This document discusses issues with using nasalance to measure nasal speech problems. It argues that nasalance only measures nasal resonance in vowels, not nasal emission in consonants. It examines using nasalance with different types of test materials: those rich in nasal consonants, those rich in pressure consonants, those with no nasal/pressure consonants, and phonetically balanced materials. For each type, it discusses effects of coarticulation and how nasalance may be interpreted. It suggests nasal emission can indicate VPI but nasalance is difficult to norm due to various confounding factors. Intrasubject nasalance measurements can still be useful clinically and for biofeedback.
Speech therapy with obturatorcertified fixed orthodontic courses, cosmetic de...Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
German Grammar Work Sheets(PDF-Download)
for German as a Foreign Language, Level A1
1) Main Folder with 180 Worksheets (PDF)
2) Instructions for Creative Exercises (PDF)
3) 28 Worksheets for Specials Contexts (PDF)
4) Answers for ALL Exercises (PDF)
5) Template for Creating your own Exercises (Word und Open Office)
7) 60-Days-Money-Back-Guarantee
Syllable structure constitutes the component of phonological word division focused on pronounceable segments of words and how they are composed, divided, and distributed.
Speech therapy with obturatorcertified fixed orthodontic courses, cosmetic de...Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
German Grammar Work Sheets(PDF-Download)
for German as a Foreign Language, Level A1
1) Main Folder with 180 Worksheets (PDF)
2) Instructions for Creative Exercises (PDF)
3) 28 Worksheets for Specials Contexts (PDF)
4) Answers for ALL Exercises (PDF)
5) Template for Creating your own Exercises (Word und Open Office)
7) 60-Days-Money-Back-Guarantee
Syllable structure constitutes the component of phonological word division focused on pronounceable segments of words and how they are composed, divided, and distributed.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
10LanguageThe Organization of LanguageLanguage use inv.docxaulasnilda
10
Language
The Organization of Language
Language use involves a special type of translation. I might, for example, want to tell you about a happy event in my life, and so I need to translate my ideas about the event into sounds that I can utter. You, in turn, detect those sounds and need to convert them into some sort of comprehension. How does this translation-from ideas to sounds, and then back to ideas-take place?
The answer lies in the fact that language relies on well- defined patterns-patterns in how individual words are used, patterns in how words are put together into phrases. I follow those patterns when I express my ideas, and the same patterns guide you in figuring out what I just said. In essence, then, we're both using the same "codebook" with the result that (most of the time) you can understand my messages, and I yours.
But where does this "codebook" come from? And what's in the codebook? More concretely, what are the patterns of English (or whatever language you speak) that-apparently-we all know and use? As a first step toward tackling these issues, let's note that language has a well-defined structure, as depicted in Figure 10.1. At the highest level of the structure (not shown in the figure) are the ideas intended by the speaker, or the ideas that the listener derives from the input. These ideas are typically expressed in sentences-coherent sequences of words that express the speaker's intended meaning. Sentences, in turn, are composed of phrases, which are composed of words. Words are composed of morphemes, the smallest language units that carry meaning. Some morphemes, like "umpire" or "talk," are units that can stand alone, and they usually refer to particular objects, ideas, or actions. Other morphemes get "bound" onto these "free" morphemes and add information crucial for interpretation. Examples of bound morphemes in Figure 10.1 are the past-tense morpheme "ed" and the plural morpheme "s." Then, finally, in spoken language, morphemes are conveyed by sounds called phonemes, defined as the smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish words in a language.
Language is also organized in another way: Within each of these levels, people can combine and recombine the units to produce novel utterances-assembling phonemes into brand-new morphemes or assembling words into brand-new phrases. Crucially, though, not all combinations are possible-so that a new breakfast cereal, for example, might be called "Klof but would probably seem strange to English speakers if it were called "Ngof." Likewise, someone might utter the novel sentence "I admired the lurking octopi" but almost certainly wouldn't say, "Octopi admired the I lurking" What lies behind these points? Why are some sequences acceptable-even if strange-while others seem awkward or even unacceptable? The answers to these questions are crucial for any understanding of what language is.
