Research Article
Prejudice From Thin Air
The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes
David DeSteno,1 Nilanjana Dasgupta,2 Monica Y. Bartlett,1 and Aida Cajdric1
1
Northeastern University and
2
University of Massachusetts–Amherst
ABSTRACT—Two experiments provide initial evidence that spe-
cific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prej-
udice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger
should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of
its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition,
whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after
minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants
were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.
Automatic attitudes toward the in- and outgroups were then
assessed using an evaluative priming measure (Experiment 1)
and the Implicit Association Test (Experiment 2). As predicted,
results showed that anger created automatic prejudice toward
the outgroup, whereas sadness and neutrality resulted in no
automatic intergroup bias. The implications of these findings for
emotion-induced biases in implicit intergroup cognition in par-
ticular, and in social cognition in general, are considered.
Since the heyday of frustration-aggression and scapegoating theories
of prejudice (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939),
social psychologists have recognized that intergroup relations, and the
stereotypes and prejudices that inevitably accompany them, are in-
fluenced by perceivers’ emotional states. As in the case of attitudes
more generally, emotions have been found to influence when, and to
what extent, people express positive or negative attitudes toward, and
beliefs about, members of in- and outgroups (Bodenhausen, Muss-
weiler, Gabriel, & Moreno, 2001; Fiske, 1998; cf. Petty, DeSteno, &
Rucker, 2001). For example, anger and happiness are known to en-
hance heuristic processing of social information that, in turn, ex-
acerbates stereotypic judgments of outgroups (Bodenhausen, Shep-
pard, & Kramer, 1994; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). Sadness, however,
has been shown to promote systematic processing of information that,
in turn, decreases stereotypic judgments (Lambert, Khan, Lickel, &
Fricke, 1997). These and similar findings have led to wide
acceptance of the view that specific emotions can influence people’s
beliefs about social groups.
It is important to note, however, that thus far, the growing corpus of
research on emotion and intergroup cognition has focused exclusively
on the effects of emotion on self-reported, or explicit, judgments of
social groups (for a review, see Bodenhausen et al., 2001). Such
judgments involve conscious deliberation and are, therefore, clearly
under perceivers’ voluntary control. Indeed, if people suspect that
incidental emotion may unduly influence an unrelated judgment, they
often ...
Emotion dysregulation in generalized anxiety disoreder a comparation with soc...EminesQ
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Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of ForgivenessAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of Forgiveness.
The two variables are regarded to have influence on the decision one makes to forgive another. The study aimed
at examining the relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness, empathy and forgiveness
and to identify which one of the two,Psychological Empowerment or Empathy, is the more powerful predictor of
forgiveness. The study took a survey design with a sample of 350 drawn from a population of university students
using a self-administered questionnaire with four sections: Personal information, Psychological empowerment
scale, Toronto Empathy questionnaire, and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Data analysis employed
Pearson’s product moment correlation and regression analysis to test hypotheses. The results show significant
relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness as well as empathy and forgiveness.
Empathy was found to be the more powerful predictor of forgiveness.
KEY WORDS: Psychological empowerment, empathy, forgiveness
This study investigated how anxiety affects the interference of emotional stimuli on goal-directed behavior. Participants completed a visual search task where they identified targets primed by emotional or neutral faces. Response times were measured. Results showed that emotional faces interfered with task performance for all participants by slowing response times. Higher anxiety participants were slower overall compared to lower anxiety participants. Surprisingly, neutral face primes were processed similarly to negative primes rather than as a true control, also slowing response times. The effect of emotional interference on goal-directed behavior was found to be complex and potentially dependent on the type of emotional stimulus used.
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Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
This study investigated how locus of control beliefs moderate the effects of stress. The researchers hypothesized that internals would be less affected by stress than externals through two mechanisms: 1) Internals perceive more control over negative life events and 2) Internals make better use of social support. College students reported on negative life events, perceived control, social support received, and psychological symptoms. Preliminary analyses found externals received more social support than internals but locus of control was not related to negative events, depression, or anxiety. The researchers will further examine how locus of control influences perceptions of control over events and the stress-buffering effects of social support.
This document discusses the chemical and neurological effects of trauma and negative/positive emotions. It notes that trauma impacts areas of the brain related to emotions, memory, and learning. Negative emotions like fear, anger, and blame are associated with increased activity in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. In contrast, positive emotions like empathy, forgiveness, gratitude, and compassion are linked to increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex and decreased amygdala activity. While negative emotions may be a logical response to trauma, cultivating positive emotions can help balance the health impacts and support post-traumatic growth.
Emotions are subjective feelings related to mood and affect. Emotions are biologically basic, present at birth, and universally experi- enced, but can be shaped by culture and learn- ing.
Emotion dysregulation in generalized anxiety disoreder a comparation with soc...EminesQ
This study aimed to examine emotion dysregulation in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) compared to those with social anxiety disorder and normal controls. The researchers found that individuals with GAD reported greater intensity of emotions, especially fear of depression, compared to those with social anxiety disorder and controls. Those with social anxiety disorder indicated being less expressive of positive emotions, paying less attention to emotions, and having more difficulty describing emotions than those with GAD or controls. Measures of emotion differentiated the three groups accurately. The findings provide support for theoretical models emphasizing difficulties with emotion regulation in GAD.
How the brain heals emotional wounds the functional neuroanatomy of forgivene...Elsa von Licy
This study used fMRI to examine the brain regions involved in forgiveness. Participants imagined hurtful social scenarios and were instructed to either forgive or harbor a grudge towards the imagined offender. Forgiveness was associated with greater subjective relief and activation in brain regions involved in theory of mind, empathy, and cognitive regulation of emotion, including the precuneus, right inferior parietal lobe, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The results suggest these regions support reappraisal-driven forgiveness by helping to inhibit aggressive reactions and restore emotional balance following an interpersonal offense.
Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of ForgivenessAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of Forgiveness.
The two variables are regarded to have influence on the decision one makes to forgive another. The study aimed
at examining the relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness, empathy and forgiveness
and to identify which one of the two,Psychological Empowerment or Empathy, is the more powerful predictor of
forgiveness. The study took a survey design with a sample of 350 drawn from a population of university students
using a self-administered questionnaire with four sections: Personal information, Psychological empowerment
scale, Toronto Empathy questionnaire, and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Data analysis employed
Pearson’s product moment correlation and regression analysis to test hypotheses. The results show significant
relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness as well as empathy and forgiveness.
Empathy was found to be the more powerful predictor of forgiveness.
KEY WORDS: Psychological empowerment, empathy, forgiveness
This study investigated how anxiety affects the interference of emotional stimuli on goal-directed behavior. Participants completed a visual search task where they identified targets primed by emotional or neutral faces. Response times were measured. Results showed that emotional faces interfered with task performance for all participants by slowing response times. Higher anxiety participants were slower overall compared to lower anxiety participants. Surprisingly, neutral face primes were processed similarly to negative primes rather than as a true control, also slowing response times. The effect of emotional interference on goal-directed behavior was found to be complex and potentially dependent on the type of emotional stimulus used.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
This study investigated how locus of control beliefs moderate the effects of stress. The researchers hypothesized that internals would be less affected by stress than externals through two mechanisms: 1) Internals perceive more control over negative life events and 2) Internals make better use of social support. College students reported on negative life events, perceived control, social support received, and psychological symptoms. Preliminary analyses found externals received more social support than internals but locus of control was not related to negative events, depression, or anxiety. The researchers will further examine how locus of control influences perceptions of control over events and the stress-buffering effects of social support.
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Distress and retaliatory aggression in response to witnessing intergroup excl...Maciej Behnke
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studies. Less is known about the consequences of witnessing one's own group
being excluded by other groups, although studies suggest exclusion can be experienced
vicariously and negatively affects members of the excluded group. Results of
the present lab-based
experiment (N = 153) indicate, in line with our predictions,
that witnessing intergroup exclusion (a national majority excluded by a minority,
manipulated by an adapted intergroup Cyberball paradigm) produced a sense of personal
exclusion. It also increased self-reported
distress and behavioral aggression
measured in the Taylor Aggression Paradigm), especially among participants high
on collective narcissism: a belief that the exaggerated greatness of the in-group
is
not sufficiently appreciated by others. Contrary to expectations, a short mindful decentration
intervention (instructing participants to observe thoughts and emotions as
transient mental products without engaging with them) delivered while participants
were witnessing intergroup exclusion (vs. inclusion) produced changes in heart rate
variability reactivity indicative of emotional arousal, especially among collective
narcissists. We concluded that collective narcissism is associated with distress in
the face of intergroup exclusion, aggressive retaliation, and in consequence, it is
a risk-factor
predisposing group members to stress-related
health and psychosocial
problems. Furthermore, a mindful decentration, despite being an effective strategy
to reduce maladaptive stress in most people, may be counterproductive in addressing
high collective narcissists' responses to threat to the in-group's
image.
The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic ReviewMaciej Behnke
The undoing hypothesis proposes that positive emotions serve to undo sympathetic arousal related to negative emotions and stress. However, a recent qualitative review challenged the undoing effect by presenting conflicting results. To address this issue quantitatively, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 16 studies (N=1,220; 72 effect sizes) measuring sympathetic recovery during elicited positive emotions and neutral conditions. Findings indicated that in most cases, positive emotions did not speed sympathetic recovery compared to neutral conditions. However, when a composite index of cardiovascular reactivity was used, undoing effects were evident. Our findings suggest the need for further work on the functions of positive emotions.
1. The document discusses a proposed study that examines the impact of family cohesion on distress tolerance and the moderating role of emotional maturity among emerging adults. It presents a theoretical framework drawing from family systems theory and reviews prior literature linking family cohesion, distress tolerance, and emotional maturity.
2. The study aims to investigate the relationships between family cohesion, distress tolerance, and emotional maturity. It proposes hypotheses about their relationships and the moderating effect of emotional maturity. The methodology discusses plans to use standardized scales to measure the constructs and statistical analyses like correlation, regression, and moderation analysis.
3. In summary, the document outlines a study that seeks to better understand how family cohesion influences distress tolerance, with
1) The study examined the relationship between individual variation in emotional responses to visual stimuli and neuropsychological performance and brain structure in 26 older normal subjects.
2) Subjects who experienced negative emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on tests of executive function like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Those who experienced positive emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on the Rey Complex Figure Test assessing visual-spatial skills.
3) Volume of frontal lobe gray matter was not significantly associated with intensity of emotional responses, possibly due to lack of variation in this educated sample. Differences in executive function were associated with variation in emotional experience.
