
§ Center for Environment and Climate Studies, Wageningen Agricultural University, PO Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageninengen, The Netherlands
kGraduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
¶ Geography Department and NCSA, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
# Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York, USA
** Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA
†† Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
‡‡ Department of Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Buenos Aires, Av. San Martin 4453, 1417 Buenos Aires, Argentina
§§ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California 91109, USA
kkNational Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, Department of Geography, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106,
USA
¶¶ Ecological Economics Research and Applications Inc., PO Box 1589, Solomons, Maryland 20688, USA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theservicesofecological systemsand thenatural capital stocksthatproduce themarecritical to the functioningof the
Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent
part of the total economic value of the planet.Wehave estimated the current economic value of 17ecosystemservices
for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of
which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16–54 trillion (1012) per year, with an average of
US$33 trillionperyear.Becauseof thenatureof theuncertainties, thismustbeconsideredaminimumestimate.Global
gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.
Because ecosystem services are not fully ‘captured’ in commercial
markets or adequately quantified i.
The document summarizes the law of variable proportions, also known as the law of diminishing returns. It states that as a variable input (like labor) is increased while fixed inputs (like land and capital) are held constant, marginal and average product will initially increase, then diminish and eventually become negative. There are three stages: 1) increasing returns, 2) diminishing returns, and 3) negative returns. Causes of each stage are explained. A table and graph are provided to illustrate the three stages of the law of variable proportions.
2010, Vol 11, o1 69 A comparison of the economic and e.docxgertrudebellgrove
2010, Vol 11, �o1 69
A comparison of the economic and environmental
performances of conventional and organic farming:
evidence from financial statements
Josep Mª. Argilés and �éstor Duch Brown
∗
Abstract
While conventional farming systems face serious problems of sustainability, organic
agriculture is seen as a more environmentally friendly system since it favours renew-
able resources, recycles nutrients, uses the environment’s own systems for controlling
pests and diseases, sustains ecosystems, protects soils, and reduces pollution. At the
same time organic farming promotes animal welfare, the use of natural foodstuffs,
product diversity and the avoidance of waste, among other practices. However, the fu-
ture of organic agriculture will depend on its economic viability and on the determina-
tion shown by governments to protect these practices. This paper performs panel re-
gressions with a sample of Catalan farms (Spain) to test the influence of organic farm-
ing on farm output, costs and incomes. It analyses the cost structures of both types of
farming and comments on their social and environmental performance.
Keywords: organic farming, conventional farming, social/environmental/financial
performance, social and environmental accounting
JEL Classification: Q01, Q12, Q51, M41
Introduction
Over the last few decades world agriculture has introduced increasing levels of mod-
ernization and productivity. Key factors in this evolution of modern, or conventional,
farming have been intensive capital endowments, farming specialization, the wide-scale
application of chemical fertilizers and nutrients and the selection of high-yield crops and
livestock, including genetically modified organisms in some countries.
In spite of these recent advances, intensive farming systems face a number of serious
problems: the declining effectiveness of land, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the
ongoing loss of biodiversity, environmental and health risks, economic and social costs,
as well as various kinds of unpredictable future risks (Matson et al. 1997; Altieri 1998;
Boschma et al. 2001; Tilman 1998; Drinkwater et al. 1998). In particular, Dupraz
(1997), Mishra et al. (1999), Hornbaker et al. (1989), Kurosaki (1997), Popp and Rud-
strom (2000) and Omamo (1998) have highlighted the economic problems that arise
from specialization and monoculture. More specifically, Melfou and Papanagioutou
∗
Josep Mª. Argilés: University of Barcelona (Department of Accounting)
Néstor Duch Brown: University of Barcelona (Dep. Econometria, Estadística i Economia Espanyola)
and IEB
70 AGRICULTURAL ECO�OMICS REVIEW
(2003) measured the effect of nitrate pollution on the growth rate of total factor produc-
tivity in Greek agriculture, while Pretty et al. (2000, 2001) assessed a wide array of ex-
ternalities of modern agriculture in the UK, USA.
2010, Vol 11, o1 69 A comparison of the economic and e.docxShiraPrater50
2010, Vol 11, �o1 69
A comparison of the economic and environmental
performances of conventional and organic farming:
evidence from financial statements
Josep Mª. Argilés and �éstor Duch Brown
∗
Abstract
While conventional farming systems face serious problems of sustainability, organic
agriculture is seen as a more environmentally friendly system since it favours renew-
able resources, recycles nutrients, uses the environment’s own systems for controlling
pests and diseases, sustains ecosystems, protects soils, and reduces pollution. At the
same time organic farming promotes animal welfare, the use of natural foodstuffs,
product diversity and the avoidance of waste, among other practices. However, the fu-
ture of organic agriculture will depend on its economic viability and on the determina-
tion shown by governments to protect these practices. This paper performs panel re-
gressions with a sample of Catalan farms (Spain) to test the influence of organic farm-
ing on farm output, costs and incomes. It analyses the cost structures of both types of
farming and comments on their social and environmental performance.
Keywords: organic farming, conventional farming, social/environmental/financial
performance, social and environmental accounting
JEL Classification: Q01, Q12, Q51, M41
Introduction
Over the last few decades world agriculture has introduced increasing levels of mod-
ernization and productivity. Key factors in this evolution of modern, or conventional,
farming have been intensive capital endowments, farming specialization, the wide-scale
application of chemical fertilizers and nutrients and the selection of high-yield crops and
livestock, including genetically modified organisms in some countries.
