This study investigated how anxiety affects the interference of emotional stimuli on goal-directed behavior. Participants completed a visual search task where they identified targets primed by emotional or neutral faces. Response times were measured. Results showed that emotional faces interfered with task performance for all participants by slowing response times. Higher anxiety participants were slower overall compared to lower anxiety participants. Surprisingly, neutral face primes were processed similarly to negative primes rather than as a true control, also slowing response times. The effect of emotional interference on goal-directed behavior was found to be complex and potentially dependent on the type of emotional stimulus used.
1) The study examined whether coping strategies mediate the relationship between personality traits (Big Five factors) and psychological distress.
2) Results found several Big Five factors (agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism) were correlated with psychological distress and certain coping strategies (wishful thinking, self-criticism, social withdrawal).
3) Further analysis showed these coping strategies (wishful thinking, self-criticism, social withdrawal) partially mediated the relationships between some Big Five factors (agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism) and psychological distress.
The Reduction of Anxiety on the Ability to Make DecisionsAbbie Frank
A research study I had done in my Cognition psychology class to look at the reduction of anxiety using yoga and animal assisted therapy and the affects they can have on decision making.
This study examined the effects of brief mindfulness meditation training compared to an active control relaxation training on working memory and mind wandering. The researchers found that a 1-week at-home mindfulness meditation intervention did not increase working memory or decrease mind wandering, but did prevent stress-related impairments to working memory. Specifically, mindfulness meditation altered the factors that impair working memory such that the negative impact of mind wandering on working memory was only evident at higher levels of negative affect.
This research article examines whether a questionnaire measure of executive function (EF) can predict treatment outcomes for anxiety and depression following cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). 206 outpatients with major depression or an anxiety disorder completed the Revised Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX-R) to assess EF before undergoing group CBT. The DEX-R measures EF across factors of inhibition, volition, and social regulation. Higher DEX-R scores indicate greater executive dysfunction. Results showed that executive dysfunction predicted concurrent anxiety and depression symptoms after controlling for comorbidity. Specifically, inhibition predicted anxiety and volition predicted depression. Executive dysfunction also predicted post-treatment anxiety symptoms but not depression following CBT. The study concludes that EF deficits are associated
This document discusses whether HeartMath is more beneficial than traditional meditation for reducing therapist burnout. It introduces HeartMath as an alternative mindfulness technique that focuses on heart rate variability. While traditional meditation takes weeks to learn, HeartMath can provide benefits after just 1-2 weeks of practice by first creating physiological coherence that leads to cognitive and emotional benefits. These benefits include reduced stress and anxiety, improved emotional regulation, and increased empathy and job satisfaction. However, more research is still needed to directly compare the benefits of HeartMath versus traditional meditation techniques for social workers and determine if HeartMath offers any advantages in time efficiency or effectiveness.
Effects of valuing an individual’s wellbeing_ evoking empathy and motivating ...Kayla Brown
This study examined how valuing another person's wellbeing (high vs low) influences empathy and prosocial behavior. Undergraduate students participated in a virtual ball toss game where one player was excluded. Those in the high-valuing condition where the excluded player was described as nice reported more empathy and threw the ball to the excluded player more, compared to the low-valuing condition where the player was described as nasty. The findings suggest that valuing another person's welfare can elicit greater empathy and motivation to help them, even in remote virtual contexts like cyberball games.
This document proposes and describes a resiliency program for the military based on Lazarus' model of stress and coping. The program aims to prevent trauma-induced stress by incorporating cognitive training into existing resiliency programs. The document reviews literature on past resiliency programs, Lazarus' model, and the need for cognitive aspects. It then describes the proposed program's purpose, sample, instruments, study design, and evaluation methods. Expected findings and implications are discussed. The program aims to train service members' cognition to better appraise threats and cope with trauma to prevent PTSD.
Wearable Technology and Stress DetectionTorren Lamont
This document discusses developing a wearable device to detect stress levels in students with autism and communicate that information to teachers and students in real-time. It aims to detect stress early before a student is aware or displays signs of stress, to help preempt meltdowns. The document reviews literature on defining and measuring stress, how stress affects those with autism differently, and existing stress-detecting technology. It identifies a gap in developing individualized stress detection algorithms and integrating detection with communication systems to inform teachers and students to enable self-corrective behaviors. The research aims to address this by developing such an individualized stress detection and notification system using the Microsoft Band 2.
1) The study examined whether coping strategies mediate the relationship between personality traits (Big Five factors) and psychological distress.
2) Results found several Big Five factors (agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism) were correlated with psychological distress and certain coping strategies (wishful thinking, self-criticism, social withdrawal).
3) Further analysis showed these coping strategies (wishful thinking, self-criticism, social withdrawal) partially mediated the relationships between some Big Five factors (agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism) and psychological distress.
The Reduction of Anxiety on the Ability to Make DecisionsAbbie Frank
A research study I had done in my Cognition psychology class to look at the reduction of anxiety using yoga and animal assisted therapy and the affects they can have on decision making.
This study examined the effects of brief mindfulness meditation training compared to an active control relaxation training on working memory and mind wandering. The researchers found that a 1-week at-home mindfulness meditation intervention did not increase working memory or decrease mind wandering, but did prevent stress-related impairments to working memory. Specifically, mindfulness meditation altered the factors that impair working memory such that the negative impact of mind wandering on working memory was only evident at higher levels of negative affect.
This research article examines whether a questionnaire measure of executive function (EF) can predict treatment outcomes for anxiety and depression following cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). 206 outpatients with major depression or an anxiety disorder completed the Revised Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX-R) to assess EF before undergoing group CBT. The DEX-R measures EF across factors of inhibition, volition, and social regulation. Higher DEX-R scores indicate greater executive dysfunction. Results showed that executive dysfunction predicted concurrent anxiety and depression symptoms after controlling for comorbidity. Specifically, inhibition predicted anxiety and volition predicted depression. Executive dysfunction also predicted post-treatment anxiety symptoms but not depression following CBT. The study concludes that EF deficits are associated
This document discusses whether HeartMath is more beneficial than traditional meditation for reducing therapist burnout. It introduces HeartMath as an alternative mindfulness technique that focuses on heart rate variability. While traditional meditation takes weeks to learn, HeartMath can provide benefits after just 1-2 weeks of practice by first creating physiological coherence that leads to cognitive and emotional benefits. These benefits include reduced stress and anxiety, improved emotional regulation, and increased empathy and job satisfaction. However, more research is still needed to directly compare the benefits of HeartMath versus traditional meditation techniques for social workers and determine if HeartMath offers any advantages in time efficiency or effectiveness.
Effects of valuing an individual’s wellbeing_ evoking empathy and motivating ...Kayla Brown
This study examined how valuing another person's wellbeing (high vs low) influences empathy and prosocial behavior. Undergraduate students participated in a virtual ball toss game where one player was excluded. Those in the high-valuing condition where the excluded player was described as nice reported more empathy and threw the ball to the excluded player more, compared to the low-valuing condition where the player was described as nasty. The findings suggest that valuing another person's welfare can elicit greater empathy and motivation to help them, even in remote virtual contexts like cyberball games.
This document proposes and describes a resiliency program for the military based on Lazarus' model of stress and coping. The program aims to prevent trauma-induced stress by incorporating cognitive training into existing resiliency programs. The document reviews literature on past resiliency programs, Lazarus' model, and the need for cognitive aspects. It then describes the proposed program's purpose, sample, instruments, study design, and evaluation methods. Expected findings and implications are discussed. The program aims to train service members' cognition to better appraise threats and cope with trauma to prevent PTSD.
Wearable Technology and Stress DetectionTorren Lamont
This document discusses developing a wearable device to detect stress levels in students with autism and communicate that information to teachers and students in real-time. It aims to detect stress early before a student is aware or displays signs of stress, to help preempt meltdowns. The document reviews literature on defining and measuring stress, how stress affects those with autism differently, and existing stress-detecting technology. It identifies a gap in developing individualized stress detection algorithms and integrating detection with communication systems to inform teachers and students to enable self-corrective behaviors. The research aims to address this by developing such an individualized stress detection and notification system using the Microsoft Band 2.
The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of mindfulness meditation on working memory capacity, affect, and decision making ability. Sixteen stressed college students were randomly assigned to either a 30-day mindfulness meditation training program or a nature sounds control group. Measures of working memory capacity, positive affect, and decision making were taken before and after the 30 days. Results showed that the meditation group had significantly higher working memory capacity after training compared to controls. However, there were no significant effects on positive affect or decision making ability between the groups.
Stimulant medication is the most common treatment for ADD/ADHD, but about 60-65% of cases persist into adulthood. Short-acting stimulants have the highest abuse potential, with 46% of adults with ADHD using them and nearly 80% of patients abusing them. There is interest in alternative treatments due to concerns about side effects and stigma of behavioral therapy. Recent research has investigated brain training games to improve cognition, with some studies finding they can enhance memory, attention, and executive functions in both young and old. The proposed study will examine whether brain training games targeted at improving attention are effective for adults with ADD/ADHD by comparing pre- and post-training Stroop test attention scores between those
Reduction of executive stress by development of emotional intelligence a stu...prjpublications
- The study examined the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing stress and improving emotional intelligence among executives.
- Executives were divided into an experimental group that received 8 weeks of behavioral interventions and a control group. Interventions included relaxation techniques, yoga, and breathing exercises.
- Post-intervention testing found the experimental group had significantly lower stress levels and higher emotional intelligence scores than the control group. Dimensions like stress management, adaptability, and mood all saw marked improvements in the experimental group.
- The results indicate behavioral interventions were effective in enhancing emotional intelligence and reducing stress among the executives who received the targeted training techniques over the 8-week period.
Introduction to Mindfulness for Stress ReductionPhang Kar
Mindfulness originated as a spiritual practice in ancient traditions. It was introduced into medicine in the 1970s by Jon Kabat-Zinn through his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program at UMass Medical Center. Mindfulness involves paying attention to the present moment in a non-judgmental way. Research shows mindfulness can reduce stress, anxiety, depression and improve well-being by decreasing worrying and mindless mistakes while increasing appreciation of the present. It has been incorporated into various evidence-based therapies and has positive effects on the brain and body.
