Join us for an introduction to understanding human reproduction! From menstruation to pregnancy, learn about how our bodies work together to create new life. We cover key biological processes involved, discuss common health issues related to the female reproductive system, provide tips on maintaining reproductive health, and address any burning questions you have had regarding sex education. By the end of this presentation, viewers should feel better informed and empowered around these important topics. Let's dive into the fascinating world of reproductive science!
Human Reproduction System
Male reproductive system
Sperm
Female reproductive system
Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
Male hormones
Female hormones
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
Menopause
Students be able to identify the various structures of the male reproductive systems and state their functions;
Students be able to identify the various structures of the female reproductive systems and state their functions
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Human Reproduction System
Male reproductive system
Sperm
Female reproductive system
Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
Male hormones
Female hormones
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
Menopause
Students be able to identify the various structures of the male reproductive systems and state their functions;
Students be able to identify the various structures of the female reproductive systems and state their functions
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Students be able to identify the various structures of the male reproductive systems and state their functions;
Students be able to identify the various structures of the female reproductive systems and state their functions
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
The following power point discusses about how the process of sexual reproduction takes place in Humans. In it, we discuss about the male and female reproductive systems, then we discuss about how the process of fertilisation occurs in humans. Thereafter we discuss about pregnancy. Menstrual Cycle, Ways to control Population growth, STDs etc
REPORT ABSTRACT:
In dealing topics regarding gender and society, it is essential to discuss the anatomy and physiology of reproduction, the process of reproduction, sexual health and hygiene, adolescents, and risky behaviors. The male and female reproductive systems complement one another to produce new birth; thus, knowing about each parts of the system are fundamental in this subject. Regarding pregnancy and contraception, it is a knowledge that must be known to teens and adolescent for the future and decision-making of a teenager. Sexual healthcare and hygiene are also a primary need of every human body. It is very important to our daily routine, not just in teenage or adolescence but throughout our whole lives. Also, adolescence is when risky behaviors restrain us to become responsible adults; thus, it is important to know the different preventive interventions. Throughout this lesson, these important topics were elaborated to expound prior knowledge.
MEMBERS:
Ampig, Isidro
Arandela, Yvonne Grace
Francisco, Joseven
Labustro, Ian Harvey
Lor, Fritzie
Obejero, Maynard
Siva, Syramae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Students be able to identify the various structures of the male reproductive systems and state their functions;
Students be able to identify the various structures of the female reproductive systems and state their functions
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
Reproduction is the process that continues life on Earth
Males and females each have structures specialized for their roles in reproduction.
Hormones are the key to how the human reproductive system functions,
Sex hormones are necessary for the development of sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.
Hormones from the pituitary gland also begin the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Eggs and sperm transfer hereditary information from one generation to the next.
The following power point discusses about how the process of sexual reproduction takes place in Humans. In it, we discuss about the male and female reproductive systems, then we discuss about how the process of fertilisation occurs in humans. Thereafter we discuss about pregnancy. Menstrual Cycle, Ways to control Population growth, STDs etc
REPORT ABSTRACT:
In dealing topics regarding gender and society, it is essential to discuss the anatomy and physiology of reproduction, the process of reproduction, sexual health and hygiene, adolescents, and risky behaviors. The male and female reproductive systems complement one another to produce new birth; thus, knowing about each parts of the system are fundamental in this subject. Regarding pregnancy and contraception, it is a knowledge that must be known to teens and adolescent for the future and decision-making of a teenager. Sexual healthcare and hygiene are also a primary need of every human body. It is very important to our daily routine, not just in teenage or adolescence but throughout our whole lives. Also, adolescence is when risky behaviors restrain us to become responsible adults; thus, it is important to know the different preventive interventions. Throughout this lesson, these important topics were elaborated to expound prior knowledge.
MEMBERS:
Ampig, Isidro
Arandela, Yvonne Grace
Francisco, Joseven
Labustro, Ian Harvey
Lor, Fritzie
Obejero, Maynard
Siva, Syramae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
2. External genitalia
A. Penis
1. Structure and function of the penis: The penis is composed of three main parts: the
root, the shaft, and the glans. It is made up of erectile tissue that allows it to
become rigid and erect during sexual arousal. The urethra, which carries both urine
and semen out of the body, runs through the center of the penis.
2. Erectile tissue and mechanism of erection: The erectile tissue in the penis is made
up of two spongy tissue chambers called the corpora cavernosa and a single
chamber called the corpus spongiosum. During sexual arousal, these chambers fill
with blood, causing the penis to become erect.