In spite of these recent advances, intensive farming systems face a number of serious
problems: the declining effectiveness of land, pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the
ongoing loss of biodiversity, environmental and health risks, economic and social costs,
as well as various kinds of unpredictable future risks (Matson et al. 1997; Altieri 1998;
Boschma et al. 2001; Tilman 1998; Drinkwater et al. 1998). In particular, Dupraz
(1997), Mishra et al. (1999), Hornbaker et al. (1989), Kurosaki (1997), Popp and Rud-
strom (2000) and Omamo (1998) have highlighted the economic problems that arise
from specialization and monoculture. More specifically, Melfou and Papanagioutou
∗
Josep Mª. Argilés: University of Barcelona (Department of Accounting)
Néstor Duch Brown: University of Barcelona (Dep. Econometria, Estadística i Economia Espanyola)
and IEB
70 AGRICULTURAL ECO�OMICS REVIEW
(2003) measured the effect of nitrate pollution on the growth rate of total factor produc-
tivity in Greek agriculture, while Pretty et al. (2000, 2001) assessed a wide array of ex-
ternalities of modern agriculture in the UK, USA ...
Abstract— Land subsidence caused by groundwater overdraft has been a severe problem in most developing economies, such as Taiwan. Groundwater is a renewable resource that can be depleted by overdraft, and it is also a common resource which incites overdraft. To alleviate the overdraft problem, we set up a decentralized game-theoretical common resource utilization model. In this model, we examine the self-enforcing factors and the condition of getting a cooperative outcome hence we might be able to alleviate the overdraft problem.
Computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor ta...FAO
http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/ess-events/afcas/afcas25/en/
Computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor target 2.3 of the 2030 agenda
COMPUTING PRODUCTIVITY AND INCOME OF SMALL-SCALE FOOD PRODUCERS TO MONITOR ...FAO
The document discusses computing productivity and income of small-scale food producers to monitor Target 2.3 of the 2030 Agenda. It proposes defining small-scale producers based on the bottom 40% of land/livestock distributions and total revenues. Productivity (Indicator 2.3.1) is calculated as revenues divided by labor inputs. Income (Indicator 2.3.2) refers to gross on-farm income from crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries expressed in constant purchasing power parity. Challenges include defining small-scale producers, collecting labor and income data, but integrated agricultural surveys and databases may help monitor the indicators. Countries are asked about the definition, data challenges, and interest in capacity building.
Time Series Analysis of Philippine Agricultural Rice Productivity using Cobb-...IJAEMSJORNAL
One of the main agricultural industries in the Philippines, particularly in Central Luzon, has been rice production. This study investigated the influences and determinants on national rice production. Labor, capital, credit to agriculture, spending, irrigated areas, land, and fertilizer are the relevant factors. The Cobb-Douglas Production Function was used in the study. The relationship between production output and production inputs (factors) is modeled by the Cobb-Douglas Production Function. It is used to calculate ratios of inputs to one another for efficient production and to estimate the technological change in production methods. It measured the elasticity, marginal rate of contribution, and marginal returns of capital, labor, fertilizer, irrigation, production loan, farm area, and government spending to the total agricultural rice productivity of the Philippines. This paper also analyzed the production in terms of its input and output and estimated the relationship between each input and output. The results of this study showed that capital, expenditure, and land do not significantly affect the volumes of production of rice. While labor, credit to agriculture, irrigated areas, and fertilizer significantly affect the volume of production of rice.
The circular flow model shows the basic economic relationships within a market economy. Money flows in one direction as consumers purchase goods and services from businesses, and goods and services flow in the opposite direction. Businesses use the money received to purchase resources from households. This continuous circular flow demonstrates how the economy functions as a whole.
1. Economists measure societal well-being as the sum of individual well-being, which includes satisfaction derived from environmental resources. Willingness to pay is used to quantify these preferences.
2. The environment supplies raw materials for production and absorbs waste, linking the environment and economy circularly.
3. Market allocation of resources is determined by supply and demand, but markets can fail to account for environmental costs, resulting in inefficient allocation. Government intervention aims to correct these market failures.
This document explores the different conclusions that can be drawn about the greenhouse gas emissions of intensive versus extensive livestock systems. There are differing approaches to quantifying emissions, assessing land use, and views on future demand for animal products. When it comes to emissions, intensive ruminant systems typically have higher emissions per kg of product but lower emissions per land area. Extensive grazing uses more land but can maintain carbon storage. Considering issues like land quality and constraints changes the analysis. Future demand projections also influence perspectives on intensive versus extensive systems. Overall, there are complex interactions between these factors and simple conclusions are difficult to make.
This document discusses framing renewable energy technologies like solar panels and wind turbines within the paradigm of "solar power agriculture". It argues that these technologies are similar to traditional agriculture in that they both collect solar energy over large areas to facilitate energy conversion. Like agriculture, renewable energy production has an S-shaped growth curve rather than a bell curve. The document examines whether renewable technologies can meet humanity's energy needs without competing for agricultural land and whether the concept of solar power agriculture could help increase public acceptance and investment in renewables.
Ecological economics differs from mainstream economics in several key ways:
1) It views the economy as a subsystem of larger ecological systems, not separate from the environment.
2) It focuses on the throughput of resources and adheres to the laws of thermodynamics, concerned with resource depletion and waste assimilation.
3) It considers the scale of the economy relative to ecosystems and believes uneconomic growth can occur when scale becomes too large.
The document provides information about ecological footprints and biocapacity. It discusses the history and key concepts, including that an ecological footprint measures the amount of biologically productive land and sea area required to produce the resources a person, population or activity consumes and absorb the resulting waste. It also discusses how ecological footprints are calculated using factors like yield and equivalence to compare demand to the regenerative capacity of the biosphere. Diagrams and tables are included to help illustrate ecological footprint components and global footprint data.