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
Intergroup biasHewstone, Miles; Rubin, MarkPress the Escape ke.docxmariuse18nolet
Intergroup bias
Hewstone, Miles; Rubin, Mark
Press the Escape key to close
Willis, Hazel
Press the Escape key to close
Annual Review of Psychology53 (2002): 575-604.
Key Words conflict, discrimination, prejudice, social categorization, stereotyping
* Abstract This chapter reviews the extensive literature on bias in favor of ingroups at the expense of out-groups. We focus on five issues and identify areas for future research: (a) measurement and conceptual issues (especially in-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation, and explicit vs. implicit measures of bias); (b) modem theories of bias highlighting motivational explanations (social identity, optimal distinctiveness, uncertainty reduction, social dominance, terror management); (c) key moderators of bias, especially those that exacerbate bias (identification, group size, status and power, threat, positive-negative asymmetry, personality and individual differences); (d) reduction of bias (individual vs. intergroup approaches, especially models of social categorization); and (e) the link between intergroup bias and more corrosive forms of social hostility.
INTRODUCTION
Intergroup bias refers generally to the systematic tendency to evaluate one's own membership group (the in-group) or its members more favorably than a nonmembership group (the out-group) or its members. Bias can encompass behavior (discrimination), attitude (prejudice), and cognition (stereotyping) (Mackie & Smith 1998, Wilder & Simon 2001). More precisely, this group-serving tendency can take the form of favoring the in-group (in-group favoritism and/or derogating the out-group (out-group derogation). Use of the term "bias" involves an interpretative judgment that the response is unfair, illegitimate, or unjustifiable, in the sense that it goes beyond the objective requirements or evidence of the situation (see Brewer & Brown 1998, Fiske 1998, Turner & Reynolds 2001). Intergroup bias is a general, but not a universal, phenomenon (see Hagendoorn 1995, Hagendoorn et al. 2001), and contemporary social psychology has contributed to a more differentiated and context-dependent view of bias.
In the limited space available we focus on five specific issues. We review first, measurement and conceptual issues; second, the competing claims of currently prominent theories of bias; third, some key moderators of bias, especially those that exacerbate bias; fourth, theory and research on interventions to reduce bias; and, finally, we consider the link between intergroup bias and more corrosive forms of social hostility. We are forced to give a selective overview, and we highlight more recent developments as well as perspectives that we feel offer a unified perspective on why bias occurs, how it is moderated, and what can be done to reduce it.
MEASUREMENT AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES
Measures of Intergroup Bias
Forms of intergroup bias range from prejudice and stereotyping, via discrimination, injustice, perpetuation of inequality and oppres.
Context Shapes Social Judgments of Positive Emotion Suppressio.docxbobbywlane695641
Context Shapes Social Judgments of Positive Emotion Suppression
and Expression
Elise K. Kalokerinos
KU Leuven
Katharine H. Greenaway and James P. Casey
The University of Queensland
It is generally considered socially undesirable to suppress the expression of positive emotion. However,
previous research has not considered the role that social context plays in governing appropriate emotion
regulation. We investigated a context in which it may be more appropriate to suppress than express
positive emotion, hypothesizing that positive emotion expressions would be considered inappropriate
when the valence of the expressed emotion (i.e., positive) did not match the valence of the context (i.e.,
negative). Six experiments (N � 1,621) supported this hypothesis: when there was a positive emotion-
context mismatch, participants rated targets who suppressed positive emotion as more appropriate, and
evaluated them more positively than targets who expressed positive emotion. This effect occurred even
when participants were explicitly made aware that suppressing targets were experiencing mismatched
emotion for the context (e.g., feeling positive in a negative context), suggesting that appropriate
emotional expression is key to these effects. These studies are among the first to provide empirical
evidence that social costs to suppression are not inevitable, but instead are dependent on context.
Expressive suppression can be a socially useful emotion regulation strategy in situations that call for it.
Keywords: context, emotion expression, emotion regulation, expressive suppression, positive emotion
Your smile is a messenger of goodwill. Your smile brightens the lives
of all who see it. . . . As I leave for my office, I greet the elevator
operator in the apartment house with a ‘Good morning’ and a smile,
I greet the doorman with a smile. I smile at the cashier in the subway
booth when I ask for change. As I stand on the floor of the Stock
Exchange, I smile at people who until recently never saw me smile.
—Carnegie (1936)
In his seminal book How to Win Friends and Influence People,
Dale Carnegie (1936) offers a recipe for success: Smile. Carnegie
recommends applying this rule indiscriminately, and he is not
alone in this view—lay intuition holds that expressing positive
emotion is a socially acceptable way to endear one’s self to other
people. Yet, we also know that positive emotion expressions are
not appropriate in every situation. Sometimes people laugh while
experiencing trauma, smile at disgusting pictures, and giggle dur-
ing solemn funeral services. To an outside observer, these positive
emotion expressions may appear inappropriate, unwarranted, and
just plain wrong. To maintain a positive impression such situa-
tions, it may be better for people to suppress the expression of
inappropriate positive emotions. However, as an emotion regula-
tion strategy, expressive suppression has received as much con-
demnation as smiling has received praise. Th.
Affective Reactions Among Students Belonging to Ethnic Groups Engaged in Prio...UniversitasGadjahMada
The study aimed at investigating any bias in the perceptions of young people from two ethnic groups who were not directly involved in an ethnic conflict. Assuming that such perception bias only happens in the members of ethnic groups who were involved in the conflict and in those who became the victims of the other group’s transgression. Therefore, we predicted that the subjects from the Dayaknese group would evaluate the photos of their own group members more positively compared to their perception of the Madurese photos. Meanwhile, there would be no bias among Madurese students in evaluating both Dayak and Madura photos. An experimental approach was carried out using photos of neutral faces of Dayaknese and Madurese people. Each photo was presented with negative or positive words. The participants of the study comprised 111 students who represented Madurese and Dayaknese ethnic groups, as well as Javanese who had not been involved in the conflict serving as the control group. They were asked to evaluate the photos in terms of the negativity and positivity of each picture. A two-way ANOVA supported the hypothesis that the Dayaknese evaluated their own groups better than the other ethnic groups, while the Madurese did not.
This document provides an overview of a framework for understanding the emotion process in organizations. The framework outlines the emotion process as occurring in stages, beginning with an eliciting stimulus and ending with potential behavioral consequences. Key points of the framework include:
- The emotion process starts with an individual encountering a stimulus, registering its meaning, and experiencing physiological changes and feelings. This can then influence behaviors, attitudes, and expressions.
- Emotion regulation processes occur at each stage and are influenced by individual and group factors. These regulation processes can become automatic with practice.
- The behaviors and expressions from one individual can then act as eliciting stimuli for others, allowing the emotion process to spread between individuals.
- This
Compassion involves noticing and experiencing emotional reactions to others' suffering, and acting to alleviate it. It fosters cooperation and community. Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself rather than self-critical, recognizing one's shared humanity, and holding painful feelings mindfully rather than becoming overwhelmed. Instruments like the DASS-21 and Five Facet Mindfulness Scale can help identify emotional issues and mindfulness in a compassionate way. Organizational compassion occurs when a system collectively notices and responds to members' pain, cultivating cooperation. Overall, compassion emphasizes our shared humanity.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 101 (2016) 11–25, .docxwhitneyleman54422
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10/1 (2016): 11–25, 10.1111/spc3.12229
Exploring the Toolkit of Emotion: What Do Sadness and
Anger Do for Us?
Heather C. Lench*, Thomas P. Tibbett and Shane W. Bench
Texas A&M University
Abstract
What do negative emotions do for people? We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations. Focus-
ing on sadness and anger, we review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cog-
nitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these
changes result in demonstrably better outcomes in the type of situation that elicits the emotion. Sadness is
elicited by perceived goal loss without possibility of restoration given current abilities and is associated
with deliberative reasoning, reduced physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is prelimi-
nary evidence suggesting that sadness can permit coping with loss, and that expression of sadness can re-
cruit others to assist in goal attainment. Anger is elicited by perceived goal loss that can be prevented if an
obstacle is overcome and is associated with heuristic reasoning, increased physiological activity, and be-
havioral expression. There is evidence that expression of anger prompts others to remove themselves as
obstacles, and preliminary evidence that anger can promote overcoming obstacles and goal attainment.
Like precision tools, specific emotions are best utilized to resolve particular problems.
People often assume that being in a constant state of happiness would be ideal for human func-
tioning. In fact, the majority of people consider being happy to be of paramount importance in
their lives (Diener, 2000). Yet research findings have revealed that happiness is not the panacea it
might appear, and that instead a mixture of positive and negative emotions is related to positive
outcomes (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). In the present review, we address the question of
what negative emotions do for people. We utilize a class of emotion theories – functional ac-
counts – to integrate findings related to the consequences of emotions. Broadly speaking, func-
tional accounts of emotion posit that emotions are functional in the sense that they do
something useful for people. We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which the changes associated with discrete emotions result in better outcomes
in particular types of situations. To use an analogy, emotions do not function as sledgehammers that
can deal with any problem, but rather as a Swiss army knife with a multitude of tools that are
best utilized to resolve particular problems.
Functional Accounts of Emotion
The term “emotion” is used in a variety of ways in the research literature and in colloquial
speech. Although debate continues, there is an emerging consensus that a pr.
This document describes the development of the Generalized Intuitional versus Analytical Decision-making Index (GIADMI) which aims to provide a brief measure of individual preferences for intuitive or analytical decision-making styles. The GIADMI was created using 13 initial items measuring each style on a 6-point scale. Factor analysis was conducted to validate the items measured the intended constructs. Reliability was assessed through internal consistency. Construct validity was evaluated by correlating GIADMI scores with other established tests. The results provided preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the intuitive scale, while further refinement is needed for the analytical scale.
This study examined the effects of social anxiety and gender on performance on a theory of mind task. The study hypothesized that social anxiety would negatively impact performance, especially for those with instructors of the opposite gender. A test was given to 48 college students, with half receiving an anxiety manipulation. Results found no significant main effects of anxiety or gender match on scores. There was also no significant interaction between anxiety and gender. The hypotheses were not supported, as social anxiety and gender of the instructor did not impact theory of mind task performance.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Mechanisms of Mindfulness inCommunication TrainingDaniel CAbramMartino96
Mechanisms of Mindfulness in
Communication Training
Daniel C. Huston, Eric L. Garland & Norman A.S. Farb
Mindfulness, an ancient spiritual practice, is becoming an increasingly popular
component of communication courses, training individuals to reserve judgment in their
dealings with others. However, the effects of mindfulness in communication courses are
not well researched. We compared students taking an introductory communication
course that included a mindfulness component (N �20) against a control group of
students taking an equivalent course without mindfulness content (N �24). Both groups
improved in their positive reappraisal tendencies following communication training;
however, the groups appeared to differ in how they positively reappraised situations.