- Poor mental health was found to exacerbate age-related cognitive declines, especially in executive function.
- Structural equation modeling showed that poor mental health, as assessed by the GHQ-12, interacted with age to predict worse performance on tasks of visual search and recognition memory.
- Executive function was found to mediate the relationship between the age x mental health interaction and performance on visual search and recognition memory tasks.
This document compares Western and Ayurvedic approaches to treating post-traumatic stress disorder caused by motor vehicle accidents. It summarizes research on cognitive behavioral therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy, finding the latter more effective. It also discusses Ayurvedic treatments focusing on balancing vata dosha. The ideal treatment would combine EMDR therapy with panchakarma cleansing treatments and regular yoga practices tailored to each individual.
This document summarizes a presentation on cognitive remediation for schizophrenia. Cognitive remediation aims to improve cognitive processes like attention, memory, and executive function through behavioral training interventions. It relies on neuroplasticity to strengthen connections in the brain. Exercises target basic sensory skills, discrete cognitive abilities, and more complex skills. Studies find cognitive remediation improves cognition, functioning, and motivation, especially when treatment is more intensive, motivational factors are incorporated, and exercises are personalized. Typical programs involve cognitive assessment, goal setting, group sessions 2+ times per week for 3-4 months using drill and strategy practice, and bridging to real-world skills.
Mindfulness is an ancient Buddhist practice of present moment awareness without judgment. Research has shown mindfulness to be an effective intervention for reducing anxiety, stress, and depression. Brief mindfulness training can significantly reduce experimentally induced pain and increase positive emotions. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs have been shown to improve symptoms of social anxiety disorder, depression, rumination, and self-esteem. The therapeutic process involves mindfulness practice leading to increased state mindfulness, positive reappraisal of stressors, and reduced negative emotions and anxiety.
1) The study examined how temperamental traits like threat sensitivity, reward sensitivity, and hypomanic personality modulate cognitive control and attention when viewing emotional stimuli.
2) For cognitive control, measured by the N2 ERP, individuals high in threat sensitivity showed stronger responses to positive stimuli while those high in reward sensitivity and hypomanic personality showed stronger responses to negative stimuli.
3) For attention, measured by P2 and P3 ERPs, only threat sensitivity influenced processing, with those high scoring showing enhanced attention toward negative stimuli.
This document describes a study that examined the relationship between attachment anxiety and attentional control using an emotional Stroop task. The study hypothesized that those with high attachment anxiety would show immediate interference on threatening words compared to those with low anxiety who would show delayed interference. Undergraduate students with varying levels of emotional abuse history completed an emotional Stroop task and questionnaires. Results found that high attachment anxiety was linked to immediate interference on threatening cues, while low anxiety showed delayed responses, supporting the hypotheses. The study largely achieved its goals but random participant selection could limit accuracy.
The Shift from "Ordinary" to "Extraordinary" Experience in Psychodynaimc Supe...James Tobin
Presented by James Tobin, Ph.D. at the American Psychological Association annual conference in 2012, this paper argues that psychotherapists-in-training often rely on various forms of social etiquette when relating to their patients and conducting treatment. He argues that an important goal of supervision is to help the trainee cultivate a clinical attitude and environment which is "extraordinary" in nature, an interpersonal and intrapsychic space unencumbered by political and benevolent tendencies. Dr. Tobin describes the modeling component of supervision in which the supervisee is exposed to a new way of being in the atmosphere of the supervisor's mindfulness, independence, spontaneity, creativity, and subversiveness.
The Attentional Blink Paradigm in Individuals with High and Low Levels of Dep...Hannah Skinner
Individuals with high levels of depression and anxiety were tested using the Attentional Blink paradigm with a rapid serial visual presentation task containing emotionally valenced target images. Results found attentional biases for symptoms of both depression and anxiety, independently and together, across accuracy, reaction times, and pupil dilation measures. The data suggests both similarities and differences in how anxiety and depression symptoms impact attentional biases toward emotional stimuli.
The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and burnout in health care professionals. More specifically, this survey has the purpose of demonstrating the role of EI as a protective factor against the risk of burnout. Health professionals (doctors, nurses, and other caregivers) composed the sample. Data, collected during professional training, provided 148 employees. Major results of this survey underline the relationship between EI and burnout. As we expected, there is a negative and significant correlation between burnout and Emotional Intelligence. Moreover, burnout varies depending on length of service: burnout increases between 5 and 10 years of experience and decreases over 10 years. Indeed, burnout is differently expressed amongst healthcare professionals: more specifically, Psycho-physical exhaustion, Detriment of the relationships and Burnout (total score) has an impact on physician (doctors) more than other investigated health professionals. These findings seem to suggest the opportunity to improve Emotional Intelligence abilities through specific training programs, useful to promote the ability to cope with stress and to enrich the relationships in the workplace.
This document discusses a pilot study that assessed the effects of a mindfulness training program adapted for teachers on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy. The study found that teachers who participated in the mindfulness-based stress reduction course showed significant reductions in psychological symptoms and burnout, improvements in classroom organization and attention, and increases in self-compassion, compared to declines seen in the control group. Mindfulness training may help teachers enhance attention, regulate emotions, improve coping skills for stress, and foster qualities like empathy that can improve classroom environment. However, more rigorous research is still needed to fully understand the potential benefits of mindfulness for teachers.
Relationship between cortisol, perceived stress, and mindfulness meditationRachael Blais
The study examined the effects of a 30-minute mindfulness meditation session on perceived stress levels and cortisol levels in college students. 39 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either a meditation group or a control group. Personality traits, health behaviors, perceived stress scales, and cortisol samples were measured. Results found no significant differences in perceived stress or cortisol levels between the meditation and control groups, suggesting a brief mindfulness meditation did not reduce stress. However, emotional stability was found to negatively correlate with perceived stress levels.
Rehabilitation Psychology, Effective Teaching Learning, Subliminal Perception...Mayuresh Panda
Psychologists can play important roles in the prevention of mental health problems. There are three levels of prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary prevention aims to reduce the overall incidence of mental illness through community-wide efforts. Secondary prevention focuses on early detection through screening high-risk groups to provide crisis intervention. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce the severity and recurrence of symptoms for those already diagnosed. Psychologists are well-positioned to contribute to prevention efforts through various roles like reducing psychosocial risk factors, strengthening coping skills, and promoting mental wellness.
This document outlines a pilot study that aims to develop a reliable measure of frustration for use in electroencephalogram (EEG) research. The study involved 30 participants completing an object selection task designed to induce frustration through increasing rates of false feedback. Participants' affective states and behaviors were measured using a mood checklist and observations. Preliminary results found that reaction times increased as the percentage of false feedback increased, suggesting frustration was induced. The document provides background on defining and measuring frustration, and discusses potential applications of frustration research in education and occupational psychology.
Este documento compara las ventajas y desventajas de una empresa unipersonal y una sociedad limitada. Una empresa unipersonal es más fácil de iniciar y terminar y permite al emprendedor usar sus bienes personales como garantía, pero limita el crecimiento y aumenta el riesgo de desaparición. Una sociedad limitada facilita obtener capital pero requiere más trámites y las decisiones pueden tardar más tiempo.
EGM Architecten designed a 60,000 square meter hospital for AZ Maria Middelares in Ghent, Belgium from 2003-2005. As a senior engineer, they were responsible for preliminary design, building proposals, and ensuring compliance with building and fire regulations by creating plan views, facades, cross-sections, and details using AutoCAD 2009.
The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of mindfulness meditation on working memory capacity, affect, and decision making ability. Sixteen stressed college students were randomly assigned to either a 30-day mindfulness meditation training program or a nature sounds control group. Measures of working memory capacity, positive affect, and decision making were taken before and after the 30 days. Results showed that the meditation group had significantly higher working memory capacity after training compared to controls. However, there were no significant effects on positive affect or decision making ability between the groups.
Stimulant medication is the most common treatment for ADD/ADHD, but about 60-65% of cases persist into adulthood. Short-acting stimulants have the highest abuse potential, with 46% of adults with ADHD using them and nearly 80% of patients abusing them. There is interest in alternative treatments due to concerns about side effects and stigma of behavioral therapy. Recent research has investigated brain training games to improve cognition, with some studies finding they can enhance memory, attention, and executive functions in both young and old. The proposed study will examine whether brain training games targeted at improving attention are effective for adults with ADD/ADHD by comparing pre- and post-training Stroop test attention scores between those
Reduction of executive stress by development of emotional intelligence a stu...prjpublications
- The study examined the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing stress and improving emotional intelligence among executives.
- Executives were divided into an experimental group that received 8 weeks of behavioral interventions and a control group. Interventions included relaxation techniques, yoga, and breathing exercises.
- Post-intervention testing found the experimental group had significantly lower stress levels and higher emotional intelligence scores than the control group. Dimensions like stress management, adaptability, and mood all saw marked improvements in the experimental group.
- The results indicate behavioral interventions were effective in enhancing emotional intelligence and reducing stress among the executives who received the targeted training techniques over the 8-week period.
Introduction to Mindfulness for Stress ReductionPhang Kar
Mindfulness originated as a spiritual practice in ancient traditions. It was introduced into medicine in the 1970s by Jon Kabat-Zinn through his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program at UMass Medical Center. Mindfulness involves paying attention to the present moment in a non-judgmental way. Research shows mindfulness can reduce stress, anxiety, depression and improve well-being by decreasing worrying and mindless mistakes while increasing appreciation of the present. It has been incorporated into various evidence-based therapies and has positive effects on the brain and body.
- Poor mental health was found to exacerbate age-related cognitive declines, especially in executive function.
- Structural equation modeling showed that poor mental health, as assessed by the GHQ-12, interacted with age to predict worse performance on tasks of visual search and recognition memory.
- Executive function was found to mediate the relationship between the age x mental health interaction and performance on visual search and recognition memory tasks.