Phonology
Let's use the hierarchy in Figure 10.1 as a way to organize our e ...
Question Templates for Asking PICOT Questions Intervention In ____.docxaudeleypearl
Question Templates for Asking PICOT Questions Intervention In __________ (P), how does __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) affect __________ (O) within __________ (T)?Prognosis/Prediction In __________ (P), how does __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) influence/predict __________ (O) over __________ (T)?Diagnosis or Diagnostic Test In __________ (P) are/is __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) more accurate in diagnosing __________ (O)?Etiology Are __________ (P), who have __________ (I) compared with those without __________ (C) at __________ risk for/of __________ (O) over __________ (T)?Meaning How do __________ (P) with __________ (I) perceive __________ (O) during __________ (T)?
SIGNED LANGUAGE
The Structure of American Sign Language (ASL)
Goals
¨ Demonstrate the sign language is a full-fledged
language with the same range of expression as
spoken languages
¨ Demonstrate that ASL is not English in a signed
format. ASL is an independent language with its
own vocabulary and grammar
Signed Languages
¨ A linguistic system that is perceived visually, and
produced through hand movements and facial
expressions
¨ Structured communication system
¨ American Sign Language (ASL) is used by many
Deaf communities in the United States and Canada
¤ A quarter of a million people use ASL as their primary
language
ASL Versus English
¨ The grammar and vocabulary of ASL were not
modeled on spoken English (developed
independently)
¨ Vocabulary is different
¤ “Right” in English has two meanings: (1) opposite of
“left” and (2) opposite of “wrong”
¤ In ASL there are two separate signs for these two
meanings
¨ Grammar—the structure of words in a sentence
¤ Radically different
ASL Versus English
¨ Manual-Visual Mode: transmission from hand to eye
(ASL)
¨ Oral-Aural Mode: transmission from mouth to ear
(spoken English)
¨ BOTH languages convey complex thoughts
The Structure of Signs
¨ Handshape: configuration of the fingers during the
production of a sign
¨ Location: the region of the body where the sign is
produced
¨ Movement: the handshape can remain constant
during the movement, or it can change
¨ Palm Orientation
*All produced simultaneously to make up a sign
*These four elements are considered “phonemes” in ASL
Signs That Differ Only in Handshape
(location and movement are the same)
Signs That Differ Only in Location
(handshape and movement are the same)
Signs That Differ Only in Movement
(handshape and location are the same)
Sign Language Prosody
¨ Signs within a sign stream are produced in rhythmic
fashion
¨ Emphasize and stress words by extending the
duration of the sign, or producing it in a more
energized manner
¨ Visual Prosody—facial expressions and body
movements that convey meaning
¤ Non-manual markers (e.g., brow movements)
Signing Space
¨ The region where signs can be produced
¨ Referential Locus—a designated region of the
si ...
STUDY OF ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF NASAL AND NONNASAL VOWELS IN TEMPORAL DOMAINcscpconf
There has been considerable amount of work done in exploring the acoustic correlates of nasalized and non-nasalized vowels in the frequency domain. Nasalized vowels are characterized by the presence of extra pole-zero pairs near the first formant region and across thespectrum. Several other automatically extractable acoustic features have been proposed by researchers across the globe. This area has not been explored much in the temporal domain. In this study we have tried to find quantifiable differences/similarities between the nasal and non-nasal vowel /a/ in the temporal domain at the pitch synchronous level. The results show significant differences between nasalized and non-nasalized vowel /a/
Study of acoustic properties of nasal and nonnasal vowels in temporal domaincsandit
There has been considerable amount of work done in exploring the acoustic correlates of nasalized and
non-nasalized vowels in the frequency domain. Nasalized vowels are characterized by the presence of extra
pole-zero pairs near the first formant region and across the spectrum. Several other automatically
extractable acoustic features have been proposed by researchers across the globe. This area has not been
explored much in the temporal domain. In this study we have tried to find quantifiable
differences/similarities between the nasal and non-nasal vowel /a/ in the temporal domain at the pitch
synchronous level. The results show significant differences between nasalized and non-nasalized vowel /a/.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
10LanguageThe Organization of LanguageLanguage use inv.docxaulasnilda
10
Language
The Organization of Language
Language use involves a special type of translation. I might, for example, want to tell you about a happy event in my life, and so I need to translate my ideas about the event into sounds that I can utter. You, in turn, detect those sounds and need to convert them into some sort of comprehension. How does this translation-from ideas to sounds, and then back to ideas-take place?