Only the mindfulness group demonstrated improved mindfulness scores following
training, accounting for that group’s increases in positive reappraisal, and providing
evidence for mindfulness training as one mechanism for reducing negative reactivity in
communication.
Keywords: Mindfulness; Positive Reappraisal; Blame; Mindful Coping Model; Spirituality
Mindfulness meditation is an ancient spiritual practice introduced over 2,500 years
ago as a means of calming the mind and gaining insight into the impermanent and
interdependent nature of the self. Over the last few decades, scholars and clinicians in
the West have begun to explore secular applications of mindfulness, and have noted
the practical benefits of observing thoughts, impulses, and emotions. This ability,
nurtured through the practice of mindfulness meditation, appears to help people lead
happier, more productive, and fulfilling lives through the process of coming to know
Daniel C. Huston is a Professor in the Department of English, Fine Arts, and Foreign Languages at NHTI,
Concord’s Community College, Eric L. Garland is an Assistant Professor in the College of Social Work at Florida
State University and a Research Affiliate for Trinity Institute for the Addictions, Norman A.S. Farb is a
postdoctoral fellow at the Rotman Research Institute. The authors would like to thank Beth Blankenstein,
Susanne O’Brien, Diana Levine, members of the NHTI Institute Leadership Team, and the students
who voluntarily participated in the study for their contributions. Correspondence to: Daniel C. Huston,
Grappone Hall, NHTI, Concord’s Community College, 31 College Drive, Concord, NH 03301, USA. E-mail:
[email protected]
ISSN 0090-9882 (print)/ISSN 1479-5752 (online) # 2011 National Communication Association
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2011.608696
Journal of Applied Communication Research
Vol. 39, No. 4, November 2011, pp. 406�421
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2011.608696
themselves and realizing they are more than the self-talk they experience, more than
the habitual patterns of behavior they have formed over the years. They come to
realize they can ‘‘let go’’ of that ‘‘chatter’’ and those ‘‘habits’’ ...
A Literature Review On Emotional Competency And Perceived StressNatasha Grant
1) The document discusses a literature review on the relationship between emotional competency and perceived stress.
2) Several studies cited found that emotional competency is correlated with lower perceived stress, as emotionally intelligent individuals perceive stress as more of a challenge than a threat.
3) The literature review concluded that emotional competency can be developed through education and training focused on self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management skills. Developing emotional competency may help individuals better cope with life stressors.
This document discusses social cognition in individuals with bipolar disorder. It begins by defining social cognition and outlining its key dimensions. It then reviews studies comparing social cognition abilities in individuals with bipolar disorder versus healthy controls. The studies show impairments in areas like theory of mind, emotion processing, and attributional biases. Differences are also seen between bipolar type I and II. While some social cognition abilities are preserved, deficits tend to be more pronounced than in individuals with schizophrenia. Overall, the document analyzes research on social cognition challenges in bipolar disorder.
Little research has been done on the benefit of empathy for socialMerrileeDelvalle969
- The study explored the relationship between empathy and decision-making in social work students. Two cohorts of students reflected on a social work case scenario and proposed interventions.
- The results showed that higher levels of perspective taking, fantasy, and empathic concern were associated with prioritizing direct assistance for the person most in need. Higher personal distress was not related to helpful interventions.
- The findings provide preliminary evidence that empathy, especially cognitive and emotional aspects, underpins effective case management in social work students. Further research is needed to deepen understanding of this relationship.
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 19.docxronak56
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 1950 (P.L. 81-875) defined the roles and responsibilities during natural disasters. Once the president issued a disaster declaration, federal relief resources could flow to the affected areas for response and recovery. The president would then delegate administrative control of relief efforts to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. This law also instituted the federal role in natural disasters as a supportive role, while instituting primary responsibility for disaster response and recovery with local and state governments. How had this changed by 1978? Why did it change? Do you agree with the change? Why, or why not?
300 WORDS
APA FORMAT
.
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5 Eng.docxronak56
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice:
Social workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers:
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To prepare: Working with your field instructor, identify, evaluate, and discuss policies established by the local, state, and federal government (within the last five years) that affect the day to day operations of the field placement agency.
The Assignment (1-2 pages):
Describe the policies and their impact on the field agency.
Propose specific recommendations regarding how you, as a social work intern, and the agency can advocate for policies pertaining to advancing social justice for the agency and the clients it serves.
.
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Effects of trauma on implicit emotion regulation within a family system a res...Michael Changaris
This paper explores emotion regulation, family functioning, PTSD, impact of moral development and points to family therapy techniques to re-establish health in the family.
Distress and retaliatory aggression in response to witnessing intergroup excl...Maciej Behnke
The negative consequences of personal exclusion have been demonstrated by multiple
studies. Less is known about the consequences of witnessing one's own group
being excluded by other groups, although studies suggest exclusion can be experienced
vicariously and negatively affects members of the excluded group. Results of
the present lab-based
experiment (N = 153) indicate, in line with our predictions,
that witnessing intergroup exclusion (a national majority excluded by a minority,
manipulated by an adapted intergroup Cyberball paradigm) produced a sense of personal
exclusion. It also increased self-reported
distress and behavioral aggression
measured in the Taylor Aggression Paradigm), especially among participants high
on collective narcissism: a belief that the exaggerated greatness of the in-group
is
not sufficiently appreciated by others. Contrary to expectations, a short mindful decentration
intervention (instructing participants to observe thoughts and emotions as
transient mental products without engaging with them) delivered while participants
were witnessing intergroup exclusion (vs. inclusion) produced changes in heart rate
variability reactivity indicative of emotional arousal, especially among collective
narcissists. We concluded that collective narcissism is associated with distress in
the face of intergroup exclusion, aggressive retaliation, and in consequence, it is
a risk-factor
predisposing group members to stress-related
health and psychosocial
problems. Furthermore, a mindful decentration, despite being an effective strategy
to reduce maladaptive stress in most people, may be counterproductive in addressing
high collective narcissists' responses to threat to the in-group's
image.
The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic ReviewMaciej Behnke
The undoing hypothesis proposes that positive emotions serve to undo sympathetic arousal related to negative emotions and stress. However, a recent qualitative review challenged the undoing effect by presenting conflicting results. To address this issue quantitatively, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 16 studies (N=1,220; 72 effect sizes) measuring sympathetic recovery during elicited positive emotions and neutral conditions. Findings indicated that in most cases, positive emotions did not speed sympathetic recovery compared to neutral conditions. However, when a composite index of cardiovascular reactivity was used, undoing effects were evident. Our findings suggest the need for further work on the functions of positive emotions.
1. The document discusses a proposed study that examines the impact of family cohesion on distress tolerance and the moderating role of emotional maturity among emerging adults. It presents a theoretical framework drawing from family systems theory and reviews prior literature linking family cohesion, distress tolerance, and emotional maturity.
2. The study aims to investigate the relationships between family cohesion, distress tolerance, and emotional maturity. It proposes hypotheses about their relationships and the moderating effect of emotional maturity. The methodology discusses plans to use standardized scales to measure the constructs and statistical analyses like correlation, regression, and moderation analysis.
3. In summary, the document outlines a study that seeks to better understand how family cohesion influences distress tolerance, with
1) The study examined the relationship between individual variation in emotional responses to visual stimuli and neuropsychological performance and brain structure in 26 older normal subjects.
2) Subjects who experienced negative emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on tests of executive function like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Those who experienced positive emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on the Rey Complex Figure Test assessing visual-spatial skills.
3) Volume of frontal lobe gray matter was not significantly associated with intensity of emotional responses, possibly due to lack of variation in this educated sample. Differences in executive function were associated with variation in emotional experience.
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
Intergroup biasHewstone, Miles; Rubin, MarkPress the Escape ke.docxmariuse18nolet
Intergroup bias
Hewstone, Miles; Rubin, Mark
Press the Escape key to close
Willis, Hazel
Press the Escape key to close
Annual Review of Psychology53 (2002): 575-604.
Key Words conflict, discrimination, prejudice, social categorization, stereotyping
* Abstract This chapter reviews the extensive literature on bias in favor of ingroups at the expense of out-groups. We focus on five issues and identify areas for future research: (a) measurement and conceptual issues (especially in-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation, and explicit vs. implicit measures of bias); (b) modem theories of bias highlighting motivational explanations (social identity, optimal distinctiveness, uncertainty reduction, social dominance, terror management); (c) key moderators of bias, especially those that exacerbate bias (identification, group size, status and power, threat, positive-negative asymmetry, personality and individual differences); (d) reduction of bias (individual vs. intergroup approaches, especially models of social categorization); and (e) the link between intergroup bias and more corrosive forms of social hostility.
INTRODUCTION
Intergroup bias refers generally to the systematic tendency to evaluate one's own membership group (the in-group) or its members more favorably than a nonmembership group (the out-group) or its members. Bias can encompass behavior (discrimination), attitude (prejudice), and cognition (stereotyping) (Mackie & Smith 1998, Wilder & Simon 2001). More precisely, this group-serving tendency can take the form of favoring the in-group (in-group favoritism and/or derogating the out-group (out-group derogation). Use of the term "bias" involves an interpretative judgment that the response is unfair, illegitimate, or unjustifiable, in the sense that it goes beyond the objective requirements or evidence of the situation (see Brewer & Brown 1998, Fiske 1998, Turner & Reynolds 2001). Intergroup bias is a general, but not a universal, phenomenon (see Hagendoorn 1995, Hagendoorn et al. 2001), and contemporary social psychology has contributed to a more differentiated and context-dependent view of bias.
In the limited space available we focus on five specific issues. We review first, measurement and conceptual issues; second, the competing claims of currently prominent theories of bias; third, some key moderators of bias, especially those that exacerbate bias; fourth, theory and research on interventions to reduce bias; and, finally, we consider the link between intergroup bias and more corrosive forms of social hostility. We are forced to give a selective overview, and we highlight more recent developments as well as perspectives that we feel offer a unified perspective on why bias occurs, how it is moderated, and what can be done to reduce it.