This document compares Western and Ayurvedic approaches to treating post-traumatic stress disorder caused by motor vehicle accidents. It summarizes research on cognitive behavioral therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy, finding the latter more effective. It also discusses Ayurvedic treatments focusing on balancing vata dosha. The ideal treatment would combine EMDR therapy with panchakarma cleansing treatments and regular yoga practices tailored to each individual.
This document summarizes a presentation on cognitive remediation for schizophrenia. Cognitive remediation aims to improve cognitive processes like attention, memory, and executive function through behavioral training interventions. It relies on neuroplasticity to strengthen connections in the brain. Exercises target basic sensory skills, discrete cognitive abilities, and more complex skills. Studies find cognitive remediation improves cognition, functioning, and motivation, especially when treatment is more intensive, motivational factors are incorporated, and exercises are personalized. Typical programs involve cognitive assessment, goal setting, group sessions 2+ times per week for 3-4 months using drill and strategy practice, and bridging to real-world skills.
Mindfulness is an ancient Buddhist practice of present moment awareness without judgment. Research has shown mindfulness to be an effective intervention for reducing anxiety, stress, and depression. Brief mindfulness training can significantly reduce experimentally induced pain and increase positive emotions. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs have been shown to improve symptoms of social anxiety disorder, depression, rumination, and self-esteem. The therapeutic process involves mindfulness practice leading to increased state mindfulness, positive reappraisal of stressors, and reduced negative emotions and anxiety.
1) The study examined how temperamental traits like threat sensitivity, reward sensitivity, and hypomanic personality modulate cognitive control and attention when viewing emotional stimuli.
2) For cognitive control, measured by the N2 ERP, individuals high in threat sensitivity showed stronger responses to positive stimuli while those high in reward sensitivity and hypomanic personality showed stronger responses to negative stimuli.
3) For attention, measured by P2 and P3 ERPs, only threat sensitivity influenced processing, with those high scoring showing enhanced attention toward negative stimuli.
This document describes a study that examined the relationship between attachment anxiety and attentional control using an emotional Stroop task. The study hypothesized that those with high attachment anxiety would show immediate interference on threatening words compared to those with low anxiety who would show delayed interference. Undergraduate students with varying levels of emotional abuse history completed an emotional Stroop task and questionnaires. Results found that high attachment anxiety was linked to immediate interference on threatening cues, while low anxiety showed delayed responses, supporting the hypotheses. The study largely achieved its goals but random participant selection could limit accuracy.
The Shift from "Ordinary" to "Extraordinary" Experience in Psychodynaimc Supe...James Tobin
Presented by James Tobin, Ph.D. at the American Psychological Association annual conference in 2012, this paper argues that psychotherapists-in-training often rely on various forms of social etiquette when relating to their patients and conducting treatment. He argues that an important goal of supervision is to help the trainee cultivate a clinical attitude and environment which is "extraordinary" in nature, an interpersonal and intrapsychic space unencumbered by political and benevolent tendencies. Dr. Tobin describes the modeling component of supervision in which the supervisee is exposed to a new way of being in the atmosphere of the supervisor's mindfulness, independence, spontaneity, creativity, and subversiveness.
The Attentional Blink Paradigm in Individuals with High and Low Levels of Dep...Hannah Skinner
Individuals with high levels of depression and anxiety were tested using the Attentional Blink paradigm with a rapid serial visual presentation task containing emotionally valenced target images. Results found attentional biases for symptoms of both depression and anxiety, independently and together, across accuracy, reaction times, and pupil dilation measures. The data suggests both similarities and differences in how anxiety and depression symptoms impact attentional biases toward emotional stimuli.
The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and burnout in health care professionals. More specifically, this survey has the purpose of demonstrating the role of EI as a protective factor against the risk of burnout. Health professionals (doctors, nurses, and other caregivers) composed the sample. Data, collected during professional training, provided 148 employees. Major results of this survey underline the relationship between EI and burnout. As we expected, there is a negative and significant correlation between burnout and Emotional Intelligence. Moreover, burnout varies depending on length of service: burnout increases between 5 and 10 years of experience and decreases over 10 years. Indeed, burnout is differently expressed amongst healthcare professionals: more specifically, Psycho-physical exhaustion, Detriment of the relationships and Burnout (total score) has an impact on physician (doctors) more than other investigated health professionals. These findings seem to suggest the opportunity to improve Emotional Intelligence abilities through specific training programs, useful to promote the ability to cope with stress and to enrich the relationships in the workplace.
This document discusses a pilot study that assessed the effects of a mindfulness training program adapted for teachers on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy. The study found that teachers who participated in the mindfulness-based stress reduction course showed significant reductions in psychological symptoms and burnout, improvements in classroom organization and attention, and increases in self-compassion, compared to declines seen in the control group. Mindfulness training may help teachers enhance attention, regulate emotions, improve coping skills for stress, and foster qualities like empathy that can improve classroom environment. However, more rigorous research is still needed to fully understand the potential benefits of mindfulness for teachers.
Relationship between cortisol, perceived stress, and mindfulness meditationRachael Blais
The study examined the effects of a 30-minute mindfulness meditation session on perceived stress levels and cortisol levels in college students. 39 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either a meditation group or a control group. Personality traits, health behaviors, perceived stress scales, and cortisol samples were measured. Results found no significant differences in perceived stress or cortisol levels between the meditation and control groups, suggesting a brief mindfulness meditation did not reduce stress. However, emotional stability was found to negatively correlate with perceived stress levels.
Rehabilitation Psychology, Effective Teaching Learning, Subliminal Perception...Mayuresh Panda
Psychologists can play important roles in the prevention of mental health problems. There are three levels of prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary prevention aims to reduce the overall incidence of mental illness through community-wide efforts. Secondary prevention focuses on early detection through screening high-risk groups to provide crisis intervention. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce the severity and recurrence of symptoms for those already diagnosed. Psychologists are well-positioned to contribute to prevention efforts through various roles like reducing psychosocial risk factors, strengthening coping skills, and promoting mental wellness.
This document outlines a pilot study that aims to develop a reliable measure of frustration for use in electroencephalogram (EEG) research. The study involved 30 participants completing an object selection task designed to induce frustration through increasing rates of false feedback. Participants' affective states and behaviors were measured using a mood checklist and observations. Preliminary results found that reaction times increased as the percentage of false feedback increased, suggesting frustration was induced. The document provides background on defining and measuring frustration, and discusses potential applications of frustration research in education and occupational psychology.
Este documento compara las ventajas y desventajas de una empresa unipersonal y una sociedad limitada. Una empresa unipersonal es más fácil de iniciar y terminar y permite al emprendedor usar sus bienes personales como garantía, pero limita el crecimiento y aumenta el riesgo de desaparición. Una sociedad limitada facilita obtener capital pero requiere más trámites y las decisiones pueden tardar más tiempo.
EGM Architecten designed a 60,000 square meter hospital for AZ Maria Middelares in Ghent, Belgium from 2003-2005. As a senior engineer, they were responsible for preliminary design, building proposals, and ensuring compliance with building and fire regulations by creating plan views, facades, cross-sections, and details using AutoCAD 2009.
Este documento resume los principales factores abióticos y bióticos del bosque mediterráneo, incluida la temperatura, precipitaciones, suelo, humedad, flora y fauna. Explica cómo la flora y fauna se han adaptado a las condiciones secas del verano y describe la cadena y red trófica, así como las relaciones intra e interespecíficas. Finalmente, señala que el bosque mediterráneo es uno de los ecosistemas más amenazados.
A Literature Review On Emotional Competency And Perceived StressNatasha Grant
1) The document discusses a literature review on the relationship between emotional competency and perceived stress.
2) Several studies cited found that emotional competency is correlated with lower perceived stress, as emotionally intelligent individuals perceive stress as more of a challenge than a threat.
3) The literature review concluded that emotional competency can be developed through education and training focused on self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management skills. Developing emotional competency may help individuals better cope with life stressors.
This study examined the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in improving emotional self-efficacy (ESE) and reducing anxiety in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) who also have anxiety disorders. Forty-four children were randomly assigned to either immediate CBT treatment or a waitlist condition. Results showed that ESE increased significantly more for the immediate treatment group than the waitlist group after treatment. Additionally, higher ESE scores correlated with lower anxiety scores. This suggests that modified CBT can effectively improve ESE in children with ASD and anxiety, and that increased ESE may help reduce anxiety levels.
This document discusses emotion regulation from different perspectives. It provides an overview of emotion regulation and its importance in mental health, relationships, and work performance. It then describes two main perspectives on emotion regulation: the neurobiological perspective which views emotions as having distinct brain circuits and considers regulation as separate processes that can prevent or stop emotions, and the cognitive perspective which sees emotions as responses to appraisals that occur through a sequence of cognitive processes and views regulation as possible during any part of the appraisal sequence. The conclusion reiterates that emotion regulation is an important topic in psychology but that integrating findings across perspectives and approaches can be difficult due to the diversity in the field.
This study investigated differences in neural activity related to emotional arousal and valence processing in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) compared to typically developing individuals (TD). Participants viewed a range of emotional faces during fMRI and rated them on arousal and valence. The study found significant differences between the ASD and TD groups in neural activity correlated with arousal ratings, but only minor differences for valence ratings. Specifically, TD participants showed inverse correlations between arousal ratings and activity in attention-related regions, whereas ASD participants showed positive correlations between arousal ratings and activity in impulse control and default mode regions. The results suggest divergent neural mechanisms for processing emotional arousal in ASD versus TD individuals, despite similar behavioral responses.
1) The study examined the relationship between individual variation in emotional responses to visual stimuli and neuropsychological performance and brain structure in 26 older normal subjects.
2) Subjects who experienced negative emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on tests of executive function like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Those who experienced positive emotions more intensely performed relatively worse on the Rey Complex Figure Test assessing visual-spatial skills.
3) Volume of frontal lobe gray matter was not significantly associated with intensity of emotional responses, possibly due to lack of variation in this educated sample. Differences in executive function were associated with variation in emotional experience.
Emotions are subjective feelings related to mood and affect. Emotions are biologically basic, present at birth, and universally experi- enced, but can be shaped by culture and learn- ing.