The answer lies in the fact that language relies on well- defined patterns-patterns in how individual words are used, patterns in how words are put together into phrases. I follow those patterns when I express my ideas, and the same patterns guide you in figuring out what I just said. In essence, then, we're both using the same "codebook" with the result that (most of the time) you can understand my messages, and I yours.
But where does this "codebook" come from? And what's in the codebook? More concretely, what are the patterns of English (or whatever language you speak) that-apparently-we all know and use? As a first step toward tackling these issues, let's note that language has a well-defined structure, as depicted in Figure 10.1. At the highest level of the structure (not shown in the figure) are the ideas intended by the speaker, or the ideas that the listener derives from the input. These ideas are typically expressed in sentences-coherent sequences of words that express the speaker's intended meaning. Sentences, in turn, are composed of phrases, which are composed of words. Words are composed of morphemes, the smallest language units that carry meaning. Some morphemes, like "umpire" or "talk," are units that can stand alone, and they usually refer to particular objects, ideas, or actions. Other morphemes get "bound" onto these "free" morphemes and add information crucial for interpretation. Examples of bound morphemes in Figure 10.1 are the past-tense morpheme "ed" and the plural morpheme "s." Then, finally, in spoken language, morphemes are conveyed by sounds called phonemes, defined as the smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish words in a language.
Language is also organized in another way: Within each of these levels, people can combine and recombine the units to produce novel utterances-assembling phonemes into brand-new morphemes or assembling words into brand-new phrases. Crucially, though, not all combinations are possible-so that a new breakfast cereal, for example, might be called "Klof but would probably seem strange to English speakers if it were called "Ngof." Likewise, someone might utter the novel sentence "I admired the lurking octopi" but almost certainly wouldn't say, "Octopi admired the I lurking" What lies behind these points? Why are some sequences acceptable-even if strange-while others seem awkward or even unacceptable? The answers to these questions are crucial for any understanding of what language is.
Phonology
Let's use the hierarchy in Figure 10.1 as a way to organize our e ...
Question Templates for Asking PICOT Questions Intervention In ____.docxaudeleypearl
Question Templates for Asking PICOT Questions Intervention In __________ (P), how does __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) affect __________ (O) within __________ (T)?Prognosis/Prediction In __________ (P), how does __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) influence/predict __________ (O) over __________ (T)?Diagnosis or Diagnostic Test In __________ (P) are/is __________ (I) compared with __________ (C) more accurate in diagnosing __________ (O)?Etiology Are __________ (P), who have __________ (I) compared with those without __________ (C) at __________ risk for/of __________ (O) over __________ (T)?Meaning How do __________ (P) with __________ (I) perceive __________ (O) during __________ (T)?