3. Role of the penis in reproduction: The penis is the male sex organ responsible for
delivering sperm into the female reproductive tract during sexual intercourse.
4. Scrotum
Structure and function of the scrotum: The
scrotum is a sac of skin and muscle that
holds the testes. It is located outside of the
body and has a slightly lower temperature
than the rest of the body, which is essential
for optimal sperm production.
Role of the scrotum in regulating
temperature for optimal sperm production:
The scrotum contracts and relaxes in
response to changes in temperature,
bringing the testes closer to or farther away
from the body to maintain an optimal
temperature for sperm production.
5. II. Internal
genitalia
A. Testes
Structure and function of the testes: The testes are the
male gonads responsible for producing sperm and
testosterone. They are oval-shaped organs located in the
scrotum and are composed of seminiferous tubules and
interstitial tissue.
Leydig cells and testosterone production: Leydig cells,
located in the interstitial tissue of the testes, produce
testosterone, the male sex hormone responsible for the
development of male reproductive organs and secondary
sex characteristics.
Sertoli cells and spermatogenesis: Sertoli cells, located in
the seminiferous tubules of the testes, support and
nourish developing sperm cells during spermatogenesis,
the process of sperm cell production.
6. Epididymis
Structure and function of the epididymis:
The epididymis is a coiled tube located on
the surface of each testicle. It is responsible
for the maturation and storage of sperm.
Maturation and storage of sperm: During
their journey through the epididymis, sperm
undergo a process of maturation, becoming
more motile and gaining the ability to fertilize
an egg. The epididymis also serves as a
storage site for mature sperm until they are
ready to be ejaculated.
7. Vas deferens
Structure and function of the vas
deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular
tube that connects the epididymis to the
ejaculatory ducts. It transports mature
sperm from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory ducts, where they mix with
seminal fluid to form semen.
Role in transporting sperm to the
ejaculatory ducts: The vas deferens
contracts during ejaculation, propelling
sperm and seminal fluid through the
ejaculatory ducts and out of the penis.
8. Anatomy of the Female
Reproductive System
A. External genitalia
Vulva: The external female genitalia are
collectively referred to as the vulva, which
includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, clitoris, vestibule, and vaginal opening.
Function of the vulva: The vulva serves as the
external entrance to the female reproductive
tract and plays a role in sexual stimulation.
9. Internal genitalia
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular tube that extends
from the vulva to the cervix. It serves as the site for
sexual intercourse and also serves as the birth canal
during delivery.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that
protrudes into the vagina. It is composed of strong
muscles that help keep the baby in the uterus during
pregnancy and dilate during labor to allow the baby to
pass through.
Uterus: The uterus is a pear-shaped organ that sits in
the pelvis and is responsible for nourishing and
protecting a developing fetus during pregnancy.
Fallopian tubes: The fallopian tubes are a pair of
tubes that extend from the uterus and lead to the
ovaries. They serve as the site for fertilization of the
egg by sperm.
Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped organs located on
either side of the uterus. They are responsible for producing and
releasing eggs for fertilization, as well as producing hormones such
as estrogen and progesterone.
10. Physiology of
Menstruation
Definition: The menstrual cycle is a series
of physiological changes that occur in the
female reproductive system, regulated by
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and
ovaries, and results in the shedding of
the uterine lining.
Duration: The menstrual cycle lasts
approximately 28 days, but can vary from
21-35 days in length.
11. Hormonal
regulation
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): GnRH is
produced by the hypothalamus and stimulates the
pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates
the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH triggers ovulation, the
release of an egg from the ovary.
Estrogen: Estrogen is produced by the maturing
ovarian follicles and stimulates the thickening of the
uterine lining.
Progesterone: Progesterone is produced by the
corpus luteum after ovulation and further thickens
the uterine lining in preparation for implantation.
12. Phases of the
menstrual cycle
Menstrual phase: The menstrual phase is the shedding
of the uterine lining, which lasts approximately 3-7 days.
Proliferative phase: The proliferative phase is the growth
and thickening of the uterine lining, stimulated by
estrogen. It occurs approximately days 5-14 of the cycle.
Ovulatory phase: The ovulatory phase is the release of
an egg from the ovary, triggered by a surge in LH. It
occurs approximately day 14 of the cycle.