Measures of the effects of agricultural practices on ecosystem servicesMichael Newbold
This document discusses measuring the effects of agricultural practices on ecosystem services. It presents a framework for interpreting indicators of ecosystem services at different scales, from the farm field level to global scales. The framework involves considering ecological indicators related to the composition, structure, and function of landscapes, ecosystems, and populations/species. Selecting good indicators requires they represent key features of the ecological system that are important for provision of ecosystem services. Both compositional and structural indicators are often easier to measure than functional indicators but can still provide insights into ecological functions.
This document discusses agroecology as a transdisciplinary science for sustainable agriculture. It reviews key areas where agroecology interfaces with other disciplines and outlines agroecology's methodological and conceptual achievements over time. These include establishing the agroecosystem concept and hierarchy, viewing the farm as a decision-making unit, and representing agriculture as a human activity system. Agroecology uses these tools to study agroecosystem structure, function, productivity and impacts. More recent research focuses on sustainability issues like biodiversity and integrating ecological, economic and social dimensions of agriculture. Agroecology serves as a bridge between disciplines and between theory and practice to address sustainability challenges through indicators and new academic programs.
Biodiversity, Biofuels, Agroforestry and Conservation Agriculturex3G9
This document discusses agroecology as a transdisciplinary science for sustainable agriculture. It reviews key developments in agroecology including its use of a systems approach and concept of agroecosystems. Agroecology research has focused on understanding agroecosystem structure, function, and sustainability. More recent work integrates ecology, agronomy, economics and sociology to promote biodiversity and biophysical sustainability. Organic farming is presented as an example of integrating bio-physical and socio-economic sustainability through legal regulation. Overall, agroecology acts as a bridge between disciplines and between theory and practice of sustainable agriculture.
Similar to REVIEW ON THE OPINIONS ABOUT THE APLICATION OF DIMINISHING RETURNS LAW (20)
STUDY ON APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY–BASED LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN BIAK REGE...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This research is conducted in Biak Regency under the following objectives: (1) to find out the economic performance of Biak Regency with Regencies/ Cities in Papua viewed from economic growth aspect and the contribution of regional economic sector, (2) to identify potential sectors in the economy of Biak Regency, and (3) to analyze the leading sector in the economy of Biak Regency viewed from the economic structure of Papua Province. This research uses primary and secondary data. The primary data is obtained from the result of interview with BPS staffs of Papua Province and Biak Regency concerning PDRB. Meanwhile, the secondary data is collected from any documents related to the Analytical Tools used in this research, namely Analysis of Klassen Typology, Location Quotient (LQ) and Shift Share. The result of this research shows that there are economic potentials based on appropriate technology which can be developed in Biak Regency, and one of them is sea fishery. The fish production which mainly produced is tuna fish and cekalang fish. The center of capture fisheries in Biak Regency is located in the District of Biak Utara, Timur, Barat, and Biak Kota.
Keywords: PDRB, Klassen Typology, Location Quotient (LQ), Shift Share.
Jornal of Social and Development Sciences (JSDS) Vol. 6, No. 3, September 201...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
Journal of Social and Development Sciences (JSDS) is a scholarly journal deals with the disciplines of social and development sciences. JSDS publishes research work that meaningfully contributes towards theoretical bases of contemporary developments in society, business and related disciplines. The work submitted for publication consideration in JSDS should address empirical and theoretical contributions in the subjects related to scope of the journal in particular and allied theories and practices in general. Scope of JSDS includes: sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, international relations, linguistics, history, public relations, hospitality & tourism and project management. Author(s) should declare that work submitted to the journal is original, not under consideration for publication by another journal, and that all listed authors approve its submission to JSDS. It is JSDS policy to welcome submissions for consideration, which are original, and not under consideration for publication by another journal at the same time. Author (s) can submit: Research Paper, Conceptual Paper, Case Studies and Book Review. The current issue of JSDS consists of papers of scholars from Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria and Pakistan. Political communication, economic community, human development index, economic inequality, payment systems & money laundering, government spending & per capita income, branding social marketing services & criminal recidivism were some of the major practices and concepts examined in these studies. Journal received research submission related to all aspects of major themes and tracks. All the submitted papers were first assessed by the editorial team for relevance and originality of the work and blindly peer reviewed by the external reviewers depending on the subject matter of the paper. After the rigorous peer-review process, the submitted papers were selected based on originality, significance, and clarity of the purpose. Current issue will therefore be a unique offer, where scholars will be able to appreciate the latest results in their field of expertise, and to acquire additional knowledge in other relevant fields.
Rural Area Development Strategy through Rural Infrastructure Development ProgramSuwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This document summarizes a study on rural development strategies in Biak District, Papua, Indonesia. The study used quantitative methods to analyze rural infrastructure development programs. It found that capacity building for local institutions, integrated agricultural systems, and sustainable development were key strategic concepts. Factor analysis identified five important factors: processing and marketing, seed and planting techniques, farm factors, upstream factors, and irrigation environment. The conclusion discusses policies needed to encourage integrated agriculture, empower the rural poor, and improve access to resources, technologies, education, capital and markets.
Structure and Economic Development Pattern in Jayapura through other Cities a...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This research aims to: (1) determine the economic performance of Jayapura City or Cities and Towns in Papua viewed from economic growth aspect and the contribution of the local economy, (2) identify the potential sectors of economy in Jayapura City, (3 ) analyze the dominant sector in terms of the economy in Jayapura City. The data obtained from interviews staffs of Centre Bureau of Statistics (BPS) based on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and the related documents. The analytical tool used was Typology Analysis of Klassen, Location Quotient (LQ) and Shift Share. The results of this study: the construction sector is included in the prime sector qualification in which this is caused by the growth rate of the construction sector Jayapura City larger than the building sector at provincial level in Papua. The potential sector qualificatios are: transportation and communication, agriculture, services, electricity, water and financial. The mining and quarrying sectors, trade and industry are the growing sector qualifications. The superior category are: agriculture, manufacturing, electricity and water supply, construction, trade, and transport and communications.