Rolnick's Chapter on Anxiety Disorders Arnon Rolnick
This document discusses anxiety disorders and how biofeedback can help treat them. It begins by noting that anxiety disorders are very common and that anxiety symptoms, even at subclinical levels, can negatively impact health and productivity. It then describes how anxiety has both physiological and learned psychological components. Physiologically, anxiety involves an overreactive fight-or-flight response regulated by the sympathetic nervous system. The document proposes that biofeedback can enhance cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety by helping patients learn to control physiological symptoms that are triggered by the faster, subconscious neural pathway and experienced before cognitive processing.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
This honors thesis examines emotional competence in young children with symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The study assesses differences between preschool-aged children with ADHD symptoms and typically developing children in three domains: emotion understanding, emotion reactivity, and emotion regulation. Results showed that children with ADHD symptoms had significant impairments in understanding emotions in social contexts and expressed higher levels of negative affect during frustration tasks and when asked to suppress emotions. The findings provide early evidence that preschoolers with ADHD may experience deficits in emotional competence, as seen in older children and adults with ADHD, and have implications for understanding and supporting these children.
This document summarizes research on treating generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in young adults. It discusses two treatment approaches: emotion regulation therapy (ERT) and applied relaxation therapy (ART). ERT focuses on improving emotion regulation skills, while ART teaches relaxation techniques. Previous studies found ERT more effectively reduced GAD symptoms and targeting mechanisms underlying the disorder. The document proposes a new study comparing the effectiveness of ERT and ART at reducing GAD symptoms and behavioral prevention in young adults. It describes the study methodology, including recruiting a diverse sample of 40 young adults with GAD who will be randomly assigned to ERT or ART and assessed before and after treatment using reliable anxiety and behavioral measures. The goal is to provide more evidence that E
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
Research ArticlePrejudice From Thin AirThe Effect of Emo.docxronak56
Research Article
Prejudice From Thin Air
The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes
David DeSteno,1 Nilanjana Dasgupta,2 Monica Y. Bartlett,1 and Aida Cajdric1
1
Northeastern University and
2
University of Massachusetts–Amherst
ABSTRACT—Two experiments provide initial evidence that spe-
cific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prej-
udice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger
should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of
its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition,
whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after
minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants
were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.
Automatic attitudes toward the in- and outgroups were then
assessed using an evaluative priming measure (Experiment 1)
and the Implicit Association Test (Experiment 2). As predicted,
results showed that anger created automatic prejudice toward
the outgroup, whereas sadness and neutrality resulted in no
automatic intergroup bias. The implications of these findings for
emotion-induced biases in implicit intergroup cognition in par-
ticular, and in social cognition in general, are considered.
Since the heyday of frustration-aggression and scapegoating theories
of prejudice (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939),
social psychologists have recognized that intergroup relations, and the
stereotypes and prejudices that inevitably accompany them, are in-
fluenced by perceivers’ emotional states. As in the case of attitudes
more generally, emotions have been found to influence when, and to
what extent, people express positive or negative attitudes toward, and
beliefs about, members of in- and outgroups (Bodenhausen, Muss-
weiler, Gabriel, & Moreno, 2001; Fiske, 1998; cf. Petty, DeSteno, &
Rucker, 2001). For example, anger and happiness are known to en-
hance heuristic processing of social information that, in turn, ex-
acerbates stereotypic judgments of outgroups (Bodenhausen, Shep-
pard, & Kramer, 1994; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). Sadness, however,
has been shown to promote systematic processing of information that,
in turn, decreases stereotypic judgments (Lambert, Khan, Lickel, &
Fricke, 1997). These and similar findings have led to wide
acceptance of the view that specific emotions can influence people’s
beliefs about social groups.
It is important to note, however, that thus far, the growing corpus of
research on emotion and intergroup cognition has focused exclusively
on the effects of emotion on self-reported, or explicit, judgments of
social groups (for a review, see Bodenhausen et al., 2001). Such
judgments involve conscious deliberation and are, therefore, clearly
under perceivers’ voluntary control. Indeed, if people suspect that
incidental emotion may unduly influence an unrelated judgment, they
often ...
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
This study investigated how locus of control beliefs moderate the effects of stress. The researchers hypothesized that internals would be less affected by stress than externals through two mechanisms: 1) Internals perceive more control over negative life events and 2) Internals make better use of social support. College students reported on negative life events, perceived control, social support received, and psychological symptoms. Preliminary analyses found externals received more social support than internals but locus of control was not related to negative events, depression, or anxiety. The researchers will further examine how locus of control influences perceptions of control over events and the stress-buffering effects of social support.
This study examined neurobiological mechanisms associated with facial emotion reactivity in 138 Mexican-origin adolescents. It analyzed three measures - respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) using heart rate variability, skin conductance levels (SCL) using galvanic skin response, and amygdala activation using fMRI - during an emotional faces task involving implicit processing and self-reflection of facial emotions. Results found females had higher RSA during implicit processing, indicating greater ability to adapt emotionally, while males had higher SCL overall, suggesting oversensitivity. Left amygdala activated more during implicit than reflective processing. The study provides insights into sex differences in neurophysiological responses to facial emotions during adolescence.
Order #163040071 why risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are mjack60216
This document outlines a research proposal to study why cardiovascular disease risk factors are more prevalent among Hispanics in Florida. The proposal includes an introduction discussing relevant background literature, hypothesized significance and importance of the study, a proposed methodology involving collecting data on Hispanics and a control group, and an expected timeline and budget. The proposal would analyze risk factors like high cholesterol, blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and smoking among Hispanics and potential causes like a lack of risk awareness.
Similar to Emotional States and Goal-Direted Behaviour (20)
Order #163040071 why risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are m
Emotional States and Goal-Direted Behaviour
1. i
Emotional States and Goal-Directed Behaviour: Does anxiety affect control of goal-
directed behaviour?
By Charlotte Springett, 1233124
Submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science
Final Year Project
School of Psychology
University of Birmingham
Word Count (excluding abstract, figures and appendices) - 4000
2. ii
Abstract
Emotional stimuli cause interference on goal-directed behaviour due to activation and
inhibition of neural networks in the anterior cingulate cortex. This appears to be
exaggerated by anxiety, but the valence of emotion has been shown to have different
effects depending on the type of emotional stimuli used to induce task-interference. It is not
clear how those with higher anxiety levels differ from those with lower anxiety when
presented with different emotional stimuli. To test this, anxiety levels were measured with
the Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7 item scale. Schematic faces (either happy, angry, neutral
or scrambled) were used as primes, and participants were required to locate a target
amongst an array of distractors. Results show that for all participants, there was an effect of
emotional stimuli on goal-directed behaviour, albeit a complicated one. Those with higher
levels of anxiety were slower in all conditions compared to those with lower anxiety levels.
The data also suggests that neutral conditions were processed as a negative stimuli, rather
than a control stimulus. The results show that the effect that emotional stimuli have on
goal-directed behaviour in those with higher anxiety levels is extremely complex, and
potentially dependent upon by stimuli types.
3. 1
“Emotional States and Goal-Directed Behaviour: Does anxiety affect control of goal-directed
behaviour?”
Our brains are constantly battling to ignore irrelevant and distracting emotional
stimuli in order to focus behaviour to the current task. Emotional stimuli’s distracting effect
on goal-directed behaviour is robust, and has been frequently demonstrated (e.g. Aquino &
Arnell, 2007; Bannerman, Milders, & Satiraie, 2009; Dolcos & McCarthy, 2006; Gupta &
Raymond, 2012; MacNamara & Proudfit, 2014; Most, Chun, Widders, & Zald, 2005;
Srinivasan & Gupta, 2010; Verbruggen & DeHouwer, 2007). Goal-directed behaviour is any
action (covert or overt) focused towards completing a particular task (Plessow, Kiesel &
Kirschbaum, 2012). Interference occurring as a result of emotional stimuli is thought to be
due to disruption within the neurological structures that integrate emotional and
attentional information (Bush, Luu, & Posner., 2000). This interference can be increased
depending on a person’s emotional state (e.g. Checko et al., 2013; Plessow et al., 2012;
Solomon, O’Toole, Hong, and Dennis, 2014).
Dichotomous models of cognitive control argue that there are oppositional
constraints between cognitive mechanisms which are emotionally responsive, and non-
emotional mechanisms, causing emotional stimuli to interfere with cognitive processes. A
recent study by Gupta and Raymond (2012) provides evidence from two experiments to
suggest that when people are primed with emotional faces, they are slower at identifying a
target in a visual-search task. The first experiment involved participants being primed with
either an emotional (happy, angry, sad or fearful) or neutral face, and participants were to
locate a target letter located either to the left or right of a central fixation point amongst an
array of distractor letters. The second experiment was a control condition, and included the
4. 2
same visual-search task. It used both upright and upside down neutral faces, a scrambled
face and an empty oval as primes. Gupta and Raymond found that when targets were
presented in the left visual field, participants were slower at identifying it than if the target
were presented in the right visual field. Goal-directed behaviour in these trials was more
affected by emotional primes, which suggests that the right hemisphere (processing the left
visual field) is more at risk of interference by emotional stimuli compared to the left
hemisphere.
Neurobiological research reveals that emotional and attentional information are
processed by subdivisions within the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC), and when one is
activated, the other is inhibited (Bush et al., 2000; Yamasaki, LaBar, & McCarthy, 2002).
Bush and colleagues (2002) describe two subdivisions within the ACC, the dorsal cognitive
division (ACcd) which processes cognitive information, and the rostral-ventral affective
division (ACad) which processes emotional information. During cognitive tasks, the ACcd
activates, and simultaneously inhibits the ACad (Drevets & Raichle, 1998). Similarly, during
tasks requiring the processing of emotional information, the ACad is activated, which
subsequently inhibits the ACcd (Mayberg, 1997). This suggests that when people are primed
with emotional stimuli such as in Gupta and Raymond (2012), their ACad is activated,
subsequently inhibiting their ACcd. This inhibition causes participants responses to slow as
they have to work significantly harder to answer correctly. It should be noted that it is only
reaction times that are affected (processing efficiency), and not accuracy. This seesaw
relationship between the divisions appears to be exaggerated in people experiencing certain
emotional states.