MEASUREMENT AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES
Measures of Intergroup Bias
Forms of intergroup bias range from prejudice and stereotyping, via discrimination, injustice, perpetuation of inequality and oppres.
Context Shapes Social Judgments of Positive Emotion Suppressio.docxbobbywlane695641
Context Shapes Social Judgments of Positive Emotion Suppression
and Expression
Elise K. Kalokerinos
KU Leuven
Katharine H. Greenaway and James P. Casey
The University of Queensland
It is generally considered socially undesirable to suppress the expression of positive emotion. However,
previous research has not considered the role that social context plays in governing appropriate emotion
regulation. We investigated a context in which it may be more appropriate to suppress than express
positive emotion, hypothesizing that positive emotion expressions would be considered inappropriate
when the valence of the expressed emotion (i.e., positive) did not match the valence of the context (i.e.,
negative). Six experiments (N � 1,621) supported this hypothesis: when there was a positive emotion-
context mismatch, participants rated targets who suppressed positive emotion as more appropriate, and
evaluated them more positively than targets who expressed positive emotion. This effect occurred even
when participants were explicitly made aware that suppressing targets were experiencing mismatched
emotion for the context (e.g., feeling positive in a negative context), suggesting that appropriate
emotional expression is key to these effects. These studies are among the first to provide empirical
evidence that social costs to suppression are not inevitable, but instead are dependent on context.
Expressive suppression can be a socially useful emotion regulation strategy in situations that call for it.
Keywords: context, emotion expression, emotion regulation, expressive suppression, positive emotion
Your smile is a messenger of goodwill. Your smile brightens the lives
of all who see it. . . . As I leave for my office, I greet the elevator
operator in the apartment house with a ‘Good morning’ and a smile,
I greet the doorman with a smile. I smile at the cashier in the subway
booth when I ask for change. As I stand on the floor of the Stock
Exchange, I smile at people who until recently never saw me smile.
—Carnegie (1936)
In his seminal book How to Win Friends and Influence People,
Dale Carnegie (1936) offers a recipe for success: Smile. Carnegie
recommends applying this rule indiscriminately, and he is not
alone in this view—lay intuition holds that expressing positive
emotion is a socially acceptable way to endear one’s self to other
people. Yet, we also know that positive emotion expressions are
not appropriate in every situation. Sometimes people laugh while
experiencing trauma, smile at disgusting pictures, and giggle dur-
ing solemn funeral services. To an outside observer, these positive
emotion expressions may appear inappropriate, unwarranted, and
just plain wrong. To maintain a positive impression such situa-
tions, it may be better for people to suppress the expression of
inappropriate positive emotions. However, as an emotion regula-
tion strategy, expressive suppression has received as much con-
demnation as smiling has received praise. Th.
Affective Reactions Among Students Belonging to Ethnic Groups Engaged in Prio...UniversitasGadjahMada
The study aimed at investigating any bias in the perceptions of young people from two ethnic groups who were not directly involved in an ethnic conflict. Assuming that such perception bias only happens in the members of ethnic groups who were involved in the conflict and in those who became the victims of the other group’s transgression. Therefore, we predicted that the subjects from the Dayaknese group would evaluate the photos of their own group members more positively compared to their perception of the Madurese photos. Meanwhile, there would be no bias among Madurese students in evaluating both Dayak and Madura photos. An experimental approach was carried out using photos of neutral faces of Dayaknese and Madurese people. Each photo was presented with negative or positive words. The participants of the study comprised 111 students who represented Madurese and Dayaknese ethnic groups, as well as Javanese who had not been involved in the conflict serving as the control group. They were asked to evaluate the photos in terms of the negativity and positivity of each picture. A two-way ANOVA supported the hypothesis that the Dayaknese evaluated their own groups better than the other ethnic groups, while the Madurese did not.
This document provides an overview of a framework for understanding the emotion process in organizations. The framework outlines the emotion process as occurring in stages, beginning with an eliciting stimulus and ending with potential behavioral consequences. Key points of the framework include:
- The emotion process starts with an individual encountering a stimulus, registering its meaning, and experiencing physiological changes and feelings. This can then influence behaviors, attitudes, and expressions.
- Emotion regulation processes occur at each stage and are influenced by individual and group factors. These regulation processes can become automatic with practice.
- The behaviors and expressions from one individual can then act as eliciting stimuli for others, allowing the emotion process to spread between individuals.
- This
Compassion involves noticing and experiencing emotional reactions to others' suffering, and acting to alleviate it. It fosters cooperation and community. Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself rather than self-critical, recognizing one's shared humanity, and holding painful feelings mindfully rather than becoming overwhelmed. Instruments like the DASS-21 and Five Facet Mindfulness Scale can help identify emotional issues and mindfulness in a compassionate way. Organizational compassion occurs when a system collectively notices and responds to members' pain, cultivating cooperation. Overall, compassion emphasizes our shared humanity.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 101 (2016) 11–25, .docxwhitneyleman54422
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10/1 (2016): 11–25, 10.1111/spc3.12229
Exploring the Toolkit of Emotion: What Do Sadness and
Anger Do for Us?
Heather C. Lench*, Thomas P. Tibbett and Shane W. Bench
Texas A&M University
Abstract
What do negative emotions do for people? We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations. Focus-
ing on sadness and anger, we review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cog-
nitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these
changes result in demonstrably better outcomes in the type of situation that elicits the emotion. Sadness is
elicited by perceived goal loss without possibility of restoration given current abilities and is associated
with deliberative reasoning, reduced physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is prelimi-
nary evidence suggesting that sadness can permit coping with loss, and that expression of sadness can re-
cruit others to assist in goal attainment. Anger is elicited by perceived goal loss that can be prevented if an
obstacle is overcome and is associated with heuristic reasoning, increased physiological activity, and be-
havioral expression. There is evidence that expression of anger prompts others to remove themselves as
obstacles, and preliminary evidence that anger can promote overcoming obstacles and goal attainment.
Like precision tools, specific emotions are best utilized to resolve particular problems.
People often assume that being in a constant state of happiness would be ideal for human func-
tioning. In fact, the majority of people consider being happy to be of paramount importance in
their lives (Diener, 2000). Yet research findings have revealed that happiness is not the panacea it
might appear, and that instead a mixture of positive and negative emotions is related to positive
outcomes (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). In the present review, we address the question of
what negative emotions do for people. We utilize a class of emotion theories – functional ac-
counts – to integrate findings related to the consequences of emotions. Broadly speaking, func-
tional accounts of emotion posit that emotions are functional in the sense that they do
something useful for people. We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which the changes associated with discrete emotions result in better outcomes
in particular types of situations. To use an analogy, emotions do not function as sledgehammers that
can deal with any problem, but rather as a Swiss army knife with a multitude of tools that are
best utilized to resolve particular problems.
Functional Accounts of Emotion
The term “emotion” is used in a variety of ways in the research literature and in colloquial
speech. Although debate continues, there is an emerging consensus that a pr.
This document describes the development of the Generalized Intuitional versus Analytical Decision-making Index (GIADMI) which aims to provide a brief measure of individual preferences for intuitive or analytical decision-making styles. The GIADMI was created using 13 initial items measuring each style on a 6-point scale. Factor analysis was conducted to validate the items measured the intended constructs. Reliability was assessed through internal consistency. Construct validity was evaluated by correlating GIADMI scores with other established tests. The results provided preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the intuitive scale, while further refinement is needed for the analytical scale.
This study examined the effects of social anxiety and gender on performance on a theory of mind task. The study hypothesized that social anxiety would negatively impact performance, especially for those with instructors of the opposite gender. A test was given to 48 college students, with half receiving an anxiety manipulation. Results found no significant main effects of anxiety or gender match on scores. There was also no significant interaction between anxiety and gender. The hypotheses were not supported, as social anxiety and gender of the instructor did not impact theory of mind task performance.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Mechanisms of Mindfulness inCommunication TrainingDaniel CAbramMartino96
Mechanisms of Mindfulness in
Communication Training
Daniel C. Huston, Eric L. Garland & Norman A.S. Farb
Mindfulness, an ancient spiritual practice, is becoming an increasingly popular
component of communication courses, training individuals to reserve judgment in their
dealings with others. However, the effects of mindfulness in communication courses are
not well researched. We compared students taking an introductory communication
course that included a mindfulness component (N �20) against a control group of
students taking an equivalent course without mindfulness content (N �24). Both groups
improved in their positive reappraisal tendencies following communication training;
however, the groups appeared to differ in how they positively reappraised situations.
Only the mindfulness group demonstrated improved mindfulness scores following
training, accounting for that group’s increases in positive reappraisal, and providing
evidence for mindfulness training as one mechanism for reducing negative reactivity in
communication.
Keywords: Mindfulness; Positive Reappraisal; Blame; Mindful Coping Model; Spirituality
Mindfulness meditation is an ancient spiritual practice introduced over 2,500 years
ago as a means of calming the mind and gaining insight into the impermanent and
interdependent nature of the self. Over the last few decades, scholars and clinicians in
the West have begun to explore secular applications of mindfulness, and have noted
the practical benefits of observing thoughts, impulses, and emotions. This ability,
nurtured through the practice of mindfulness meditation, appears to help people lead
happier, more productive, and fulfilling lives through the process of coming to know
Daniel C. Huston is a Professor in the Department of English, Fine Arts, and Foreign Languages at NHTI,
Concord’s Community College, Eric L. Garland is an Assistant Professor in the College of Social Work at Florida
State University and a Research Affiliate for Trinity Institute for the Addictions, Norman A.S. Farb is a
postdoctoral fellow at the Rotman Research Institute. The authors would like to thank Beth Blankenstein,
Susanne O’Brien, Diana Levine, members of the NHTI Institute Leadership Team, and the students
who voluntarily participated in the study for their contributions. Correspondence to: Daniel C. Huston,
Grappone Hall, NHTI, Concord’s Community College, 31 College Drive, Concord, NH 03301, USA. E-mail:
[email protected]
ISSN 0090-9882 (print)/ISSN 1479-5752 (online) # 2011 National Communication Association
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2011.608696
Journal of Applied Communication Research
Vol. 39, No. 4, November 2011, pp. 406�421
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2011.608696
themselves and realizing they are more than the self-talk they experience, more than
the habitual patterns of behavior they have formed over the years. They come to
realize they can ‘‘let go’’ of that ‘‘chatter’’ and those ‘‘habits’’ ...