The Impact of the Utilization of Riparian Area for Settlements (Case Study of...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The limitedness of area and plot of land in Jayapura City which are allocated for settlements has become a problem in Jayapura city. Population growth and high-rate of urbanization are impacted on the utilization of land which is not in accordance with its allocation. The modification of riparian area on the right and left sides of the river for settlements has reduced the function of the river, because in addition to river conservation, river has a double role as the securer of water source and as the protector of its surrounding area. Therefore, riparian area becomes more important to be considered. The riparian area in settlement area is assumed to be adequate for a 10-15 meters inspection road to be built on. The real condition of the rivers in North Jayapura District of Jayapura City, compared to the criteria of riparian area for settlement area, has not been inappropriate. The river’s function as the protector of its surrounding area has gone astray. If there is someday a flood, the impact may cause material damage or even life victims.
Rural Area Development Strategy through Rural Infrastructure Development ProgramSuwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This study was conducted in Biak District of Papua employing the quantitative method. The strategic concept in the development of local institutional capacity was to maximise the role of institutions as social capital not taken over, such as driving as farmers’ cooperatives, cooperatives as agro-tourism objects, and integrating the local institutional system under the auspices of Papua local institutions.
The Linkages of Financial Liberalization and Currency Stability: What do we l...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The tendency of repeating history has made any financial crisis a valuable source to be explored and studied. It will make people be more prepared and ready to anticipate. This paper examined the nature of linkages between exchange rate and macroeconomic fundamentals over
1997-2004. It investigated the evidence on both the short- and long-run effects of exchange rate determinant factors using co-integration theory. It also explored the stability of rupiah during the pre and post economic crisis, seeking whether the Indonesian currency was overshooting or not. To test the stability of rupiah after monetary and fiscal liberalization, we employed the Chow test. The results revealed that the rupiah was overshooting during the crisis' period and there was a structural change of rupiah after 1998. Due to the significant effects of interest rate and exchange rate on the currency stability, it is important to the Indonesia’s monetary institution to be aware of these two variables, especially in stabilizing the economic performance after the financial liberalization. The elasticity obtained for relative money supply (m) is greater than unity indicating that this result consistent with overshooting hypothesis.
The Impact of Mining Activities on Regional Development of Pegunungan Bintang...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
Pegunungan Bintang Regency is an autonomous region which was formed in 2001 with great potential of
natural resources in mining, including coal, oil, and gas. Mineral is a non-renewable natural resource the
management of which may pose positive impacts or negative impacts. Therefore, the management of mineral must be done wisely in order to give optimum benefits to the regional development and the people residing in the vicinity of the mine. In connection with the foregoing, the study aimed at analyzing the impact of mining activities on regional development, among others, economic growth, community development, and suitability of space utilization. The analysis results showed that mining activities contributed greatly to regional development, as reflected in the structure of regional economy.
THE EFFECT OF FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION AND PAPUA SPECIAL AUTONOMY AGAINST DIRE...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The aim of this study was to understand and analyze the significance of the influence of The Fiscal Decentralization and Papua Special Autonomy against Direct expenditure of district / city governments in Papua. Results of analysis and hypothesis testing, concluding that the Fiscal Decentralization effects, fiscal decentralization is intended to finance the implementation of the tasks of government, public services and regional development. In the structure regionl expenditure, the direct budget includes (1) personnel expenditure (temporary honor); (2) goods and services expenditures; and (3) capital expenditure. Thus, large-small fiscal decentralization will directly influence significantly to direct expenditure of district / city governments. The influence of fiscal decentralization of funds from the central government to direct expenditure of district / city significantly, on the one hand implies that fiscal decentralization policy tends to improve further fiscal dependence on government expenditure of district / city towards decentralization of central funds. In other words, direct expenditure by the district / city government is still relying on the reception of funds transfers from the central government. But on the other hand, the effects of fiscal decentralization of funds towards direct expenditure significantly implies that local governments have been able to manage fiscal decentralization funds for the purpose of increasing investment pemerintah. One of component in direct expenditures are capital expenditures that are necessary in the process of accelerating developments of district. Increased expenditure on capital goods as a result of an increase in funding for fiscal decentralization, is expected to enlarge in the district
ANALYSIS OF CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL FARMERS AND MIGRAN...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The aims of this research are; (1) long term purposes: to improve the food security for Papuan farmers, and reduce the economic gap between Papuan and the migrants population, since the socio-economic jealousy has been happening. (2) For the short term purposes areanalyzing the differences between the consumption behavior of Papuan and the migrant farmers. The analysis method used is quantitative analysis. The results shows that there is the difference between the consumption behavior of Papuan farmersand migrant farmers in fulfilling the needs of food consumption. Papuan farmers’ share of expenditure is 61.52%, while the migrant farmers’ is 45.68%. When the income increased by 100%, the spending behavior of Papuan farmers decreased by 57.3%, and 33.7% decreased for the migrants. There is the difference of consumption behavior between the local farmers and the migrant farmers in fulfilling the needs of non-food consumption. The share of expenditure for local farmers only 38.48%, while migrant farmers is 54.32%. If the household income increased by 100%, the spending behavior of local farmers increased by 58.3%, and 29.2% decreased for the migrant farmers.