5. 3
Anxiety is an aversive emotional state arising during circumstances perceived to be
threatening (Eysenck, Deraksham, Santos & Calvo, 2007). During anxious states, an
individual feels unable to change an event, object, or interpretation that they perceive to be
threatening their current goal (Power and Dagleish, 1997). Moreover, anxious individuals
perceive facial expressions as an evaluation of themselves and their current situations
(Phillipot & Douilliez, 2005). Emotional states are evolutionary adaptations that are crucially
involved in the regulation of behaviour during complicated situations (Damiso, 1999). The
detrimental effect anxiety has on cognitive performance has been widely demonstrated,
with highly anxious individuals showing greater impaired attentional control and inefficiency
in processing (Eyesenck & Deraksham, 2011). However, evidence from previous studies
regarding how the valence of emotions affect those with high levels of anxiety is
confounded.
While some have found that those with increased anxiety only display increased
distractibility in the presence of threatening stimuli (e.g. Moser et al., 2008; Mueller et al.,
2012; Wieser, McTeague, & Keil., 2012; Yoon et al., 2007), others have found that emotional
stimuli cause interference in cognitive tasks in a highly anxious population regardless of
valence (e.g. Dressler, Mériau, Heekeren, & van der Meer, 2009). The variances in results
here may be explained due to differences in the stimuli used. While Mueller et al. (2012)
and Wieser et al. (2012) used photos of emotional faces, Dressler et al., (2009) used
emotional nouns. This suggests that those with anxiety attribute more emotion to facial
expressions compared to words. However, one consistent aspect of the literature is that
those with increased anxiety levels are more affected by emotional stimuli compared to
those with low anxiety levels (Berggren & Derakshan, 2013; MacNamara & Proudfit, 2014;
Moriya & Tanno, 2010)
6. 4
While anxious individuals’ accuracy during cognitive tasks with emotional distractors
is spared, their reaction times significantly increase, suggesting they employ greater effort
to achieve accurate performance (Evans et al., 2005; Moser et al., 2008; Qi, Ding, & Li., 2014;
Yoon et al., 2007). Eysenck et al. (2007) proposed two theories which may explain why
anxious individuals need to employ more effort during cognitive tasks with distracting
stimuli.
Eysenck and colleagues (2007) first propose the Processing Efficiency theory,
suggesting that an anxious individual’s worrisome thoughts consume attentional resources,
consequently leaving fewer resources for goal-directed behaviour. Anxious individuals must
therefore exert more effort during cognitively demanding tasks (e.g. Murry & Janelle. 2007;
Owens, Stevenson, Norgate, & Hadwin. 2008), and as a result, should be more at risk from
emotional interference during cognitive tasks (Moriya & Tanno., 2011). The second theory
posited is the Attentional Control theory, which argues that the systems controlling
attention are impaired in anxious individuals by the enhanced processing of the stimulus-
driven system which is more reactive to threatening and emotional stimuli. This should
result in slower responses when primed with threatening stimuli during cognitive tasks (e.g.
Ansari & Derakshan. 2011; Judah, Grant, Mills, & Lechner. 2013). However, as detailed
previously, while some research suggests that threatening stimuli cause more interference
to anxious individuals (consistent with the Attentional Control theory), others suggest that
all task-irrelevant stimuli, representing both threat and safety, will result in slower
processing (consistent with the Processing Efficiency theory).
In order to explore the inconsistencies regarding the effects of emotional valence,
schematic faces will be used as emotional primes in this study. Evans, Wright, Wedig, Pollak,
7. 5
and Rauch., (2005) and Straube Mentzel, and Miltner. (2005) used schematic faces as
primes, and found no differences in valence on attentional interference. Schematic faces are
diagrams of faces that have all of the structural components of a face, without the risk of
inducing gender biases. An example of these gender biases has been demonstrated by Duval,
Lovelace, Aarant, and Filion (2013), who previously found that female faces are perceived as
more positive over all valences compared to male faces. Therefore, by using schematic faces,
this study aims to rid any gender bias related to emotion perception.
To address the question of how anxiety interacts with the robust effect emotional
stimuli have on goal-directed behaviour, Gupta & Raymond’s visual-search task was adapted,
and participant’s anxiety levels were measured. This study therefore aimed to investigate
how these factors affect participant’s cognitive performance. The lateralisation aspect was
excluded, rather the general effect of emotion on cognitive performance was assessed. The
study measured anxiety levels using the Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7-item as developed
by Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams and Lowe (2006). The visual-search task required participants
to locate a target number within a visual array containing multiple distractor letters and to
indicate whether the number was “odd” or “even” after having been primed with a control
or emotional schematic face.
As in Gupta and Raymond’s (2012) study, all participants’ response times (but not
accuracy) should decrease when primed with emotional schematic faces. Previous research
makes it difficult to predict how our stimuli should affect participants with higher anxiety
levels. While Eysenck’s Processing Efficiency theory and Attentional Control theory differ in
how valence of faces should affect a participant, we cannot be entirely sure how our
participants will respond. However in this instance, as we used schematic faces (similar to
8. 6
those used in Evans et al., 2005) we predict that highly anxious participant’s reaction times
should be higher in all trials with happy and angry primes compared to those with lower
anxiety levels.
9. 7
Methods
Participants
Twenty-four right-handed, non-dyslexic students (1:1 male:female ratio, mean age
µ=19.79, SD=0.66) who all reported normal, or corrected-to-normal vision voluntarily
participated in exchange for course credit and gave informed consent.
Questionnaires
Anxiety was measured using the Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale
which uses a four-point Likert scale (see Appendix A for full questionnaire). The scale has
excellent internal consistency (Cronbach 𝛼=.92). Participants are considered moderately
anxious with a score of 10 and above.
Apparatus
The questionnaires and stimuli were displayed on a flat screen colour monitor with a
16-in viewable screen (75Hz, resolution, 1280 x 960 pixels). Participant viewing distance was
approximately 65cm. E-prime software (version 2.0) operating on a Stone computer with a
3.30 GHz processor generated the stimuli and recorded accuracy, and response times (RTs)
in milliseconds (ms). Responses were recorded using the ‘up’ and ‘down’ keys of a standard
QWERTY keyboard.
Stimuli
Four upright schematic black and white faces (70mm x 90mm) were used as primes.
Each was either happy, angry, or neutral in expression, or scrambled (see Figure. 1). The
scrambled prime had the same components as the happy face, randomly configured within
the oval. The faces were taken from Kreegipuu et al. (2013) and adapted from Öhman,
10. 8
Lundqvist, and Esteves, (2001). The happy and angry faces made up the experimental
condition, while the neutral and scrambled primes acted as controls. The visual-search array
consisted of a grey background, two large distractor letters (either black or white, Arial font;
15mm, letters used: W, T, K, A, M, H), one smaller distractor letter and the target number
(ranging from 1-6, Arial font; 7.5mm), both displayed on top of the large letters in the
contrasting colour (i.e. if the large letter was black, the small letter and number would be
white). The target and distractors appeared 35mm to the left or right of the central fixation
point (CFP).
Experimental Design and Procedure
The experiment was a within-participants design (i.e. all participants completed the
same tasks). Participants first completed GAD-7 at their own pace. This was followed by the
visual-search task. Each trial began with the presentation of a 450ms – 550ms CFP. The time
the CFP was presented for was varied to prevent strategic behaviour as to when the prime
was expected. An 85ms prime was subsequently presented, followed by a 15ms CFP, then a
200ms target display. A blank screen was presented until the participant had indicated
whether the target was “odd” or “even” (see Figure. 2 for an example trial). Participants
were asked to maintain fixation to the CFP, to ignore the irrelevant distractors while
searching for the target, and to indicate whether the target was “odd” or “even” as fast and
as accurately as possible. Participants indicated responses using the index and middle
fingers of their right hands with the up and down keys. The tasks were counterbalanced so
that up or down corresponded to odd or even equally, and the order of the primes were
randomised for the participants. The task began with a practice block of 16 trials, with
feedback following each trial. The main task consisted of four blocks of 80 trials with no
11. 9
feedback. Participants completed a value-learning task and questionnaires measuring
autistic traits and impulsivity before completing the study. This data was used for another
study and is not presented here.
Data Analysis
Data from one participant was excluded as their accuracy scores were below 27%.
Trials that were incorrect or had response times (RTs) shorter than 200ms or longer then
3000ms were excluded. The mean RT was then taken for each participant in each trial type
(e.g. all trials with happy primes), and any trial with a RT more than three standard
deviations away from that mean was excluded. Participants were not from a clinical
population, therefore a median split was performed on the questionnaire data to divide
participants in to low and high anxiety groups. Repeated measures analyses of variance
(ANOVAs) were conducted for accuracy and RT (with each prime type as a level), and to
compare the anxiety levels to prime types. Final planned post-hoc comparison t-tests were
performed. The alpha level was set to .05.
12. 10
Figure 1. The schematic faces used as primes in the visual search
task. A) Happy; B) Angry; C) Neutral; D) Scrambled
Figure 2. An example trial – participants were presented with a fixation point for 450 – 550ms, followed the prime, a
schematic face (either expressive [happy or angry], neutral, or scrambled), which lasted for 85ms. Another fixation point
was very briefly presented (15ms) and was then followed by the visual-search array (200ms) in which three distractor letters
were presented at both sides of a central fixation point, and the target number was presented either to the left or right of
the central fixation point. A blank screen was then presented until the participant had indicated their response (“odd” or
“even”). The next trial would then begin immediatelyafter the response was indicated.
13. 11
Results
Preliminary Analysis
After inspecting the raw data, concerns were raised regarding the scrambled prime.
The RTs from the neutral and scrambled face conditions (the two control conditions) were
compared with a one-way paired sample t-test. Unexpectedly, the scrambled face caused
significantly increased RTs compared to the neutral face (t(22)=-1.995, p<.03). The effect of
the scrambled face is interesting (it obviously caused interference), but it had not acted as a
control prime, and thus the data was excluded from further analysis.