A Literature Review On Emotional Competency And Perceived StressNatasha Grant
1) The document discusses a literature review on the relationship between emotional competency and perceived stress.
2) Several studies cited found that emotional competency is correlated with lower perceived stress, as emotionally intelligent individuals perceive stress as more of a challenge than a threat.
3) The literature review concluded that emotional competency can be developed through education and training focused on self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management skills. Developing emotional competency may help individuals better cope with life stressors.
This document discusses social cognition in individuals with bipolar disorder. It begins by defining social cognition and outlining its key dimensions. It then reviews studies comparing social cognition abilities in individuals with bipolar disorder versus healthy controls. The studies show impairments in areas like theory of mind, emotion processing, and attributional biases. Differences are also seen between bipolar type I and II. While some social cognition abilities are preserved, deficits tend to be more pronounced than in individuals with schizophrenia. Overall, the document analyzes research on social cognition challenges in bipolar disorder.
Little research has been done on the benefit of empathy for socialMerrileeDelvalle969
- The study explored the relationship between empathy and decision-making in social work students. Two cohorts of students reflected on a social work case scenario and proposed interventions.
- The results showed that higher levels of perspective taking, fantasy, and empathic concern were associated with prioritizing direct assistance for the person most in need. Higher personal distress was not related to helpful interventions.
- The findings provide preliminary evidence that empathy, especially cognitive and emotional aspects, underpins effective case management in social work students. Further research is needed to deepen understanding of this relationship.
Similar to Research ArticlePrejudice From Thin AirThe Effect of Emo.docx (20)
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 19.docxronak56
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 1950 (P.L. 81-875) defined the roles and responsibilities during natural disasters. Once the president issued a disaster declaration, federal relief resources could flow to the affected areas for response and recovery. The president would then delegate administrative control of relief efforts to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. This law also instituted the federal role in natural disasters as a supportive role, while instituting primary responsibility for disaster response and recovery with local and state governments. How had this changed by 1978? Why did it change? Do you agree with the change? Why, or why not?
300 WORDS
APA FORMAT
.
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5 Eng.docxronak56
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice:
Social workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers:
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To prepare: Working with your field instructor, identify, evaluate, and discuss policies established by the local, state, and federal government (within the last five years) that affect the day to day operations of the field placement agency.
The Assignment (1-2 pages):
Describe the policies and their impact on the field agency.
Propose specific recommendations regarding how you, as a social work intern, and the agency can advocate for policies pertaining to advancing social justice for the agency and the clients it serves.
.
According to the text, economic outcomes measured by economic gr.docxronak56
According to the text, economic outcomes measured by economic growth is affected by a number of factors. Also, hundreds of empirical studies on economic growth across countries have highlighted the correlation between economic growth and a variety of variables.
Claims regarding the determinants of economic growth are conditional, and the findings depend on the variables used. However, the availability of physical capital or infrastructure, government consumption, terms of trade, macroeconomic stability, the rule of law, regulatory quality, government effectiveness, foreign direct investments, population size, and natural resource availability are the most consistent findings of empirical studies on economic growth.
Review the literature on economic growth and provide a summary of how:
Population affects economic growth
Natural Resource Abundance affects economic growth
Note: The answers you provide to each of these sub-questions should not be more than 15 sentences.
Also note that because this is a literature review you must cite credible sources; avoid using news articles.
The examples below should serve as a guide
Example 1: The example below shows how inflation affects investment in a study of the effect of inflation on investment.
The destabilizing effect of inflation on investment has been a major source of debate in economic and business literature. Generally, inflation is often considered a sign of macroeconomic instability and the inability of government to control macroeconomic policy, both of which contribute to an adverse investment climate (Fischer, 2013; Greene & Villanueva, 1991). However, the empirical evidence is still far from convincing. While some authors claim positive effects of inflation on investment, others hold that inflation poses a “stealth” threat to investments. For example, Greene and Villanueva (1991) argue that high rate of inflation adversely affects private investment activity by increasing the riskiness of long-term investment projects. Also, Fischer (2013) observed that inflation uncertainty is associated with substantial reduction in total investment. On the contrary, McClain and Nicholes (1993) found that investment and inflation are positively related to each other.
Example 2: The example below shows how natural resource endowments affects income inequality in a study of the determinants of income inequality.
The nexus between natural resource endowments and income inequality has also been widely debated and has inspired a long history of research in both economics and political science (see, for example, Fum and Hodler, 2010; Goderis and Malone, 2011; Leamer, Maul, Rodriguez, and Schott, 1999; Carmignani, 2013; Parcero and Papyrakis, 2016; Bourguignon and Morrisson, 1998). For example, Anderson et al., (2004) argue that natural resources endowment provide a plausible explanation as to why the observed levels of inequality are significantly higher in both sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5.docxronak56
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice:
Social workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers:
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To prepare: Working with your field instructor, identify, evaluate, and discuss policies established by the local, state, and federal government (within the last five years) that affect the day to day operations of the field placement agency (
Georgia Department of Family and Children Services
).
The Assignment (1-2 pages):
Describe the policies and their impact on the field agency.
Propose specific recommendations regarding how you, as a social work intern, and the agency can advocate for policies pertaining to advancing social justice for the agency and the clients it serves.
.
According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), part of.docxronak56
According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), part of being a well-prepared special educator includes “developing relationships with families based on mutual respect and actively involving families and individuals with exceptionalities in educational decision making” (Council for Exceptional Children, 2015, Special Education Professional Ethical Principles, E). This includes advocating for parental involvement by providing information on educational rights and safeguards in a way that creates accessibility and transparent IEP meeting procedures (Council for Exceptional Children, 2015).
Hammond, Ingalls and Trussell (2008) investigated the experiences of those family members who attended an initial IEP meeting and then subsequent meetings over the next four years. Their findings indicated that the overwhelming majority of the 212 family participants agreed that the child needed special education services but had negative emotional responses to the initial team meeting. Some of the most beneficial information collected included acknowledging the emotions tied to having a child initial diagnosed with a disability; stronger communication skills by education professionals during the team meeting; and additional measures to better prepare parents for the team meetings (Hammond, Ingalls, & Trussell, 2008). Similarly, the article,
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
(Wellner, 2012) was written to emphasize the importance of trust building strategies to avoid costly due process hearings and to maximize relationships with all involved in making decisions on behalf of the student with special needs.
Initial Post:
After reading the article, After reading the article,
The 5-Point Plan
, reviewing the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC) , reviewing the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC)
Special Education and Professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards (Links to an external site.)
, and reading
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
you will create an initial response depending on the first letter of your last name.
If your last name begins with the letters A – M:
You will respond as one of the parent participants in this the Hammond, Ingalls and Trussell study. Begin by explaining how you felt attending your child’s first IEP meeting, using the article and the Instructor Guidance as a foundation for your narrative. Then, describe how future IEP meeting experiences changed (improved or declined) and why. Finally, using the
CEC Professional Practice Standards for Parents and Families (Links to an external site.)
and
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
, provide at least three suggestions to the special education team leader for how to improve this experience for parents of newly diagnosed children with disabilities.
.
According to the article, Answer these two questions. Why did Ma.docxronak56
According to the article, Answer these two questions.
Why did Marx believe that capitalism would fall on its own? Why did his predictions not come true? (hint: how has the economy changed since Marx’s time?
Describe Robert Owen’s “New Lanark” community? What were his innovations? Did he suspend either private property or market economics? Are there people today who follow a similar business model?
.
According to Neuman’s theory, a human being is a total person as a c.docxronak56
According to Neuman’s theory, a human being is a total person as a client system and the person is a layered, multidimensional being. Each layer consists of a five-person variable or subsystem: (1) physiological, (2) psychological, (3) sociocultural, (4) developmental, and (5) spiritual.
Considering the 'spiritual' variable- Do you feel this variable exists at all? Does it have as wide-ranging results as Neuman claims? Is it appropriate for an APRN to participate in or work with the patient’s spiritual dimension?
.
According to Rolando et al. (2012), alcohol socialization is the pr.docxronak56
According to Rolando et al. (2012), “alcohol socialization is the process by which a person approaches and familiarizes with alcohol learns about the values connected to its use and about how, when and where s/he can or cannot drink.”
Based on the focus group findings, describe what the first drink means in both Italy and Finland, and what types of attitudes are connected with different types of socialization processes.
.
According to your readings, cloud computing represents one of th.docxronak56
According to your readings, cloud computing represents one of the most significant paradigms shifts in information technology (IT) history, due to an extension of sharing an application-hosting provider that has been around for many years, and was common in highly regulated vertical industries like banks and health care institutions. The author’s knowledge from their research continue to assert that, the impetus behind cloud computing lies on the idea that it provides economies of scale by spreading costs across many client organizations and pooling computing resources while matching client computing needs to consumption in a flexible, real-time version.
Identify the issues and risks that pose concern to organizations storing data in the cloud - briefly support your discussion.
.
According to this idea that gender is socially constructed, answer.docxronak56
According to this idea that gender is socially constructed, answer the following questions:
1. What does it mean to be a man in the U.S.? What does it mean to be a woman?
2. From what institutions do we learn these gender roles?
3. How do these clips demonstrate the ways in which gender is socially constructed in the U.S.? Do the concepts discussed in the clips resonate with you? Why or why not?
In Persepolis, the main character Marji struggles to define her identity as an Iranian woman in a changing society.
· What roles are depicted for women in Iranian society in the film? How do they change over time?
· How does Persepolis demonstrate the ways in which gender and identity are influenced in many ways, by different processes across cultures? How are gender roles in Iran similar, or different to gender in the U.S.?
· What are some of the stereotypes that exist about Muslim women and how does Abu-Lughod in “Do Muslim Women Need Saving” and Persepolis complicate these stereotypes?
Answer the following questions 2 full pages
Running head: MAJOR HEALTH CARE PROBLEMS IN THE U.S. 1
Major Health Care Problems in the U.S.
Jane Doe
ID: 1212121
MAJOR HEALTH CARE PROBLEMS IN THE U.S. 2
Major Health Care Problems in the US
Problem statement: High and continuously rising cost of health care has been and still is one of
the biggest challenges affecting the Health Care system in United States.
Methods of Examining the Problem
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods should be used to fully understand the
issue of high cost of care in the US. Quantitative methods like surveys and experimentations will
aid in estimating the prevalence, magnitude and frequency of the problem in different regions.
On the other hand, qualitative methods like case studies and observation will help describe the
extent and complexity of the issue. The two approaches need to work in complementation to
obtain a clear understanding of this menace.