SIGNED LANGUAGE
The Structure of American Sign Language (ASL)
Goals
¨ Demonstrate the sign language is a full-fledged
language with the same range of expression as
spoken languages
¨ Demonstrate that ASL is not English in a signed
format. ASL is an independent language with its
own vocabulary and grammar
Signed Languages
¨ A linguistic system that is perceived visually, and
produced through hand movements and facial
expressions
¨ Structured communication system
¨ American Sign Language (ASL) is used by many
Deaf communities in the United States and Canada
¤ A quarter of a million people use ASL as their primary
language
ASL Versus English
¨ The grammar and vocabulary of ASL were not
modeled on spoken English (developed
independently)
¨ Vocabulary is different
¤ “Right” in English has two meanings: (1) opposite of
“left” and (2) opposite of “wrong”
¤ In ASL there are two separate signs for these two
meanings
¨ Grammar—the structure of words in a sentence
¤ Radically different
ASL Versus English
¨ Manual-Visual Mode: transmission from hand to eye
(ASL)
¨ Oral-Aural Mode: transmission from mouth to ear
(spoken English)
¨ BOTH languages convey complex thoughts
The Structure of Signs
¨ Handshape: configuration of the fingers during the
production of a sign
¨ Location: the region of the body where the sign is
produced
¨ Movement: the handshape can remain constant
during the movement, or it can change
¨ Palm Orientation
*All produced simultaneously to make up a sign
*These four elements are considered “phonemes” in ASL
Signs That Differ Only in Handshape
(location and movement are the same)
Signs That Differ Only in Location
(handshape and movement are the same)
Signs That Differ Only in Movement
(handshape and location are the same)
Sign Language Prosody
¨ Signs within a sign stream are produced in rhythmic
fashion
¨ Emphasize and stress words by extending the
duration of the sign, or producing it in a more
energized manner
¨ Visual Prosody—facial expressions and body
movements that convey meaning
¤ Non-manual markers (e.g., brow movements)
Signing Space
¨ The region where signs can be produced
¨ Referential Locus—a designated region of the
si ...
STUDY OF ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF NASAL AND NONNASAL VOWELS IN TEMPORAL DOMAINcscpconf
There has been considerable amount of work done in exploring the acoustic correlates of nasalized and non-nasalized vowels in the frequency domain. Nasalized vowels are characterized by the presence of extra pole-zero pairs near the first formant region and across thespectrum. Several other automatically extractable acoustic features have been proposed by researchers across the globe. This area has not been explored much in the temporal domain. In this study we have tried to find quantifiable differences/similarities between the nasal and non-nasal vowel /a/ in the temporal domain at the pitch synchronous level. The results show significant differences between nasalized and non-nasalized vowel /a/
Study of acoustic properties of nasal and nonnasal vowels in temporal domaincsandit
There has been considerable amount of work done in exploring the acoustic correlates of nasalized and
non-nasalized vowels in the frequency domain. Nasalized vowels are characterized by the presence of extra
pole-zero pairs near the first formant region and across the spectrum. Several other automatically
extractable acoustic features have been proposed by researchers across the globe. This area has not been
explored much in the temporal domain. In this study we have tried to find quantifiable
differences/similarities between the nasal and non-nasal vowel /a/ in the temporal domain at the pitch
synchronous level. The results show significant differences between nasalized and non-nasalized vowel /a/.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
1. 5/2/2013 Rethinking Nasalance and Nasal Emission Copyright 2013 Glottal Enterprises 1
Rethinking Nasalance and Nasal Emission
By Martin Rothenberg, for Glottal Enterprises
For distribution at the 12th
International Congress on Cleft Lip /Palate and Related Craniofacial Anomalies, Orlando,
May 6-9, 2013.
There are two distinctly different problems in nasal speech (speech associated with Velopharyngeal
Insufficiency or VPI), namely, Nasal Emission problems in pressure consonants and Nasal Resonance
problems, or hypernasality, in vowels and vowel-like consonants. The latter is also commonly referred to as
nasalization.
Nasal Emission
Baken and Orlikoff accept the definition of Nasal Emission as the escape of air through the nasal passages when
the speaker is attempting to produce a speech sound requiring significant intraoral breath pressure, such as
plosives or fricatives. We will refer to such speech sounds as the pressure consonants. According to Baken
and Orlikoff, and we agree, “nasal emission is a fairly straightforward concept, not subject to much debate.
Nasal Emission can be readily measured and displayed by means of a Pneumotachograph at the nose.
Nasalance
Nasal Resonance or hypernasality is more difficult to measure and quantify, but is commonly believed to be
somewhat quantified by the objective measurement called Nasalance.