Main Analysis
This research sought to investigate whether emotional primes interfere with decision
making in the visual-search task, resulting in slower RTs. This study also aimed to investigate
whether anxiety levels would affect performance, and if there were variances between how
different valences would be perceived in participants with different anxiety levels.
A one-way ANOVA was performed on the accuracy data. As expected, we found a
non-significant effect of emotional prime and accuracy (F(2,44)=.071, p=.932). However,
there was a significant effect of prime on RT (F(2,44)=4.238, p=.021) (see Figure. 3). Post-hoc
t-tests were carried out to locate the main effect. The largest effect was between the happy
and neutral primes (p=.024), with participants performing slower (µ=14ms) when primed
with the happy face. Similarly, participants performed significantly slower (µ=12ms) when
primed with a happy face compared to an angry face (p=.046). There was no interaction
between the angry and neutral primes (p=.567), with participants performing only 2ms
slower on trials with angry primes.
14. 12
A mixed design ANOVA was conducted on RT data to identify whether anxiety levels
exaggerated interference caused by emotional primes on participants’ RTs. The following
analysis does not look at accuracy data as there was a non-significant effect of this in the
initial analysis. The ANOVA found a marginal main effect of group (F(2,42)=2.957, p=.063),
suggesting that those with higher anxiety levels were slower in the visual-search task
compared to those with lower anxiety levels (Figure 4). T-tests for each prime type were
conducted, and showed a significant effect of groups for each prime time (Happy,
t(22)=26.754, p<.001; Angry, t(22)=29.626, p<.001; Neutral, t(22)=31.028, p<.001). This
indicates that those with higher anxiety levels were slower overall compared to those with
low anxiety levels. The largest difference was in the happy condition, with highly anxious
participants performing slower than those with low anxiety levels (µ=74ms).
570 558 556
525
535
545
555
565
575
585
595
Happy Angry Neutral
RT(ms)
Prime type
Figure 3. Group mean RT and prime type with error bars indicating ± the standard error
15. 13
An ANOVA was conducted to highlight how those with higher anxiety levels were
affected by different valences, which found that there was a significant main effect of facial
expression in those with higher anxiety levels (F(2,18)=4.739, p=.022). Further planned t-
tests were conducted, showing that happy faces were significantly more interfering than
neutral faces (p=.042) with highly anxious participants performing, on average, 26ms slower.
Happy faces were also significantly more interfering than angry faces (p=.046, µ=24ms), with
slower RTs when primed with happy faces. However, angry faces were just as interfering on
attention compared to neutral faces (p=.740), with only 2ms between them. Figure 5
isolates the RTs of the participants with higher anxiety levels. The final ANOVA was
conducted to find any main effect that valence has on RTs in participants with low anxiety
levels. Those with low anxiety levels showed no difference in RT when primed with different
emotional stimuli (F(2,24)=.480, p=.625) with only a 5ms range of average RTs (see figure 6).
538 535 533612 588 586
480
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
Happy Angry Neutral
RT(MS)
PRIME TYPE
Low Anxiety Levels High Anxiety Levels
Figure 4. Comparison ofgroup meanRT andPrime type against high and low levelsof anxietywith error
bars indicating± the standarderror
16. 14
612 588 586
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
Happy Angry Neutral
RT(ms)
Prime type
Figure 5. Graph showing Mean Reaction Times of Participants with High Anxiety Levels, with error bars indicating ± the
standarderror
538 535 533
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
Happy Angry Neutral
RT(ms)
Prime Type
Figure 6. Graph showing Mean Reaction Times of Participants with Low Anxiety Levels, with error bars indicating ± the
standard error
17. 15
Discussion
This study sought to investigate whether emotional stimuli cause interference on
goal-directed behaviour and whether this was mediated by anxiety levels. Participants were
primed with emotional schematic faces and then required to locate a target number within
a visual array, indicating whether it was “odd” or “even”. If participants took longer to
respond after being primed with an emotional stimulus compared to a control stimulus, this
would show that task-irrelevant emotional stimuli cause more interference on goal-directed
behaviour compared to neutral task-irrelevant stimuli. Furthermore, participants should
experience more interference if they reported higher anxiety levels, compared to those who
reported low anxiety levels.
At first, our statistical analysis appears to indicate that all participants were slowed
when responding after encountering a happy prime, but their RTs when primed with angry
and neutral faces were of practically equal value. However, this changes when anxiety levels
are taken in to account. Participants with higher anxiety levels were significantly slower in
all trials compared to those with lower anxiety levels, and participants with higher anxiety
levels showed similar levels of interference between angry and neutral stimuli. It could be
interpreted that the angry condition was processed similarly to the neutral control condition,
leaving only the positive prime being processed as an emotional stimulus. However, it is far
more likely that the neutral condition was processed as a negative valence.
Duval et al. (2013) and Yoon and Zinbarg (2008) have showed that those with high
anxiety levels perceive neutral expressions as threatening, and our data replicates this.
Those with high anxiety levels were slower in the visual-search task when primed with
either the angry or neutral face compared to those with lower anxiety levels. Therefore the
18. 16
differences in participant RTs (without taking anxiety in to account) may have been skewed
by the anxiety levels. Moreover, it appears that those with lower anxiety levels showed
practically no difference in RTs over all conditions, suggesting that the primes were
processed in similar neural networks. All this would suggest that there was no control
condition, rather three emotional faces.
A review by Barrett, Mesquita, and Gendron (2011) offers an alternative explanation
for the way the neutral stimulus was processed. They found that without context, facial
expression recognition can be inaccurate. The schematic stimuli here were presented on a
blank screen without any indication as to what could have caused the stimuli’s expression.
Therefore the neutral expression may have been incorrectly perceived as negative,
consequently explaining why angry and neutral faces resulted in similar RTs. Combined with
the knowledge that those with higher anxiety levels process neutral stimuli as negative, this
may also be the case for those with lower anxiety levels when there is a lack of situational
context.
Furthermore, our data showed that participants with high anxiety levels were slower
in the visual-search task after being primed with a happy face, compared to the angry and
neutral faces. If it is assumed that the neutral face was processed as a negative valence,
then our data contradicts existing literature, where negative emotions are more interfering
than positive emotions on cognitive processes (e.g. Mueller et al., 2012; Weiser, McTeague,
& Keil., 2012) or a general interference of emotion on attention regardless of valence (e.g.
Dressler, et al., 2009). It appears that this is the first study to find that positive stimuli cause
more interference on goal-directed behaviour compared to negative faces.
19. 17
A previous study by Srinivasan and Gupta (2011) found that happy faces are
processed globally, as opposed to negative faces which are processed locally. Being primed
with a happy face facilitates global processing, which in turn requires participants to shift
their attentional processes to a local processing mechanism (which was required for the
visual-search task), thus slowing RTs. This shift in attentional processes was not needed
when participants were primed with negative faces as their local processing mechanism
would already be activated. This effect appears to be mediated by a person’s emotional
state. When individuals are consumed by a negative emotional state, such as anxiety, their
local processing mechanisms are facilitated, and those in positive emotional states were
biased to process globally (Frederickson & Branigan, 2005; Gasper & Clore, 2002). As a result,
anxious participants should be more distracted by positive faces as they have to first shift to
a global mechanism to process the happy face, and then shift their attention back to local in
order to complete the visual-search task. It cannot be assumed that those with low anxiety
levels were in a positive emotional state, and so no conclusions can be made regarding how
they may have been affected by the primes in terms of global and local processing.
Our data is consistent with Eysenck et al., (2007) Processing Efficiency theory to
some extent. The theory posits that those with anxiety should experience greater
interference on goal-directed behaviour as a result of emotional stimuli compared to those
without anxiety. Our data contradicts Eysenck and colleague’s secondary theory (the
Attentional Control theory) which argues that threatening stimuli should cause more
interference for those with anxiety compared to stimuli representing safety (positive
stimuli). Participants in this study experienced greater interference as a result of the positive
stimulus, compared to the negative stimuli, however this may be accounted for by the
global to local attentional shifts participants made.
20. 18
Our study was accompanied by some limitations. Firstly, it could be argued that the
participant cohort was relatively small compared to other studies such as Gupta and
Raymond (2012) who had 40 participants, (nearly double the cohort reported here). A
power analysis revealed that our sample size may not be large enough to generalise our
findings to a general population. Secondly, it has been argued previously that self-report
measures are not useful by themselves for calculating a person’s current emotional state
due to lack of accurate self-knowledge (Ganellen, 2007). It must also be noted that the
researcher sat in on the testing session, which may have affected participants’
questionnaire responses as they may have felt conscious about their responses not being
anonymous. These factors may have resulted in an inaccurate measure of anxiety. Lastly, it
has been reported that students completing studies for compulsory course credit results in
minimal effort for the study, which ultimately reduces the validity of the data collected
(DeRight & Jorgensen, 2014).
Our data highlights emotional stimuli’s complex effect upon goal-directed behaviour,
especially in those with higher anxiety levels. The exact result different emotional valences
have upon cognitive processes, and the differences in how those with anxiety are affected
by different valences is still unclear. The differences may be due to high anxiety levels
causing alterations in the ACad and ACcd. In order to disentangle these complexities, future
research should look to neuroimaging techniques, which incorporate a clinical sample and
different emotional stimuli. This would help resolve how different types of stimuli (e.g.
words and faces) are processed in those with anxiety compared to a healthy population, and
how they cause different levels of interference, while controlling for the global to local
attentional shifts participants make. It should also be noted that this study excluded the
21. 19
scrambled data. The effect scrambled stimuli have on cognitive processes should also be
explored further.
From our data, we can conclude that participants with higher anxiety levels were
more at risk of interference from task-irrelevant emotional stimuli compared to participants
with low anxiety levels. Our data appears to be some of the first to observe greater
interferences as a result of positive valences. The most likely explanation for this would be
participants’ shifts from global to local attention for different aspects of the visual-search
task. Our data also shows that participants with higher anxiety levels were apparently
processing neutral stimuli as negative. The data from this study further suggests that
anxious individuals encounter daily struggles when attempting to complete mundane
cognitive tasks. As the nature of distracting emotional stimuli becomes clearer, therapies
may incorporate this in order to aid those with anxiety to negotiate the difficulties caused
by their anxious state.