Surveys, as a quantitative research method, is one of the most effective in the social
research and present a more viable method of examining the cost of health in the country. They
involve asking of questions in the form of questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires are
written questions to which the response can be open ended or multiple-choice format. This
would be used to gain information about cost within determinants that are of
disagree/neutral/agree nature. An example is if patients are contented with the cost of services
they get or they deem the cost of cover worthy. Interviews, the researcher discussing issues with
the respondents, are to be used to gain more details on already known aspects of the system. This
may include gathering information to inform policies, administration and use of technology to
minimize the cost of care.
Since health cost in the US is not a new challenge and there have been studies about it,
qualitative methods like .
According to Thiel (2015, p. 40), CSR literature lacks consensus fo.docxronak56
According to Thiel (2015, p. 40), “CSR literature lacks consensus for a standard definition. Typically, many people who are familiar with the concept will initially define CSR within the three domains of the social, economic and natural environments.”
Come up with your own definition of what you believe is a good definition of CSR that you would like your company to follow.
Afterward, explain each part of your definition and why you believe it is best.
.
According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines are t.docxronak56
According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines are the three most popular countries for IT outsourcing. Write a short paper (2-4 paragraphs) explaining what the appeal would be for US companies to outsource IT functions to these countries. You may discuss cost, labor pool, language, or possibly government support as your reasons. There are many other reasons you may choose to highlight in your paper.
.
According to Rolando et al. (2012), alcohol socialization is th.docxronak56
According to Rolando et al. (2012), “alcohol socialization is the process by which a person approaches and familiarizes with alcohol learns about the values connected to its use and about how, when and where s/he can or cannot drink.”
Based on the focus group findings, describe what the first drink means in both Italy and Finland, and what types of attitudes are connected with different types of socialization processes. Respond to two posts identifying how positive values can be connected to first memories of drinking.
.
According to the author, Social Security is an essential program, .docxronak56
According to the author, Social Security is an essential program, but its future is looking unpromising unless we start by eliminating the payroll tax cap.
In the author’s proposal to keep the funding open, the author proposes the acceptance of Bernie Sanders’ “Keeping Our Social Security Promises Act,” which the author suggests would removes the payroll tax cap. To elaborate further, the author stated that the reason for the cap on the social security is because of the uneven amount of participation during elections which makes the rich influential in governance. The author stated that, research have found that the rich who made over $125,000 contributed 35% in campaigns. According to the author, this act causes a major problem regarding the shaping of the social security because people with lower income would not be able to contribute that amount of money towards campaigns. The author also states that it causes greater income equality, since those who contribute are rich and as a matter of fact get more benefits from political power in the form of payroll tax cap. This in the authors words, compromises the state of social welfare in the United States because those active in politics don’t have the same views as the poor who are focused on housing, poverty, and health. Congressional Research Service was used to predicts that, if tax cap is not removed, there will be a permanent increase of tax rate from 12.4% to 15.1% which would hurt people making less than the current tax cap currently at $132,900 or, cutting benefits by 20% in 2035 and continuously rising every year.
In as much as the author makes a good point on the percentage of rich people that donated to campaign, the author failed to state how much the rich get in payroll tax cap since that is a major part of the authors argument. The authors failed to indicate how an increase in tax rate would affect people making less than the current tax cap which is $132,900. To sum it up, the author failed to expand and give more numeric evidence to support the argument.
In addition, to provide a guideline in eliminating payroll tax cap, the author suggested a bill introduced by Bernie Sanders called, Keeping Our Social Security Promises Act. The bill according to the author seeks to remove the cap placed on payroll taxes. The author further stated the bill will help Solvency to expand for 75 years without increasing taxes for those who earn less than $250,000, the only people who will see a change are those earn more than $250,000. According to the Congressional Research Service as stated by the author, removing the cap would eliminate 84% of the projected shortfall. The author stated that, the top 200 CEOs would have to contributed $341,291,106 towards Social Security when the tax cap is removed. In addition, the author stated that, removing the cap would eliminate 84% of the projected shortfall. The author proposes an increase in the taxable payroll from 12.40% to 12.83% to keep it solvent.
According to Morrish, the blame for the ever-growing problem of disc.docxronak56
According to Morrish, the blame for the ever-growing problem of discipline in schools rests at least in part on popular discipline theories, which he believes have gone to excess in allowing students to make choices concerning how they will conduct themselves in school. What are your thoughts about Morrish’s ideas?
.
According to DuBrin (2015), Cultural intelligence is an outsiders .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), "Cultural intelligence is an outsider's ability to interpret someone's unfamiliar and ambiguous behavior the same way that person's compatriots would" (p. 177). In this case, how would you incorporate cultural intelligence within a team setting? Please explain.
Your journal entry must be at least 200 words
.
According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture are the shared.docxronak56
According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture are the shared beliefs and values among a group of people which influences how they perceive, think, and react in the organization. There are four types of organizational culture:
Clan-Internal focus that values flexibility
Adhocracy-A risk taking culture with an external focus on flexibility
Market-A competitive culture with an external focus on profits over employee satisfaction
Hierarchy-A structured culture valuing stability and effectiveness internally
How would you describe the organizational culture of a pr
evious or current place of employment? And why?
Do you think this type of culture is best suited to help the company achieve its strategic goals? Explain.
.
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are identified for enhancing your career:
develop career goals,
capitalize on your strengths and build your personal brand,
be passionate about and proud of your work,
develop a code of professional ethics and prosocial motivation,
develop a proactive personality,
keep growing through continuous learning and self-development,
document your accomplishments,
project a professional image, and
perceive yourself as a provider of services. (p. 430)
Identify and explain three career-enhancing techniques or tactics in advancing your career.
Your essay should be at least two pages and should include an introduction, a body of supported material (paragraphs), and a conclusion. Be sure to include two references (on a reference page), and follow all other APA formatting requirements. The reference page does not count toward the total page requirement.
Be sure to apply the proper APA format for the content and references provided.
.
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are identified for enhancing your career:
develop career goals,
capitalize on your strengths and build your personal brand,
be passionate about and proud of your work,
develop a code of professional ethics and prosocial motivation,
develop a proactive personality,
keep growing through continuous learning and self-development,
document your accomplishments,
project a professional image, and
perceive yourself as a provider of services. (p. 430)
Identify and explain three career-enhancing techniques or tactics in advancing your career.
Your essay should be at least two pages and should include an introduction, a body of supported material (paragraphs), and a conclusion. Be sure to include two references (on a reference page), and follow all other APA formatting requirements.
.
Access the Mental Measurements Yearbook, located in the Univer.docxronak56
Access
the Mental Measurements Yearbook, located in the University Library.
Select
two assessments of intelligence and two achievement tests.
Prepare
a 13 slide presentation about your selected instruments. In your analysis, address the following:
Critique the major definitions of intelligence. Determine which theory of intelligence best fits your selected instruments. Explain how the definition and the measures are related.
Evaluate the measures of intelligence you selected for reliability, validity, normative procedures, and bias.
Your selected intelligence and achievement assessments. How are the goals of the tests similar and different? How are the tests used? What are the purposes of giving these differing tests?
.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Your Skill Boost Masterclass: Strategies for Effective Upskilling
Research ArticlePrejudice From Thin AirThe Effect of Emo.docx
1. Research Article
Prejudice From Thin Air
The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes
David DeSteno,1 Nilanjana Dasgupta,2 Monica Y. Bartlett,1
and Aida Cajdric1
1
Northeastern University and
2
University of Massachusetts–Amherst
ABSTRACT—Two experiments provide initial evidence that
spe-
cific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prej-
udice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger
should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of
its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition,
whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after
minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants
were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.
2. Automatic attitudes toward the in- and outgroups were then
assessed using an evaluative priming measure (Experiment 1)
and the Implicit Association Test (Experiment 2). As predicted,
results showed that anger created automatic prejudice toward
the outgroup, whereas sadness and neutrality resulted in no
automatic intergroup bias. The implications of these findings
for
emotion-induced biases in implicit intergroup cognition in par-
ticular, and in social cognition in general, are considered.
Since the heyday of frustration-aggression and scapegoating
theories
of prejudice (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears,
1939),
social psychologists have recognized that intergroup relations,
and the
stereotypes and prejudices that inevitably accompany them, are
in-
fluenced by perceivers’ emotional states. As in the case of
attitudes
more generally, emotions have been found to influence when,
and to
what extent, people express positive or negative attitudes
3. toward, and
beliefs about, members of in- and outgroups (Bodenhausen,
Muss-
weiler, Gabriel, & Moreno, 2001; Fiske, 1998; cf. Petty,
DeSteno, &
Rucker, 2001). For example, anger and happiness are known to
en-
hance heuristic processing of social information that, in turn,
ex-
acerbates stereotypic judgments of outgroups (Bodenhausen,
Shep-
pard, & Kramer, 1994; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). Sadness,
however,
has been shown to promote systematic processing of
information that,
in turn, decreases stereotypic judgments (Lambert, Khan,
Lickel, &
Fricke, 1997). These and similar findings have led to wide
acceptance of the view that specific emotions can influence
people’s
beliefs about social groups.
It is important to note, however, that thus far, the growing
corpus of
4. research on emotion and intergroup cognition has focused
exclusively
on the effects of emotion on self-reported, or explicit,
judgments of
social groups (for a review, see Bodenhausen et al., 2001). Such
judgments involve conscious deliberation and are, therefore,
clearly
under perceivers’ voluntary control. Indeed, if people suspect
that
incidental emotion may unduly influence an unrelated judgment,
they
often correct for the perceived bias (Lambert et al., 1997; cf.
DeSteno,
Petty, Wegener, & Rucker, 2000). Moreover, happy individuals,
who
typically engage in heuristic processing, are able to process
system-
atically when instructed to do so (Queller, Mackie, &
Stroessner,
1996) or when counterstereotypic information motivates them to
do so
(Bless, Schwarz, & Wieland, 1996). Such control, however, is
not
available for all types of judgments, especially automatic ones
5. (Banaji
& Dasgupta, 1998; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). In the domain
of
intergroup cognition, automatic attitudes stand as an
unconscious
analogue to self-reported or conscious attitudes; that is, they
rep-
resent evaluations of social groups whose initiation and
modification
typically operate without volitional control (Fazio & Towles-
Schwen,
1999; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Understanding the conditions
that
lead to the formation and exacerbation of automatic prejudice is
im-
portant not only because of its pervasiveness, but also because
of
accumulating evidence that automatic prejudice does not remain
confined to mental life—it diffuses into people’s behavior
toward
outgroup members (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002;
Fazio,
Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; McConnell & Leibold,
2001).