Nasalance is defined as a ratio of nasally emitted acoustic energy (N) in vowels to the sum of Nasal and orally
emitted energy (O), expressed as a percentage 100x (N/N+O).
In summary, Nasalance measures the effect of VPI on vowels and vowel-like consonants (such as the sonorants,
/l/ or /r/). Since nasalance is measured from acoustic energy associated with vowels, it is not relevant to
quantifying the nasal escape of air in pressure consonants. On the other hand, Nasal Emission measures the
effect of VPI on pressure consonants. It is not associated with vowels.
The Nasality Visualization System from Glottal Enterprises (and an associated product Dualview) measures
both of these aspects of nasality. Systems that measure only Nasalance, such as the Kay-Pentax version of the
Nasometer, measure only hypernasality in vowels. That system tells the user nothing about Nasal Emission.
Measurement of Average Nasalance
Testing for an average level of Nasalance is commonly performed using one or more of the following
types of test material:
1. Sentences or phrases that are rich in nasal consonants. For example the “Nasally biased” sentences
proposed by Fletcher, (see Baken and Orlikoff Table 11.2) and the sentences suggested in the user
manual for the Kay-Pentax version of the Nasometer.
2. Sentences or phrases that are rich in pressure consonants but have no nasal consonants. For example,
the Zoo Passage described by Baken and Orlikoff and elsewhere.
3. Sentences or phrases that have no nasal consonants or pressure consonants, as Hello, how are you? or
We were away. or Where are we? or Here we are. or I hear her. (Examples in this category may be
difficult to come by.)
4. Sentences or phrases that are phonetically balanced as far as frequency of occurrence in English. For
example, the well-known Rainbow Passage.
2. 5/2/2013 Rethinking Nasalance and Nasal Emission Copyright 2013 Glottal Enterprises 2
It is suggested by many in the literature and in the manual for the Kay-Pentax version of the Nasometer that by
establishing norms in some of these categories, it is possible to identify nasality problems objectively and
separate normal from abnormal speech. Let us examine each category after first defining coarticulation.
Understanding Coarticulation
To understand the use of Nasalance in estimating VPI, one must appreciate the role of coarticulation in speech,
especially in determining nasality. The velar and pharyngeal movements that determine nasalization are not
rapid (except maybe in highly trained voice users). As a result, the state of the velum and pharynx in a
particular speech sound, whether it be a pressure consonant or nasal consonant, can strongly influence the state
of the velum and pharynx in an adjoining vowel. This is termed coarticulation.
Category 1. Sentences or phrases that are rich in nasal consonants
Nasalance in a sentences or phrase that is rich in nasal consonants is illustrated in Figure 1, obtained using a
Glottal Enterprises Separator Handle. (A similar result could be expected using a Mask Handle.) Since the
computer operating system was Windows XP, the ‘Win7 Separator’ box was not checked.
FIGURE 1. Nasalance for the phrase /ma ma na na ma ma/, illustrating the effect of nasal consonants in
computing average nasalance and the effect of excluding nasal consonants when averaging.
The nasalance display in Figure 1 illustrates the advantage in estimating the average vowel nasalance of the
feature available in the Glottal Enterprises NVS system for excluding nasal consonants when averaging.
3. 5/2/2013 Rethinking Nasalance and Nasal Emission Copyright 2013 Glottal Enterprises 3
With the nasals excluded, the average nasalance is calculated as 36%, which pretty much agrees with nasalance
in the vowel segments (in green). If the exclusion feature is turned off, to simulate the calculation performed by
the Kay/Pentax version of the Nasometer, the average is calculated to be 63%.
Figure 2 below shows a display of Nasalance from a Nasality Visualization System as recorded using a
separator handle from a normal-speaking phonetically trained adult male subject saying /ma ma ma ma ma ma/
with the first three syllables pronounced with an attempt to produce a minimal nasalization of the vowels, while
the final three syllables were pronounced with an attempt to produce a maximum nasalization of the vowels.
The object was to see if the NVS feature of excluding the nasal consonants from the computation of average
nasalance could bring a greater separation between the nasalance values for the minimally nasalized and
maximally nasalized vowels.