22. 20
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28. 26
Appendix B
SPSS Outputs
Anova 1 – Maineffectof Prime type
and Accuracy
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: Accuracy
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Emotion Sphericity
Assumed
.000 2 8.261E-5 .071 .932 .003
Greenhouse-
Geisser
.000 1.898 8.703E-5 .071 .924 .003
Huynh-Feldt .000 2.000 8.261E-5 .071 .932 .003
Lower-bound .000 1.000 .000 .071 .793 .003
Error(Emotio
n)
Sphericity
Assumed
.052 44 .001
Greenhouse-
Geisser
.052 41.765 .001
Huynh-Feldt .052 44.000 .001
Lower-bound .052 22.000 .002
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Accuracy_Happy .8939 .06051 23
Accuracy_Neutral .8974 .05065 23
Accuracy_Angry .8943 .06104 23
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Mauchly's Test of Sphericitya
Measure: Accuracy
Within Subjects
Effect
Mauchly's
W
Approx. Chi-
Square df Sig.
Epsilonb
Greenhouse-
Geisser
Huynh-
Feldt
Lower-
bound
Emotion .946 1.155 2 .561 .949 1.000 .500
Tests the null hypothesis thatthe error covariance matrix of the orthonormalized transformed dependent
variables is proportional to an identity matrix.
a. Design:Intercept
Within Subjects Design:Emotion
b. May be used to adjustthe degrees offreedom for the averaged tests of significance.Corrected tests are
displayed in the Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table.
29. 27
ANOVA2 - main effectof prime type and RT
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
RT_Happy 569.8898 102.08438 23
RT_Neutral 555.5954 85.81036 23
RT_Angry 557.9437 90.23552 23
Mauchly's Test of Sphericitya
Measure: RT
Within Subjects
Effect
Mauchly's
W
Approx. Chi-
Square df Sig.
Epsilonb
Greenhouse-
Geisser
Huynh-
Feldt
Lower-
bound
Emotion .826 4.018 2 .134 .852 .916 .500
Tests the null hypothesis thatthe error covariance matrix of the orthonormalized transformed dependent
variables is proportional to an identity matrix.
a. Design:Intercept
Within Subjects Design:Emotion
b. May be used to adjustthe degrees offreedom for the averaged tests of significance.Corrected tests are
displayed in the Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table.
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: RT
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Emotion Sphericity Assumed 2702.896 2 1351.448 4.238 .021 .162
Greenhouse-
Geisser
2702.896 1.703 1586.788 4.238 .027 .162
Huynh-Feldt 2702.896 1.832 1475.609 4.238 .024 .162
Lower-bound 2702.896 1.000 2702.896 4.238 .052 .162
Error(Emotion
)
Sphericity Assumed 14030.571 44 318.877
Greenhouse-
Geisser
14030.571 37.474 374.405
Huynh-Feldt 14030.571 40.298 348.173
Lower-bound 14030.571 22.000 637.753
31. 29
Pairwise comparison t-tests
Within-Subjects Factors
Measure: RT
Prime_Type
Dependent
Variable
1 RT_Happy
2 RT_Neutral
3 RT_Angry
Pairwise Comparisons
Measure: RT
(I) Prime_Type (J) Prime_Type
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.b
95% Confidence Interval for
Differenceb
Lower Bound Upper Bound
1 2 14.294* 5.915 .024 2.027 26.561
3 11.946* 5.648 .046 .232 23.660
2 1 -14.294*
5.915 .024 -26.561 -2.027
3 -2.348 4.037 .567 -10.720 6.023
3 1 -11.946*
5.648 .046 -23.660 -.232
2 2.348 4.037 .567 -6.023 10.720
Based on estimated marginal means
*. The mean difference is significantatthe .05 level.
b. Adjustmentfor multiple comparisons:LeastSignificantDifference (equivalentto no adjustments).
32. 30
Anova 3 – Anxiety(2) compared with Prime type RTs (3)
Within-Subjects Factors
Measure: RT
Emotion
Dependent
Variable
1 RT_Happy
2 RT_Neutral
3 RT_Angry
Descriptive Statistics
Percentile Group of Anxiety Mean Std. Deviation N
RT_Happy 1 537.6319 71.36038 13
2 611.8250 123.39916 10
Total 569.8898 102.08438 23
RT_Neutral 1 532.5496 60.20119 13
2 585.5550 106.78370 10
Total 555.5954 85.81036 23
RT_Angry 1 535.1119 69.15138 13
2 587.6250 108.60958 10
Total 557.9437 90.23552 23
Multivariate Testsa
Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Emotion Pillai's Trace .282 3.934b
2.000 20.000 .036 .282
Wilks'Lambda .718 3.934b
2.000 20.000 .036 .282
Hotelling's Trace .393 3.934b
2.000 20.000 .036 .282
Roy's LargestRoot .393 3.934b
2.000 20.000 .036 .282
Emotion * NAnxiety Pillai's Trace .177 2.144b
2.000 20.000 .143 .177
Wilks'Lambda .823 2.144b 2.000 20.000 .143 .177
Hotelling's Trace .214 2.144b
2.000 20.000 .143 .177
Roy's LargestRoot .214 2.144b
2.000 20.000 .143 .177
a. Design:Intercept+ NAnxiety
Within Subjects Design:Emotion
b. Exact statistic
33. 31
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: RT
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Emotion Sphericity
Assumed
3237.535 2 1618.767 5.528 .007 .208
Greenhouse-
Geisser
3237.535 1.794 1804.788 5.528 .010 .208
Huynh-Feldt 3237.535 2.000 1618.767 5.528 .007 .208
Lower-bound 3237.535 1.000 3237.535 5.528 .029 .208
Emotion *
NAnxiety
Sphericity
Assumed
1731.794 2 865.897 2.957 .063 .123
Greenhouse-
Geisser
1731.794 1.794 965.402 2.957 .069 .123
Huynh-Feldt 1731.794 2.000 865.897 2.957 .063 .123
Lower-bound 1731.794 1.000 1731.794 2.957 .100 .123
Error(Emotion) Sphericity
Assumed
12298.776 42 292.828
Greenhouse-
Geisser
12298.776 37.671 326.478
Huynh-Feldt 12298.776 42.000 292.828
Lower-bound 12298.776 21.000 585.656
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Measure: RT
Transformed Variable: Average
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Parameter
Observed
Powera
Intercep
t
10620809.5
00
1
10620809.5
00
283.026 .000 .969 283.026 1.000
Error
337732.883 9 37525.876
a. Computed using alpha = .05
34. 32
T-Test Happy Condition
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
Pair 1 RT_Happy
569.8898 23 102.08438 21.28606
Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
1.43 23 .507 .106
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pair
1
RT_Happy
-
Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
568.45500 101.89875 21.24736 524.39068 612.51932 26.754 22 .000
T-Test – Angry Condition
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
Pair 1 RT_Angry 557.9437 23 90.23552 18.81541
Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
1.43 23 .507 .106
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pair
1
RT_Angry
-
Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
556.50891 90.08731 18.78450 517.55224 595.46559 29.626 22 .000
35. 33
T-test– Neutral condition
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
Pair 1 RT_Neutral
555.5954 23 85.81036 17.89270
Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
1.43 23 .507 .106
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pair
1
RT_Neutral
- Percentile
Group of
Anxiety
554.16065 85.65302 17.85989 517.12151 591.19979 31.028 22 .000
36. 34
Anova 4 – High anxietycompared withValence
Within-Subjects Factors
Measure: RT
Prime_type Dependent Variable
1 High_Anx_H
2 High_Anx_N
3 High_Anx_A
Mauchly's Test of Sphericitya
Measure: RT
Within Subjects
Effect Mauchly's W
Approx. Chi-
Square df Sig.
Epsilonb
Greenhouse-
Geisser Huynh-Feldt Lower-bound
Prime_type .622 3.802 2 .149 .726 .829 .500
Tests the null hypothesis thatthe error covariance matrix of the orthonormalized transformed dependentvariables is
proportional to an identity matrix.
a. Design:Intercept
Within Subjects Design:Prime_type
b. May be used to adjustthe degrees offreedom for the averaged tests of significance.Corrected tests are displayed in the
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table.
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: RT
Source
Type III
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Parameter
Observed
Powera
Prime_type Sphericity
Assumed
4266.793 2 2133.396 4.739 .022 .345 9.479 .717
Greenhouse-
Geisser
4266.793 1.451 2940.446 4.739 .037 .345 6.877 .608
Huynh-Feldt 4266.793 1.657 2574.574 4.739 .031 .345 7.855 .653
Lower-bound 4266.793 1.000 4266.793 4.739 .057 .345 4.739 .494
Error(Prime_
type)
Sphericity
Assumed
8102.467 18 450.137
Greenhouse-
Geisser
8102.467
13.06
0
620.421
Huynh-Feldt
8102.467
14.91
6
543.224
Lower-bound 8102.467 9.000 900.274
a. Computed using alpha = .05
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
High_Anx_H 611.8250 123.39916 10
High_Anx_N 585.5550 106.78370 10
High_Anx_A 587.6250 108.60958 10
37. 35
Pairwise Comparisons
Pairwise Comparisons
Measure: RT
(I) Prime_type
Mean
Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.b
95% Confidence
Interval for Differenceb
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Happy Neutral
26.270*
11.382 .046 .522 52.018
Angry
24.200*
10.190 .042 1.148 47.252
Neutral Happy
-26.270*
11.382 .046 -52.018 -.522
Angry
-2.070 6.057 .740 -15.771 11.631
Angry Happy
-24.200*
10.190 .042 -47.252 -1.148
Neutral
2.070 6.057 .740 -11.631 15.771
Based on estimated marginal means
*. The mean difference is significantatthe .05 level.
b. Adjustmentfor multiple comparisons:LeastSignificantDifference (equivalentto
no adjustments).