6. We believe that people’s emotional states at the time of
intergroup
judgment ought to influence their automatic evaluations of
social
groups by moderating or even creating intergroup biases outside
of
awareness. This hypothesis stems from a functional view of
emotions
as phenomena designed to increase adaptive responding to en-
vironmentally significant stimuli (Damasio, 1994; Keltner &
Gross,
1999; LeDoux, 1996).
1
From an adaptiveness standpoint, it seems
The first two authors contributed equally to this work. Address
correspondence to David DeSteno, Department of Psychology,
Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, e-mail:
[email protected]
neu.edu, or to Nilanjana Dasgupta, Department of Psychology,
Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst,
MA 01003, e-mail: [email protected]
1
The influence of emotion on cognition and behavior is theorized
to produce
adaptive responses that prepare organisms to meet
environmental challenges.
7. However, the influence of emotions may also diffuse into new
situations; that is,
a preexisting or incidental emotion may influence interactions
with a sub-
sequent target (cf. Bodenhausen et al., 2001; Petty et al., 2001).
Any biases
that stem from the influence of incidental emotions on
judgments of subsequent
targets need not represent an adaptive response.
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Volume 15—Number 5 319Copyright r 2004 American
Psychological Society at UNIV TEXAS AT TYLER on August
22, 2016pss.sagepub.comDownloaded from
http://pss.sagepub.com/
reasonable to expect that specific emotions should facilitate
people’s
ability to evaluate social groups quickly and automatically, as
well as
slowly and carefully. We predict that to the extent that
outgroups often
signify sources of conflict, competition, or blockage of goals
(Brewer &
Brown, 1998; Neuberg & Cottrell, 2002), and to the extent that
emotions help individuals meet environmental challenges by
acti-
8. vating goal-driven action tendencies (Frijda, 1986; LeDoux,
1996),
emotions that prepare organisms to meet challenges related to
conflict
or competition (e.g., anger) should bias automatic intergroup
evalua-
tions in accord with these functional goals.
EMOTION AND AUTOMATIC INTERGROUP ATTITUDES
Although no evidence directly bears on this hypothesis, findings
from
three lines of research lend credence to the idea that emotion
ought to
shape automatic attitudes toward social groups. First, cognitive
neu-
roscience research has begun to identify subcortical structures
in-
volved in automatic evaluative appraisals of social groups
(Phelps
et al., 2000) and has found these structures to be reciprocally
linked
to both cortical and subcortical regions of the brain involved in
the
experience of emotion (Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli,
2002).
9. Such reciprocal pathways suggest not only that automatic
appraisals of
particular stimuli can trigger emotion, but also that extant
emotional
states can influence subsequent appraisals. Given these
linkages, it is
possible that an emotional state renders individuals more
vigilant
against certain threats in the environment and that such
vigilance
modulates subsequent automatic evaluations of relevant social
stim-
uli. Because automatic evaluations facilitate rapid responses
when
strategic analysis is unavailable, it seems reasonable to expect
that
these responses may be an important medium through which
emotions
allow organisms to meet environmental challenges; for example,
cer-
tain emotion-driven automatic responses may act as the first
line of
defense against threatening stimuli.
10. Second, the functional view of emotion readily extends into the
realm of intergroup relations. Recent work has begun to find
that
appraisals of social groups evoke specific emotional states,
goals, and
action tendencies that facilitate the successful negotiation of
group
interactions (Mackie & Smith, 2002). Given this link between
social
groups and specific emotions, it is conceivable that the
experience of
such emotions, even when their source is incidental to
intergroup
relations, may influence people’s perceptions of in- and
outgroups in
accord with their functional significance.
Finally, for emotion-based moderation of automatic intergroup
at-
titudes to occur, such attitudes must show some degree of
flexibility.
Recent research has supported this view, providing evidence
that
automatic beliefs and attitudes toward groups are not as
immutable as
11. previously theorized, but rather are quite sensitive to external
cues
such as social context (Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001;
Wittenbrink,
Judd, & Park, 2001). Consequently, emotion, given its context-
rel-
evant signaling value, ought to act as an internal cue capable of
moderating automatic intergroup attitudes.
EXPERIMENT 1
We used a minimal-group procedure to provide an initial test of
the
hypothesis that specific emotions can bias automatic attitudes
toward
social groups. Minimal groups provided a clean assessment of
the
primary hypothesis because participants had no preexisting
attitudes
or emotional reactions toward them. Thus, any automatic
preference
for one group over another could be interpreted as a new
attitude.
2
To
12. the extent that outgroups signify sources of conflict and
competition,
they may evoke feelings of anger and contempt (cf. Brewer &
Brown,
1998; Neuberg & Cottrell, 2002). We propose that just as anger
can
originate from current interactions with groups, so may
incidental
feelings of anger from an unrelated situation affect automatic
ap-
praisals of social groups in a subsequent situation because the
emo-
tion signals a hostile environment and prepares individuals to
act
accordingly. Specifically, we propose that incidental feelings of
anger
are likely to increase automatic bias against an outgroup
because
anger increases negativity toward the outgroup, decreases
positivity,
or both. According to a functionalist perspective, the emergence
of
outgroup bias should be specific to feelings of anger as opposed
to
13. other negative emotions that are typically less relevant to
intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness). To examine this hypothesis, we
assigned
participants to minimal groups, induced one of three emotional
states
(i.e., anger, sadness, neutrality), and then assessed participants’
au-
tomatic attitudes toward these groups with an evaluative
priming task.
Method
Participants
A community sample of 87 New York City residents (50
females, 37
males) participated in exchange for $10.
Manipulations and Measures
Creation of Minimal Groups. To create minimal groups, we had
par-
ticipants complete a bogus personality test in which they
estimated
the frequency of various events (e.g., ‘‘How many people ride
the New
York subway every day?’’). After they completed the test, the
14. computer
ostensibly analyzed their responses and informed them that they
were
either an ‘‘overestimator’’ or an ‘‘underestimator.’’ In reality,
each
participant had been randomly assigned to one of these two
groups. To
ensure that participants remembered their group membership
throughout the experiment, we instructed them to wear
wristbands
designating their group: red wristbands for underestimators and
blue
ones for overestimators. Participants were then shown pictures
of 6
ingroup members and 6 outgroup members.
3
The backdrops of these
pictures were color-coded red for underestimators and blue for
over-
estimators. By matching participants’ wristbands to the color of
the
photographs, we sought to make group membership readily rec-
ognizable by a visually salient characteristic.
15. Assessment of Automatic Intergroup Attitudes. An evaluative
priming
task was used to measure automatic intergroup attitudes
(elements of
this priming task were borrowed from Fazio et al., 1995, and
Payne,
2001). In the first block of 12 trials, participants categorized the
pictures of in- and outgroup members that they had seen
previously
during the minimal-group assignment procedure as belonging to
the
2
There is debate about whether evaluative biases captured by
response la-
tency measures ought to be interpreted as personal attitudes or
as cultural
associations learned by exposure to particular stimulus pairings
in the en-
vironment (Karpinski & Hilton, 2001). The evaluative biases
captured in the
present experiments cannot be attributed to cultural associations
given that the
target stimuli were experimentally created minimal groups.
3
Individual pictures assigned to the overestimator and
underestimator
groups were counterbalanced.
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ingroup (‘‘us’’) or outgroup (‘‘them’’). These images were
presented one
at a time in a random order and later served as target stimuli. In
the
second block of 12 trials, participants learned to classify
valenced
words as good or bad; these later served as primes. The third
block of
24 trials allowed participants to practice the standard evaluative
priming procedure. In each priming trial, several stimuli were
pre-
sented in rapid succession in the following order: (a) an
orienting
stimulus (n) for 500 ms, (b) a word prime for 200 ms, (c) a
target
picture for 200 ms, and (d) a gray mask that stayed on screen
until
17. participants pressed the appropriate key on a computer keyboard
to
indicate whether the target picture belonged to their ingroup
(‘‘us’’) or
outgroup (‘‘them’’). A 500-ms pause separated individual trials.
Par-
ticipants were instructed to attend to all stimuli presented on
screen,
but to categorize only the pictures. For each trial, the prime and
target
were selected randomly from a pool of 12 primes and 12 targets.
Once
practice was over, participants experienced the emotion
induction
(described in the next paragraph). They then completed two
blocks of
45 data-collection trials each, received a second round of the
emotion
induction, and finally completed two more blocks of 45 data-
collection
trials (total of 180 critical trials).
Emotion Induction. The emotion-induction task was introduced
as a
18. study of people’s memories. Participants were asked to write in
detail
about an autobiographical event from the past that had made
them
very angry, very sad, or emotionally neutral (control condition).
The
duration of the initial writing task was 4 min. Participants were
told
that they would have an opportunity later to continue writing
about
their memory. In the second round of the induction procedure,
par-
ticipants were told to continue writing from where they had left
off for
another 2 min.
4
Emotion Manipulation Check. Emotional states were assessed
using
5-point adjective rating scales known to tap sadness and anger
(DeSteno et al., 2000). The anger subscale consisted of angry,
an-
noyed, frustrated, and irritated (a 5 .90). The sadness subscale
con-
sisted of sad, gloomy, and down (a 5 .91).
19. Procedure
Participants arrived at the lab for what they thought was an
experi-
ment on people’s personalities. They first completed the
minimal-
group assignment task, which they believed to be a measure
designed
to determine their personality type. Immediately following this
ma-
nipulation, participants completed the evaluative priming task,
which
served as a measure of their automatic attitudes toward the
ingroup
and outgroup. This task was introduced as a measure of ‘‘hand-
eye
coordination’’ that was allegedly necessary to serve as a
baseline
because of individual differences in people’s speed of
responding to
visually presented stimuli. As noted earlier, the emotion
induction was
embedded before the first and again before the third data-
collection
blocks of this priming task. After the priming task, participants
20. completed an emotion-manipulation check and were debriefed.
All
data were collected and instructions and stimuli presented via
com-
puter using MediaLab (Jarvis, 2002) and Inquisit (Draine,
2000).
Results and Discussion
Manipulation Check
The emotion manipulations were successful in producing the
expected
3 (emotion-induction condition) � 2 (emotion rating)
interaction, F(2,
85) 5 15.04, p < .001. That is, participants in the angry
condition
reported more anger (M53.32) than sadness (M52.57),
t(30)53.01,
p < .01, d 5 0.54; participants in the sad condition reported
more
sadness (M 5 3.28) than anger (M 5 2.36), t(24) 5 3.35, p < .01,
d 5 0.67. Neutral participants reported low levels of both
emotions
(Msadness 5 1.40, Manger 5 1.53).