FIGURE 2. Minimally nasalized and highly nasalized vowels in a nasal consonant context. Testing the effect
of excluding the nasal consonants in the averaging.
From the average nasalance values noted at the right, when including nasal consonants in the average, the ratio
of average nasalance values for the highly nasalized to minimally nasalized vowels is 60/44 = 1.36. When the
nasal consonants are omitted from the average calculation, the ratio is 30/18 = 1.67. Thus the differentiation
between the highly nasalized and minimally nasalized changed from changed from 1.36 to 1.67. The
differentiation ratio increased by 0.31 for an improvement of 0.31/1.36, or 23%.
A caveat for singers: Some singers would like to keep vowels denasalized, even in a nasal consonant
environment. With concentration and practice, such singers may be able to produce low nasalance values in a
sentence with lots of nasal consonants. Some examples from a non-singer attempting to emulate the nasalance
pattern of a singer are in Figure 3.
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FIGURE 3. Reducing coarticulation effects from nasal consonants.
In Figure 3 one can see in the vowel nasalance variations (green areas) the effort made by this speaker to close
the velum in the intervals between the nasal consonants. The nasalance values during the nasal consonants of
close to 90% indicate that the velum was lowered and the oral pathway closed during the consonants, though
maybe not completely in some instances, as the second /m/ in the top sample. This display shows how the
feedback from this display may be useful in the training of singers.
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Category 2. Sentences or phrases that are rich in pressure consonants but have no nasal
consonants.
If pressure consonants in a sentence are produced with a good velopharyngeal closure (no nasal emission),
coarticulation effects will result in a good velopharyngeal closure in the neighboring vowels and a
correspondingly low vowel nasalance. Thus sentences in Category 2 will have the lowest nasalance. This is
illustrated in Figure 4
FIGURE 4. Vowels between the pressure consonants /p/, /b/, and /s/, showing a minimum of nasalance (2%
average for the vowel /a/). The yellow bars mark intervals during which the voiced energy in the oral and nasal
channels was below a preset threshold and no nasalance measurement was possible.
Nasalance will also vary with the nature of the vowel being pronounced, as is well documented in the literature
cited by Baken and Orlikoff (Table 11-3). The vowel /a/ in English is an example of a vowel that has a lower
value of nasalance for a given degree of nasalization. The vowel /i/ (as in “peat”) has a high level of nasalance
for a given degree of nasalization, at least in its English pronunciation. Though other vowels may exhibit more
nasalance than the /a/ vowel in Figure 4, the pressure consonant environment will invariably result in the
minimum for that vowel (again see Table 11-3 in Baken and Orlikoff).
The variation of nasalance with the vowel being spoken can also result in variations between languages and
between dialects of English. For example, an English speaker from a Spanish-speaking country will tend to
speak the /i/ vowel with less oral constriction and thus produce lower values of nasalance for the same degree of
nasalization.
Important: Phrases or sentences in Category 2 can advantageously be used to test the physiological ability of a
subject to close the velum in a vowel or as the first step in training velar closure during vowels.
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Category 3. Sentences or phrases that have no nasal consonants or pressure consonants
A low nasalance in Category 2 sentences will not necessarily mean that speech without pressure consonants will
not be nasal. The ultimate test of a speaker’s ability to speak or sing without nasalization of the vowels is the
ability to produce low nasalance in sentences in which there are no nasal consonants or pressure consonants,
such as the sentences “How are you? “ or Where are we? in English (Category 3).
In Figure 5, a category 3 sentence is shown spoken with three degrees of nasalization, as produced by a
phonetically trained normal speaking male adult speaker.
FIGURE 5. The sentence How are you?, in Category 3, spoken with 3 degrees of nasalization. Sentences
spoken separately and compiled graphically.