38. 36
ANOVA 5 Low anxiety compared with Valence
Within-Subjects Factors
Measure: RT
Prime_type
Dependent
Variable
1 Low_Anx_H
2 Low_Anx_N
3 Low_Anx_A
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Low_Anx_H 537.6319 71.36038 13
Low_Anx_N 532.5496 60.20119 13
Low_Anx_A 535.1119 69.15138 13
Mauchly's Test of Sphericitya
Measure: RT
Within Subjects
Effect
Mauchly's
W
Approx. Chi-
Square df Sig.
Epsilonb
Greenhouse-
Geisser
Huynh-
Feldt Lower-bound
Prime_type .961 .440 2 .802 .962 1.000 .500
Tests the null hypothesis thatthe error covariance matrix of the orthonormalized transformed dependentvariables is
proportional to an identity matrix.
a. Design:Intercept
Within Subjects Design:Prime_type
b. May be used to adjustthe degrees offreedom for the averaged tests of significance.Corrected tests are displayed
in the Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table.
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: RT
Source
Type III
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Paramete
r
Observed
Powera
Prime_type Sphericity
Assumed
167.898 2 83.949 .480 .625 .038 .960 .119
Greenhouse-
Geisser
167.898 1.924 87.243 .480 .618 .038 .924 .118
Huynh-Feldt 167.898 2.000 83.949 .480 .625 .038 .960 .119
Lower-bound 167.898 1.000 167.898 .480 .502 .038 .480 .098
Error(Prime_
type)
Sphericity
Assumed
4196.309 24 174.846
Greenhouse-
Geisser
4196.309
23.09
4
181.706
Huynh-Feldt
4196.309
24.00
0
174.846
Lower-bound
4196.309
12.00
0
349.692
a. Computed using alpha = .05
39. 37
Appendix C
Project outline
Charlotte Springett
1233124
University of Birmingham, School of Psychology
Third Year Project Outline: How do motivational and emotional states affect control over
goal-directed visual cognition?
Project Tutor – Jane Raymond
Word Count – 1500 (excluding cover page and references)
40. 38
Our brains are constantly battling to keep our behaviour focused towards our
current goals, whilst ignoring distracting stimuli. Our expectations and knowledge allow us
to focus on particular details of a visual scene that we may have otherwise overlooked.
Goal-directed behaviour depends on executive processes, including Working Memory,
which allows us to maintain and manipulate information that is relevant to tasks over short
periods of time (Baddeley, 1986). Wentura, Müller, and Rothermund (2013) argue that our
attentional systemis tuned to prioritise goal-relevant stimuli.
Vision is aided by cognition, which allows the brain to create, maintain and
manipulate representations of what’s important while we continue to survey the visual
scene, thus directing attention and behaviour (Corbetta & Schulman, 2002). Visual attention
is controlled by cognitive (top-down) factors, (which include knowledge, expectations and
existing goals), and bottom-up factors which mirror sensory stimulation (Della Libera &
Chellazzi, 2009). Visual Selective Attention (VSA) mediates goal-directed behaviour to
ensure efficiency by regulating the development of cognitive mechanisms towards objects
that are behaviourally relevant. VSA inhibits irrelevant items coming to attention and
prevents potentially harmful distraction (Serences & Yantis, 2006).
Identifying emotions from facial expressions requires the use of diverse
psychological processes to be implemented in a large range of neural structures (Fusar-Poli,
et al., 2009). There is a strong interference effect of emotional stimuli on visual attention
(Eimer & Holmes, 2007) which is robust and persistent (Houwer & Tibboel, 2010). Emotional
Stimuli draw attention away from tasks with ease (Srinivasen & Gupta, 2010). When
irrelevant emotional stimuli are presented simultaneously with task information,
performance is reduced. This is thought to show interference of emotionally responsive
41. 39
neural systems on those that are required for non-emotional tasks (Gupta & Raymond,
2012). Emotional faces have a robust effect on cognition, and attract more attention as
opposed to neutral faces (Eimer et al., 2003).
Emotional stimuli command attentional resources (Fox, Russo, Bowles, and Dutton,
2001). A recent study by Gupta and Raymond (2012) demonstrated the robust effect of
lateralisation in attention and emotional interference. Studies with participants from typical
samples have shown more accurate and faster performance when faces were presented in
the left visual field (LVF) as opposed to the right visual field (RVF) (Sergent and Bindra, 1981).
A model formulated by Yovel, Levy, Grabowecky, and Paller (2003) describes hemispheric
interaction and utilisation of information at the early stages of face perception, suggesting
that LVF superiority is due to the greater facial processing mechanisms in the right
hemisphere which code faces directly, yielding more accurate facial depiction, but only at
the later stages of visual perception when the depiction of the face is formulated. However,
the activity is enhanced in the brain regions responsible for emotional processing. We will
be replicating the effects of Gupta and Raymond (2012) using schematic faces, and
extending the findings by incorporating personality characteristics and investigating their
effects.
We appear to perceive the emotions of others by extracting the majority of
information from their faces (Suzuki & Naiton, 2003). Bruce and Young (1986) posited a
model of face perception describing separate routes for emotional processing and facial
identity, with some prosopagnosic patients unable to recognise the identity of a face, able
to identify the emotional expression (e.g. Tranel, Damiso & Damiso, 1988). Threatening
stimuli may capture attention by default due to control settings as a result of evolution (Folk,
42. 40
Remington & Johnston, 1992). Therefore, we may expect that threat stimuli such as angry
faces will be more likely to automatically capture attention (Öhman & Mineka, 2001; Öhman,
Flykt & Esteves, 2001).
A hallmark of Autism Spectrum disorders (ASD) is impaired social communication,
and it is thought that people with ASD are diminished in distinguishing basic emotions from
facial expressions (Kennedy & Adolphs, 2012). The evidence surrounding this is, however,
confounded with contradictory results. While studies by Mazefsky and Oswald (2007), and
Macdonald et al., (1989) have found that those with autism perform significantly worse in
emotional perception tasks compared to typical adults, Adolphs, Seers and Piven (2002)
found that overall performance is similar to typical populations. This study will investigate
how emotional schematic faces interfere with cognitive tasks in individuals high in autistic
traits, and will be measured using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen,
Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin and Clubley, 2001), a 50 item measure, shown to have
excellent validity by Armstrong and Iarocci (2013). From this, we may add to, and help
clarify the contradictions in the current literature.
The effect of anxiety on cognitive performance has been widely demonstrated, with
highly anxious individuals showing greater impaired attentional control and inefficiency in
processing (Eyesenck & Deraksham, 2011). Those who are anxious worry often about
threats to their current goals and therefore try and develop effective strategies to reduce
their anxiety and achieve their goals (Eysenck, Deraksham, Santos & Calvo, 2007). Power
and Dalgleish (1997) define anxiety as a state in which an individual feels unable to change
an event, object, or interpretation which is perceived as threatening to a current goal.
Anxiety is an aversive emotional and motivational state arising during circumstances
43. 41
perceived to be threatening (Eysenck et al., 2007). Emotional states are an evolutionary
adaptation that are crucially involved in the regulation of survival mechanisms and
behaviour in complicated situations (Damiso, 1999). Eysenck et al. (2007) proposed The
Attentional Control Theory of processing biases in anxiety, arguing that the systems
controlling attention are impaired in anxious individuals by the enhanced processing of the
stimulus-driven system which is more reactive to threatening stimuli. This study will
examine the effect of anxiety on performance when distractor faces are presented in a goal-
directed cognitive task. We will measure individual’s anxiety levels using the Generalised
Anxiety Disorder (GAD) 7-item scale (Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams and Löwe, 2006), a reliable
and valid self-report measure for anxiety in the general population (Löwe et al., 2008). This
will further our understanding as to how the everyday lives of anxious individuals are
affected.
In line with current research, this study anticipates to show that when emotional
faces are presented before having to attend to a visual scene, performance worsens. This
would replicate the findings of Gupta and Raymond (2012), but we intend to extend the
research further, to examine potential links with personality traits. Due to the conflicting
nature of the literature surrounding the effect that autism has on emotional perception, it’s
difficult to make assumptions as to how autistic traits may affect performance in the
experiments. However, bearing in mind that autism is partially defined by social
communication impairment, it’s predicted that performance from those who are high in
autistic traits should be significantly worse than individuals low in autistic traits. High levels
of anxiety are also predicted to significantly impair performance compared to individuals
with low anxiety levels.
44. 42
Methods
This study intends to recruit 24 participants through a voluntary research
participation scheme. Due to hemispheric lateralisation effects, only right-handed persons
will be asked to volunteer. Similarly, due to the nature of the cognitive task, individuals with
dyslexia will be asked not to volunteer in order to eliminate possible confounding variables.
The scales will be presented for all participants to complete on a computer, and the
cognitive task will then be presented to participants using Psychopy, a custom designed
computer software which presents stimuli and records responses. Psychopy will also be
counterbalanced, in order to account for any order effects that may occur.
The attention task assesses how emotional faces affect cognitive performance. Four
types of schematic faces will be used; happy, angry, neutral and scrambled. The participants
will be told to look for a number in a briefly presented visual scene and indicate if the
number is odd or even by using the up and down keyboard buttons. However, before each
scene is presented, a schematic face will be flashed on the screen and performance should
be hindered by the angry and happy faces as shown in Gupta and Raymond (2012).
The response times and percentage of trials answered correctly will be the data that
is collected, alongside the scores for the GAD 7-item scale and AQ. An average of the
reaction time for each participant will be taken along with the average percentage error rate,
and then both will be compared against the distractor type (emotional face) and the scores
acquired from the GAD 7-item scale and AQ.
We expect that reaction time and error rate will significantly worsen during a visual
perception cognitive task when distractor schematic emotional faces are briefly presented
45. 43
before the visual scene. This effect should be more pronounced in individuals who have high
anxiety levels and high autism trait levels as measured by the GAD 7-item scale and AQ
respectively. The effect should be seen for the angry and happy faces, and not the neutral
and scrambled faces. This study intends to (a) replicate findings by Gupta and Raymond
(2012) and extend them to explore links with personality variables, (b) to help clarify current
confounding research surrounding Autism and emotional perception, and (c) contribute to
the literature regarding anxiety’s interference with attention.
46. 44
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