Automatic Attitudes Toward Social Groups
21. A 3 (emotion) � 2 (prime) � 2 (target) mixed analysis of
variance
revealed that the experience of specific emotional states
differentially
influenced automatic attitudes toward the target groups, as
indicated
by the three-way interaction, F(2, 85)52.50, p5 .08 (see Fig. 1).
5
A
Prime � Target interaction emerged among angry participants,
in-
dicating that, as predicted, the outgroup became a strongly
valenced
attitude object, F(1, 30)54.95, p5 .03, d50.57.
6
More specifically,
angry participants were slower to associate positive attributes
than
negative attributes with the outgroup, t(30)52.35, p5 .03,
d50.42.
There was no difference in the speed with which they associated
positive versus negative attributes with the ingroup (t < 1),
indicating
a neutral evaluative stance toward this group. Moreover, as
expected,
22. no intergroup bias (i.e., Prime � Target interaction) emerged
for
neutral or sad participants (Fs < 1.3). These data suggest that
anger
exerted a functional influence on automatic attitudes and, in so
doing,
created automatic prejudice where none had previously existed.
However, before placing confidence in this finding, we wanted
to at-
tempt a cross-method replication, especially given that the
omnibus
test of the three-way interaction did not reach the conventional
level
of statistical significance.
EXPERIMENT 2
In this experiment, we used a different measure to assess the
effect of
emotion on automatic attitudes—the Implicit Association Test
(IAT).
We used the IAT for two reasons. First, it provided the
opportunity to
conduct a cross-method validation of the findings of Experiment
1.
Evaluative priming and the IAT share several commonalities:
23. (a) Both
tasks assume that if an attitude object evokes a particular
evaluation,
it will facilitate responses to stimuli that are evaluatively
congruent
versus neutral or incongruent, and (b) both tasks interpret
response
facilitation as a measure of the strength of association between
the
object and attribute (Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, & Pratto, 1992;
4
To avoid confounding the anger induction with the priming of
information
related to intergroup conflict, we screened participants’
responses for memories
that were intergroup in nature. None of the memories involved
intergroup
themes; all were interpersonal.
5
Analyses involving response latencies were conducted using
log-trans-
formed values to normalize the distributions. For easier
interpretation, how-
ever, we present descriptive statistical information using the
millisecond
metric.
24. 6
We were agnostic about whether increased intergroup bias
would be driven
by less positivity or greater negativity toward the outgroup.
Previous work on
automatic prejudice in particular, and automatic evaluations in
general, has
typically relied on the existence of significant Prime � Target
interactions, as
opposed to absolute comparisons of response latencies across
different types of
trials, to indicate the existence of an evaluative bias because
such individual
comparisons can be compromised by confounding factors that
differentially
influence responses to specific types of stimuli (see Bargh,
Chaiken, Govender,
& Pratto, 1992; Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002;
Fazio et al.,
1995; Glaser & Banaji, 1999; Klauer, Rossnagel, & Musch,
1997).
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Dasgupta, McGhee, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2000; Fazio,
Sanbonmatsu,
25. Powell, & Kardes, 1986; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz,
1998).
However, there are procedural differences between these two
tasks.
Thus, replicating Experiment 1 using the IAT would
demonstrate the
robustness of the predicted effect. Second, some data suggest
that
compared with priming techniques, the IAT may be more
sensitive to
individual and group differences and somewhat more reliable
across
time (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000). We therefore
expected
that this task might be better able to capture the predicted
pattern of
emotion-induced moderation of intergroup bias.
Method
Participants
Eighty-one students (51 females, 30 males) participated in this
ex-
periment in partial fulfillment of requirements for a psychology
course.
26. Procedure and Measures
The procedure and measures used were identical to those of
Experi-
ment 1 with two exceptions: Automatic attitudes were assessed
using
an IAT instead of evaluative priming, and participants’ self-
reported
attitudes toward the ingroup and outgroup were also measured
to
ensure the success of the minimal-group manipulation.
In the IAT task, participants first completed three practice
blocks
during which they categorized four types of stimuli (pictures
rep-
resenting in- and outgroup members and positive and negative
words) using two designated response keys. Specifically,
participants
classified (a) valenced words for 20 trials, (b) pictures of in-
and
outgroup members for another 20 trials, and then (c) all four
types of
stimuli simultaneously (20 trials). These practice tasks were
coun-
27. terbalanced such that half the participants learned to categorize
ingroup and good stimuli using the same key and outgroup and
bad
stimuli using a different key. The remaining participants learned
the
opposite stimulus pairing. Participants then completed the first
round
of emotion induction, which was followed by a data-collection
block
of the IAT that was identical to the last practice block, only
longer
(50 trials).
Next, additional practice was given so that participants could
learn
to categorize stimuli in the combination opposite to what they
had
learned before. During this practice, they first classified
pictures of in-
versus outgroup members using response keys opposite to those
they
had used previously (20 trials). Next, they classified all four
types of
stimuli simultaneously such that, for example, those participants
28. who
had previously paired ingroup with good and outgroup with bad
learned to associate ingroup with bad and outgroup with good
(20
trials). Participants then completed another round of emotion
induc-
tion to reinstantiate their feeling state, followed by a second
data-
collection block of the IAT (50 trials). Next, participants
reported their
attitudes toward the groups using a five-item, 7-point semantic
dif-
ferential scale (unintelligent-intelligent, bad-good, unpleasant-
pleas-
ant, dishonest-honest, awful-nice); their responses were
averaged into
a single attitudinal index (a5.87). Participants’ emotional states
were
assessed at the end as in Experiment 1.
Results and Discussion
Manipulation Checks
The emotion manipulations were successful, as indicated by the
Emotion Induction � Emotion Rating interaction, F(2, 79) 5
29. 13.14,
p < .001. Participants in the sad condition reported more
sadness
(M 5 3.63) than anger (M 5 2.98), t(25) 5 2.89, p < .01, d 5
0.57;
participants in the angry condition reported more anger (M 5
3.64)
than sadness (M 5 3.21), t(27) 5 2.46, p 5 .02, d 5 0.46. Neutral
Fig. 1. Reaction time in the evaluative priming task (Experiment
1) as a function of emotion, prime, and
target. Error bars represent standard errors.
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participants reported low levels of both emotions (Msadness 5
1.57,
Manger 5 2.05).
Analysis of participants’ self-reported attitudes verified the
success
of the group-assignment procedure. As in previous minimal-
group
30. research, participants reported more positive attitudes toward
their
ingroup (M54.90) than their outgroup (M54.46), F(1, 79)511.21,
p 5 .001, d 5 0.75.
7
Automatic Attitudes Toward Social Groups
Automatic attitudes were measured as the differential speed
with
which participants classified outgroup with good stimuli and
ingroup
with bad stimuli compared with the reverse combinations; larger
difference scores correspond to stronger bias against the
outgroup
relative to the ingroup. Participants’ emotional states
differentially
biased their intergroup evaluations, F(1, 79) 5 4.03, p < .05, d 5
0.54.
8
As shown in Figure 2, only participants in the angry condition
showed strong automatic prejudice against the outgroup and
relative
preference for the ingroup, t(27)53.32, p < .01; those in the sad
and
31. neutral conditions showed no intergroup bias (both ts < 1).
Further
analyses revealed that the interaction effect was driven by
slower
responses to outgroup 1 good/ingroup 1 bad classifications for
par-
ticipants in the angry condition compared with those in the
neutral
and sad conditions, F(1, 79) 5 3.91, p 5 .05. Response latencies
for
ingroup 1 good/outgroup 1 bad classifications did not differ
signifi-
cantly across emotion conditions (F < 1). Thus, as in
Experiment 1,
anger created automatic outgroup bias where none had
previously
existed.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Using different measures of automatic attitudes, two
experiments
support our contention that incidental feelings of anger can
create
automatic prejudice against outgroups. Because this effect was
32. not
produced by a different negative emotion that is functionally
less
relevant to intergroup cognition (e.g., sadness), the results are
in-
consistent with a simple valence-based interpretation of
emotional
bias. We believe that anger, because of its basic association
with in-
tergroup competition and conflict, evoked a psychological
readiness to
evaluate outgroups negatively vis-à-vis ingroups, thus creating
an
automatic prejudice against the outgroup from thin air. To our
knowledge, the present findings stand as the first evidence that
spe-
cific emotions are capable of shaping people’s automatic
evaluations
toward social groups in accordance with their functional value.
In everyday life, anger-induced psychological readiness is
likely to
prepare one to deal rapidly with possible aggression or resource
competition. Although the exact mechanism underlying this
33. exacer-
bation of prejudice remains unknown at present, we speculate
that it
is likely to involve the activation of emotion-specific action
tenden-
cies and the accompanying cascade of physiological and
psycholog-
ical sequelae that result from the occurrence of specific
emotional
states (cf. Frijda, 1986; LeDoux, 1996). Given this functional
view, it
seems plausible that the ability of extant emotional states to
bias
automatic evaluation may not be limited to intergroup
cognition, but
may occur for many types of automatic appraisals. Emotions, in
each
case, might function to shunt automatic appraisals toward goal-
spe-
cific outcomes.
It is important to note, however, that anger may not be the only
negative emotion that can influence automatic attitudes toward
known
34. social groups. Although anger is a fundamental emotion
associated
with intergroup conflict, it is clear that negative feelings toward
dif-
ferent outgroups do indeed vary in emotional tone. Envy, fear,
disgust,
or some other negative emotion may be a salient component of
an
individual’s phenomenological experience with a specific
outgroup,
depending on that outgroup’s power, status, or other qualities in
re-
lation to the perceiver’s ingroup (Mackie & Smith, 2002). Thus,
an
important goal of future research is to determine if other
discrete
emotions associated with specific groups can alter automatic
attitudes
toward those groups even when these emotions are evoked by an
unrelated source. At present, however, the current findings
extend
previous research on the interplay between emotion and
intergroup
relations into a new realm by providing evidence that emotions
35. are
capable of shaping automatic attitudes relevant to one of the
central
adaptive challenges in contemporary society—negotiating
intergroup
interactions.
Acknowledgments—This research was supported by National
Sci-
ence Foundation Grants BCS-0109105 and BCS-0109898.
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