Analysis Of Influence Of Spatial Planning On Performance Of Regional Developm...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The various problems in regional spatial planning in Waropen District, Papua, shows that the Spatial Planning (RTRW) of Waropen District, Papua, drafted in 2010 has not had a positive contribution to the settlement of spatial planning problems. This is most likely caused by the inconsistency in the spatial planning. This study tried to observe the consistency of spatial planning as well as its relation to the regional development performance. The method used to observe the consistency of the preparation of guided Spatial Planning (RTRW) is the analysis of comparative table followed by analysis of verbal logic. In order to determine if the preparation of Spatial Planning (RTRW) has already paid attention on the synergy with the surrounding regions (Inter-Regional Context), a map overlay was conducted, followed by analysis of verbal logic. To determine the performance of the regional development, a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was done. The analysis results showed that inconsistencies in the spatial planning had caused a variety of problems that resulted in decreased performance of the regional development. The main problems that should receive more attention are: infrastructure, development growth, economic growth, transportation aspect and new properties.
Structure and Economic Development Pattern in Jayapura through other Cities a...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This document summarizes a research study on the economic development pattern in Jayapura City, Papua, Indonesia. The study aimed to: 1) analyze the economic performance and growth of Jayapura City compared to other cities in Papua province, 2) identify potential economic sectors in Jayapura City, and 3) analyze the dominant economic sector in Jayapura City. The results of the study found that the construction sector was the prime economic sector in Jayapura City due to its higher growth rate compared to the provincial level. Additional potential sectors identified were transportation/communication, agriculture, services, electricity/water, and finance. The mining/quarrying, trade, and industry sectors were found to be growing economic sectors
The Influence of Economic Growth on Poverty, Investment, and Human Developmen...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
This paper discusses about the economic growth that has a direct impact on Human Development Index (HDI) and indirect one on the increase of investment absorption and decrease of poverty. Besides, we can know that economic growth has a direct impact on the increase of investment, as well as it directly affects the decrease of poverty level by using partial test quantitative analysis. To increase the economic growth and reduce poverty as well as to increase HDI, these are what to do (a) revitalizing the agriculture to help main sector of Fak Fak district (agriculture); (b) giving modal such as: banking soft loan with easy terms and revolving fund for the right target in the form of natura (cows, sheeps, etc.) that can accelerate the increase of economic; (c) regional government facilitates the linkage and partnership program with “win-win solution” concept.
Fiscal Decentralization and Special Local Autonomy: Evidence from an Emerging...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The quest of searching the endogeny variables of financial decentralization in emerging markets have become a serious topic due to the increasing wave of decentralized regions in many countries. The paper aimsto examine the effects of fiscal decentralization and specific local autonomy on economic growth, employment, poverty, and welfare in the special province Papua (Indonesia). The study exploited the main data of the decentralization fund by using a panel data of eight regencies and municipals, particularly the regional autonomy fund, direct and indirect government expenditure, and economic growth. The paper used the path analysis to explore the relationships of the observed variables. The results revealed that the decentralization fund influenced significantly on government’s direct expenditure and economic growth. The special local autonomy's fund has influenced considerably on government’s indirect expenditure. Its effect has increased, through economic growth as the intermediating variable, meaningfully on employment, poverty, and welfare. The results are in line with the prior studies, which explore the consequences of decentralization and specific autonomy to spur the economic growth in certain regions. It implies that the economic development strategies in Indonesia’s less-developed regions should be started with a bigger autonomy transfer program to those regions and simultaneously enhanced it by special budget allocation to trigger and support the development.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL Pakas Anim Leadership System Inside A Concept of V...Suwandi, Dr. SE.,MSi
The latest trend reveals that the model of cultural assistance in the development and analysis of information and technology of communication. Culture model with a traditional village governance system is a powerful tool to guide the development of Papua. This study examines the construction of Pakas anim-ism cultural model, which evolved from a historical and anthropological analysis of instructional products designed by and for Papua. Extrapolated finding from the analysis revealed a cultural context. The cultural context provides evidence of how the culture of an instructional product development embodied in Papua, especially for practicioners with pakas-anim leadership system for Malin anim people who live along the coast and the inland Merauke (Wendu, Buti, Wayau, Koa.). This data is more specific for the village development planners, therefore the design factor of development villages planning in Papua through cultural analysis is important to note. Pakas anim-ism model, one among many development models based on culture is the framework of instructional design that guides the designer through the design, management, development, and assessment processes with regard explicit of cultural context as consideration in planning the development of Papua in general, and in particular regarding to the Malin anim people in Merauke regency.
The objective of this study is determining and analysing the effect of regional expansion, infrastructure development and productive economic activities toward people welfare in South Sorong. It is also conducted in order to know and analyze the dominant program on the people welfare in South Sorong. This research was conducted in South Sorong with quantitative and qualitative data applying multiple regression analysis. Regression analysis result showed that there is a significant relationship on variable regional expansion with people welfare in South Sorong-Papua. The development of infrastructure has a significant influence on people welfare in South Sorong-Papua. Productive economic activities also have an influence on people welfare in South Sorong-Papua. Partial analysis testing result discovers that infrastructure development factor has dominant effects on people welfare compared to the factors of regional expansion program and productive economic business.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
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REVIEW ON THE OPINIONS ABOUT THE APLICATION OF DIMINISHING RETURNS LAW
1. International Journal of Sciences:
Basic and Applied Research
(IJSBAR)
ISSN 2307-4531
(Print & Online)
http://gssrr.org/index.php?journal=JournalOfBasicAndApplied
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
155
Review on the Opinions about the Aplication of
Diminishing Returns Law
Suwandia*
, Kuwat Subyantorob
a
Head of Study Program of Regional and Urban Planning of Post Graduate of Cendrawasih
University, Jayapura, Papua Indonesia
b
Lecturer bof Regional and Urban Planning Studies, Graduate Program of the University of Cendrawasih
Papua, Indonenesia
a
Email: Wandi1212@gmail.com
b
Email: Mndidik7@gmail.com
Abstract
The importance of human needs upon food causes an opinion that agricultural sector is a productive sector with
its surplus between the production and consumption results. The role of land is very essential for realizing the
fulfilment of food needs. The combination between land and other production factors will result in food.