Nasalance can be expected to correlate most highly with the perception of nasality for sentences in Category 3
and therefore they may make the best test of a speaker’s ability to control the velum without the help of pressure
consonants to aid in the closure. The criterion level of 15% is a suggestion for separating vowel segments that
do not sound nasal (colored green) from those that exhibit significant nasality (colored red). It would be
interesting and informative to test this level suggestion experimentally.
Category 4. Sentences or phrases that are phonetically balanced.
Such phrases and sentences contain segments during which the vowel nasalance is being increased by
coarticulation from nasal consonants, a factor not related to VPI, as well as segments during which coarticulation
from pressure consonants is reducing the nasalance. In addition, if the program used does not have the capacity
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to exclude nasalance values from the nasal consonants themselves, as does the Glottal Enterprises program, the
average nasalance will be further increased by this extraneous factor. These conflicting and confounding factors
may make average nasalance measurements for Category 4 sentences difficult to interpret.
Some cautions for the interpretation of measurements of nasal emission and nasalance.
1. Nasal Emission does not directly reflect the area of the velopharyngeal opening. Systems for
estimating opening area more closely also record the oral pressure and compute area from a combination of
airflow and pressure. However such systems tend to be complex and expensive. For most clinical situations,
airflow alone may suffice, since the breath pressure does not vary much at a given voice effort.
2. Nasalance does not directly reflect the subjective level of nasal resonance. There are a number of
reasons for this. One is that nasalance varies with the vowel. Nasalance also is strongly affected by nasal
consonant coarticulation, whereas nasal resonance is not. It is as if the listener’s perception expects the
increased velopharyngeal opening near a nasal consonant and ignores it when judging nasality. Nasal resonance
is also affected by the acoustics of the anterior nasal passages. Nasalance is not similarly affected. In fact,
partially blocking the nares will increase the perception of nasality and for this reason is commonly used as a test
for VPI. However, blocking the anterior nares will tend to decrease measured Nasalance, since it reduces the
passage of acoustic energy through the nose.
There are other mechanical and procedural problems that affect measured levels of nasalance that will not be
reflected in perceived nasal resonance. For example, a separation partition resting on the upper lip will register
different values of nasalance depending on the positioning and orientation of the separator plate and
microphones. This is true for all makes of Nasometer. (The mask handle separator available from Glottal
Enterprises shows much less of this effect and therefore may be preferable for research.) Also, perceived nasal
resonance depends somewhat on voice level and quality. Nasalance values in general do not vary with voice
level and quality, though the acoustic filtering of the nasal passageways could conceivably cause the spectral
qualities of the voice to interact with nasalance measurements.
Norms for Nasal Emission and Nasalance
Nasal Emission – Values for nasal emission that separate normal productions and those with VPI are easy to
determine from the literature cited by Baken and Orlikoff (Tables 11-4 and 11-5). In a normal production of a
pressure consonant, there is little or no nasal emission. Taking into account the possibility of measurement
errors, we could say that values below approximately 30 ml/s can be considered normal for adults for typical
levels of voice effort (and subglottal pressure). Peak airflows above about 150ml/s during the consonant appear
to indicate a moderate to severe impairment (Table 11-5)..
Nasalance – It is much more difficult to establish normal values for Nasalance, given the various factors that
can affect the readings, especially the coarticulatory effects described above and variations with the vowel being
spoken. Clinicians are well-advised to keep these effects in mind when treating patients, and not look for a
magic procedure that will use nasalance measurements to separate a normal voice from one with VPI. On the
other hand, Nasalance can be quite valuable clinically in measuring and displaying intrasubject variations, since
in intrasubject measurements most of the confounding variables are not present. For example, nasalance can be
used to measuring the effect of surgery or therapy. Also, nasalance displays can be useful for biofeedback for
patients learning to hear their own nasality or to reduce their nasality. When using nasalance in intrasubject
measurements, a guiding principle is that for a given linguistic context, voice level, etc. the nasalance will
invariably increase when the area of the velopharyngeal passageway increases, and vice-versa.
References
Baken, RJ and Orlikoff, RF, Clinical Measurement of Speech and Voice 2e, Singular Thompson, San Diego.
(2000)