The economic thinkers from Physiocracy and Classical School stated that a theory on land rent which initially
found in the framework of Turgot (1766) and David Ricardo (1821), as well as Thomas Robert Malthus (1820),
brought a consequence on the application of Diminishing Returns law in agricultural production.
Keywords: input; output; production elasticity; production function.
------------------------------------------------------------
* Corresponding author
2. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
156
1.Introduction
The development of human population along with the passage of time must be balanced with the efforts in
increasing the number of food production whose minimum amount is equal with the percentage of human
population development, thus the food need per capita can be maintained. Quesnay [5] suggested that only in
agricultural sector, the surplus could be generated, or only in agricultural as well that the output exceeded the
input that used for producing the intended output.
Obviously, Quesnay’s statement describes that the relation between input and output, for the farmers as
producers of agricultural products, must be able to combine variable input and fixed input in such way in order
to create a surplus of agricultural products above the used input. A mathematical description of various
possibilities on technical production is stated as the production functions that give maximum output in physical
measurement of each input in its physical measurement as well.
Considering that there is only one variable input, and respectively, each unity of variable input will be added in
a certain number of other inputs, there will be some possibilities of relation, namely: (1) output increases in the
same amount, (2) output increases greater than earlier unities, and (3) smaller increase in production result than
earlier increases. Moreover, remembering that the balance between variable input and fixed still shows a greater
ratio with the addition of variable input units, then if the experiments are conducted from period to period, the
output resulted will show a greater increasing, and continued with smaller increasing until reaching its
maximum output. Such condition is regarded as the application of diminishing returns law.
In the event that the maximum output is already achieved, the addition of variable input consumption must be
stopped or no longer necessary, because it will precisely decrease the amount of output compared to the
previous period. Reference [1] stated that this law of diminishing returns showed a condition where comparisons
from the input were changed, thus the law of diminishing returns was regarded as the law of variable
proportion, namely the law of technology that depicted the physical relation between input and output.
2.Review of Literatur
2.1. Opinions From Physiocracy School
Two well-known figures from Physiocracy school are Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) and Jacques Turgot
(1721-1781 [2]. The term of Physiocracy was first used by Quesnay. Physiocracy comes from two words,
which are physic (nature) and cration or cratos (power). The Physiocrats suggested that this nature as God’s
creation was full of balance and harmony that spread anywhere and anytime. According to Quesnay, the law of
economy that is in accordance with the law of nature will make nature as the source of prosperity. Certainly, the
logical nature is the land along with water and air, as well as the sun, in human’s intervention to grow plants and
to breed animals in the activities of agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries. From the said activities, human
beings may gain prosperity.
The land is able to produce output that exceeds the raw material and equipment used in the production.
Therefore, the land produces surplus for the society in a whole. Furthermore, agriculture must be modernized.
3. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
157
Quesnay argued that the investment in a new technology will be more beneficial. The agriculture must be more
capitalistic, thus it will increase the agricultural productivity or surplus produced by the agriculture. Surplus
from agriculture becomes the most essential result for the capital accumulation in agricultural field. Quesnay’s
opinion, stating that only land that is capable to produce, becomes the base of thought set forth in the form of
tableau economique as shown in figure 1 below:
Figure 1: Tableau Economique [7]
The above tableau was first compiled by Quesnay in 1759 [6]., depicting that the economy had three different
classes or sectors, which were (1) agricultural sector that produced food, raw material, and other crop plants, (2)
manufacturing sector that produced factory’s goods, and (3) the land owners that not produced any values, but
they received the rent as surplus payment over the land used for producing output. Quesnay realized that the
assumption of such input-output relation depended on the production techniques utilized in agriculture. In
Quesnay’s tableau, it assumes that all incomes are spent, and such expenditure is equally divided between
agricultural products and manufacturing goods. The productive class produces 5000 million francs. From the
Kelas Produktif
(Petani)
F. 5000 Juta
Para pedagang dan
industrial
Para Pemilik Tanah
F.3000 juta
F.2000 juta F.1000 juta
F.3000 juta
F.2000 juta
F.1000 juta
Kelas produktif
(petani)
F.3000 juta
Para Pemilik Tanah
Para pedagang dan
industrial
F.2000 juta F.1000 juta
F.1000 juta F.2000 juta
F.2000 juta
4. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
158
said 5000 million francs, 2000 million francs is out of distribution, which is kept by farmers for their own needs,
livestock, and seeds. Then, from the remaining 3000 million francs, it is divided into 1000 million francs that
distributed to the sterile class (traders and industries) for purchasing industrial products, while 2000 million
francs is sent to the land owner as the land rent. With 2000 million francs, the land owner uses it for buying food
amounting to 1000 million francs, meaning that it flows to the farmer itself, and another 1000 million francs is
used for purchasing industrial goods, thus the money is for the sterile class. Finally, tableau economique
illustrated above is explaining about a theory of static division, in which the entire community’s result and any
portion received by each group for time to time do not change. In such tableau, Quesnay clearly shows the
relation among various economic life.
In line with Quesnay’s thinking, Turgot views that the net product created by farmer is the only one source that
can sustain the life of other community’s groups, because the farmer will be able to hire labors. Such paid labors
gain salary as the reward for their services, given by the land owners. Surplus that resulted in agricultural field is
mostly enjoyed by the land owner as the land rent, which is in its turn; such land rent will be increasingly
accumulated. According to Turgot, the high and low level of the land rent is different, based on different fertility
of the land used for producing the output. This definition, by Turgot, is called as a tendency in agricultural
production that increasingly decreases, which is then in economic theory known as Law of Diminishing Return.
Although the agricultural production has multiple capital addition, it does not give physical production
according to the multiple capital addition. Even though in an absolute manner the physical production result or
output increases, but, relatively, the said increase in the balancing with the amount of capital used shows that the
output increases with decreasing percentage. Farmer in a good quality (with fertile soil) is always limited in
producing agricultural products. In the efforts to increase production, a larger land is necessary. But, because a
good quality land is limited for producing food, it uses a land with lower fertility. Such condition can admittedly
increase the physical result, but with lack of increases, the addition of larger land will arrive in another condition
where the addition of production is zero; it means that the output has reached its maximum.
2.2. Opinions From Classical School
Turgot’s thinking about the application of the law of diminishing returns in agriculture becomes a starting point
that grounding the thinking of Thomas Robert Malthus in1820 [2] about theory of population. According to
Malthus, the number of population and their life has a close relation with the availability of production
resources. Malthus explained about the existing relation between population growth and the availability of
production resources, in which the number of population will grow if the production resources grow also.
Remembering that the production resources are rare, Malthus states that there will be a condition where people
is unable to consume as in the normal life, which is called as Theory of under consumption. In this kind of
condition, the people’s consumption is at levels that fall below the needs of normal life.
The production resources in its increasingly rare condition, qualitatively and quantitatively, will be decreasing
the physical results, while in another side, the people continues to grow, both in an absolute manner and relative
terms, in the balancing of available resources. This will complicate the human’s life, unless if the population
5. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
159
growth arrives at its own limitation. That circumstance can happen naturally, such as in natural disaster,
contagious diseases, war and mass starvation, causing a massive death. However, it can also happen due to the
humans’ behavior itself, such as avoiding child’s birth through abstinence, prohibiting any actions that cause to
birth, including prohibition to have a sexual relationship.
The core of Malthus’ population theory at that time was really impressive among the global society as its
statement saying that the world population could grow faster than their ability in maintaining their level of life.
The population grows geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32), while food increases arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). The
gloomy perspective of Malthus’ view, according to Malthus, could be calmed down with preventive actions,
such as through family planning and postponement of marriage period. According to Malthus, the application of
diminishing return in agricultural sector would occur when the land planted became larger. Each addition of
new land planted would produce in less food addition than the production gained from previous planting in one
land. A faster growth of population compared to the food increasing will cause less availability of food than it
shall be needed.
Another opinion from classical school that relates to agricultural sector is stated by David Ricardo (1772-1823)
[4] regarding the value and price. He said that the value and price of goods sourced from the work of human
labor. Later, this statement is underlying the theory of salary. Salary as a reward for human labor is required for
maintaining and continuing the life of labors. When the food production cost increases due to the higher
payment of land rent, the food price must also increase. This condition gives impact on the salary increasing,
because with higher salary, the labors will be able to buy food in higher price as well. In a consequence, the
labors will be also able to maintain their standard of life. The opinion by David Ricardo in the theory of goods
value and price and theory of salary and land-rent may lead to a thought on the application of diminishing
returns law in agriculture, as expressed by a thinker from Physiocracy school named Jacques Turgot.
2.3. The Law Of Diminishing Returns In Agriculture
The law of diminishing returns developed by David Ricardo from Classical school is started from the thinking
of Physiocracy school. The said law describes a relation between production result (output) and a variable
production factor (input) by assuming that the amount of another production factor is fixed. The law of
diminishing returns can be stated as follow: If the unities of a unit are respectively added to numbers of another
certain input, it will reach to a point where the additional production result per the unity of additional input will
decrease [1].
The law of diminishing returns in production theory is called as the law of diminishing productivity or the law of
variable proportions [3]. Such law explains that the production method does not change, but the changes are in
the proportions between variable input and fixed input. The physical relation between variable input X and
output Y is described in the production function. For example, the formula is: Y = X2- 1/36 X3
, in which Y is
showing Total Physical Product (TPP). The form of cubic production function is generally known as Classical
production function. From the form of said production function, it can be gained the function of Average
Physical Product (APP) and the function of Marginal Physical Product (MPP) as follow:
6. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
160
APP = X - 1/36 X2
and MPP = 2 X - 1/12 X2
. Those three function of Classical production are shown in figure 2
APP,MPP
Y
12
9
X
0 12 18 24
𝐴𝐴1
𝐵𝐵1
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 2𝑥𝑥 −
1
12
𝑥𝑥2
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥 −
1
30
𝑥𝑥2
Figure 2: Classical Production Function
The classical production function is divided into three stages or production areas. In stage I, as shown in figure
2, Total Physical Product (TPP) initially increases higher up to point A, then it moves down to point B. The
point A in production curve is called as inflection point, namely a point where production curve changes from
convex to concave toward horizontal axis in using input of 12 units and its total amount is 96 units. Therefore,
MPP curve reaches its peak on point A'. Through point A', MPP curve moves down, and APP increase until
APP reaches the maximum of point B' in using input of 18 units by producing 162 units of TPP. In stage I, MPP
7. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
161
> APP. When it is no longer using input of 18 units in stage I, APP will be maximum, and MPP=APP
amounting to 9 units. The first stage is irrational and also inefficient stage, because every unit in the addition of
variable input usage gives a larger production result than before. In this first stage, the balance for variable input
used is smaller than the fixed input provided. Stage II in APP decreases and APP > MPP ends at MPP = zero in
using input of 24 units and TPP reaches its maximum amounting to 192 units. Therefore, stage II is called as
rational and efficient stage in agricultural production. The second stage is started at APP with its maximum
amounting to 9 units in using input of 18 units and it ends when TPP reaches its maximum of 192 units in using
input of 24 units. Stage III is indicated by a decrease in TPP and MPP < 0. Stage III is regarded as irrational and
inefficient stage, because too much variable input are used compared to available fixed input, thus in this stage
III, the use of variable input and total physical output are reduced, and TPP will increase.
3.Economic Implications
The production function is very useful for determining the amount of variable input and the number of most
profitable output. Thus, knowledge about input and output price is very important. If the output has higher value
than zero, the use of variable input must be continued up to stage II. This is because the efficiency of variable
input that measured by APP is increasing in the first stage. For hypothetical production function as shown in
figure 2 and also the equation Y = X: - 1/36 X3, the use of variable unit is minimally in the amount of 18 units.
Although the variable input is free goods which can be obtained without any charges, the use of variable input
will be not conducted on third stage; the addition of variable input will precisely decrease total physical output.
Therefore, in figure 2, the use of variable input may not exceed 24 units.
At last, according to the economic view upon second stage of production function, including its limits, it can be
said as rational stage in production. So, in this stage, the farmer shall produce. However, in order to determine
exactly the amount of variable unit used, it must know the price for input and output.
4.The Law Of Diminishing Returns And Production Elasticity
The application of diminishing returns law in agricultural production will bring us to the determination of a
certain point that commencing the decrease of such result. In inflection point, MPP exactly reaches its
maximum, but it occurs in the first stage of production function, using 12 units of input. Meanwhile, APP starts
to move down (APP reaches its maximum) when using 18 units of input, and TPP decreases (TPP reaches its
maximum) when using 24 units of input. It shows to us that the point that commences the decreasing of such
result depends on the side which will be used, namely MPP, APP, or TPP. Therefore, Cassels suggested to use
production elasticity for such solution, measuring the degree of sensitivity in output changes that caused by the
changes of input uses. [3] 40) show with the following formula:
Ep = (percent change in output)/ (percent change in input) (1)
The said formula can be written as follow:
Ер = MPP/APP (2)
8. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
162
In stage I, MPP is greater than APP. Thus, Ep is greater than one. In stage II, MPP is lower than APP. Thus, Ep
is positive and smaller than one (1 > Ep >0). Meanwhile, in stage III, MPP is negative and Ep is also negative.
Based on the hypothetical equation of Y = X2 - 1/36 x3, the classical production function, in figure 2, and the
production elasticity can be exactly determined as follow:
Ep = MPP = 2X - 1/12 X2
= 72 X - З X2
(3)
APP X - 1/36 X2
36 X - X2
The point of diminishing returns occurs in the condition where Ер = 1, namely a condition (2) when MPP =
APP or the beginning of stage II in production. Based on the amount of production elasticity coefficient that is
equal to one, it can determine the amount of variable unit used when the diminishing return happens under the
following formula of production elasticity equation (3):
Ер = MPP/APP = 1
Ep = (72 X - З X2
)/(36 X - X2
) = 1
It means that:
72 X - З X2
= 36 X - X2
72 X - З X2
- 36 X + X2
= 0
36 X - 2 X2
= 0
2X(18 -X) = 0
18 -X = 0
X= 18
Thus, Ер = 1 occurs when using 18 units of variable input. In figure 2, it is shown that APP reaches its
maximum at point B'. The use of variable input will be always added until MPP = 0, and Ep = 0, when using 24
units of variable input. This is the end of stage II in the production. A relevant interval for the farmers in
production is in the use of efficient variable input from 18 units to 24 units, in which the coefficient of
production elasticity is positive and smaller than one (l>Ep>0).
5.Conclusions And Suggestions
5.1. Conclusions
a. The importance of agricultural sector is stated by an economic thinker from Physiocracy school,
namely Francois Quesnay (1694 - 1774) and Jacques Turgot (1721 - 1781), in which agricultural sector
9. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)(2016) Volume 29, No 1, pp 155-163
163
is the only productive sector;
b. The fact that the source of land production is getting rare, while the population grows increasingly,
causes the birth of theory of under consumption, as stated by Thomas Robert Malthus;
c. Theory of land rent from Turgot, David Ricardo, as well as the concept of population from Thomas
Robert Malthus, is that if the land planted is getting larger, the diminishing return applies to
agricultural sector;
d. The concept of production elasticity is useful in determining the interval of relevant input usage in
agriculture.
5.2. Suggestions
a. In the agricultural field, it is necessary to determine the form of input-output physical relation in
production function for knowing the use of relevant input in the production;
b. Knowledge on the input and out price is necessary for determining the amount of the most profitable
input used.
References
[1]. Bishop,C.E.,Toussaint, W.D., 1979. Pengantar Analisa Ekonomi Pertanian, translated by Faculty of
Economy tem of UGM, Penerbit Mutiara, Jakarta. Chapter 4;
[2]. Djojohadikusumo, S., 1991. Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi, Buku I, Yayasan Obor Indonesia,
Jakarta. Chapter l and Chapter 2;
[3]. Doll, J.P., Orazem, F., 1984. Production Economics Theory with applications, Krieger Publishing
Company, Malabar, Florida. Chapter 2;
[4]. Landreth, H., Colander,D.C., 1994. History of Economic Thought, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Toronto. Chapter 3 and Chapter 5;
[5]. Pressman, S., 2002. Lima Puluh Pemikir Ekonomi Dunia, Murai Kencana, Jakarta. Pages 18-47.
[6]. Rosyidi, S., 2006, Pengantar Teori Ekonomi Pendekatan kepada Teori Ekonomi Mikro & Makro, P.T.
Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta. Chapter 5;
[7]. Zimmerman L. J., 1962. Sejarah Pendapat-Pendapat Tentang Ekonomi, translated by Siagian, Penerbit
Sumur Bandung, Jakarta. Chapter and Chapter 2.