Luteal phase: The luteal phase is the maintenance and
further thickening of the uterine lining, stimulated by
progesterone. If implantation does not occur, the corpus
luteum disintegrates, progesterone levels decrease, and
the cycle begins anew.
13. Menstrual disorders
1.Amenorrhea: Amenorrhea is the absence of menstrual periods
and can be caused by hormonal imbalances, pregnancy,
menopause, or certain medications.
2.Dysmenorrhea: Dysmenorrhea is painful menstrual periods,
which can be caused by hormonal imbalances or certain medical
conditions.
3.Menorrhagia: Menorrhagia is abnormally heavy menstrual
bleeding, which can be caused by hormonal imbalances, fibroids,
or other medical conditions.
14. Spermatogenesis:
1.Spermatogenesis is the process by which male germ cells, or
sperm, are produced in the testes. This complex process
involves the development of haploid spermatozoa from diploid
germ cells through a series of mitotic and meiotic cell divisions,
differentiation, and maturation.
15. Process of spermatogenesis:
1.Hormonal regulation: At puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which
triggers the production of LH and FSH. These hormones act on the testes,
promoting spermatogenesis.
2.Primordial germ cells: These cells are already present in the testes, as they
migrated from the yolk sac during embryonic development. They have been
dormant until the onset of puberty and the hormonal regulation
3.Hormonal regulation (step 1) serves as the "trigger" that activates the
primordial germ cells (step 2) to start the spermatogenesis process. Once
puberty is reached and hormonal regulation takes place, the primordial germ
cells are stimulated to differentiate into spermatogonial stem cells, which will
further divide and differentiate to produce sperm cells.
16. Hormonal regulation
1.The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
2.LH stimulates Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone.
3.FSH stimulates Sertoli cells, which support and nourish
developing sperm cells and initiate the functional responses
needed for spermatogenesis.
17. Oogenesis
1.Oogenesis is the process by which female germ cells, or ova
(eggs), are produced in the ovaries. This complex process
involves the development of haploid ova from diploid germ cells
through a series of mitotic and meiotic cell divisions, growth, and
maturation.
18. Role of hormones in oogenesis
1.Primordial germ cells: These are the precursor cells that originate
in the yolk sac of the embryo and migrate to the developing
gonads. They give rise to oogonia in the female gonads
(ovaries).
19. Role of hormones.
1. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Released by the hypothalamus, it stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone
(LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH): It triggers ovulation, which is the release of the secondary oocyte from the ovarian follicle. LH
also stimulates the development of the corpus luteum, a structure that produces progesterone.
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): It stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles, which contain the
developing oocytes. FSH also triggers the production of estrogen by the follicle cells.
4. Estrogen: It promotes the development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics and prepares the
endometrium (uterine lining) for implantation.
5. Progesterone: It is produced by the corpus luteum and is essential for maintaining pregnancy. Progesterone also helps
regulate the menstrual cycle and supports the endometrium for possible implantation of a fertilized ovum.
20. Pregnancy
1. Pregnancy is the period of time during which a fertilized egg (zygote)
develops into an embryo and subsequently a fetus within the uterus of a
female. This process ultimately results in the birth of a baby. A typical human
pregnancy lasts approximately 40 weeks or about 9 months and is divided
into three trimesters.
21. Role of hormones during pregnancy:
1. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): This hormone is produced by the developing placenta soon
after fertilization. It maintains the corpus luteum, ensuring continued production of progesterone and
estrogen. hCG levels increase rapidly during early pregnancy and are used as an indicator in
pregnancy tests.
2. Progesterone: This hormone is initially produced by the corpus luteum and later by the placenta. It
supports the growth of the endometrium, preventing its shedding during menstruation. Progesterone
also relaxes the smooth muscles of the uterus, reducing the risk of premature contractions and helps
prepare the breasts for milk production.
3. Estrogen: Produced by the corpus luteum and the placenta, estrogen helps maintain the pregnancy
by promoting the growth of the uterus and the development of the placenta. It also supports the
development of the fetus and the mother's mammary glands in preparation for lactation.
22. Trimesters of pregnancy and key developments:
1. First trimester (Weeks 1-12): During this stage, the fertilized egg implants into the uterine lining, and the placenta begins
to form. The embryo's organs and structures start to develop, including the neural tube, heart, and limb buds. By the end
of the first trimester, the fetus has a recognizable human form with facial features, hands, feet, and the basic structure of
all vital organs.
2. Second trimester (Weeks 13-27): The fetus continues to grow rapidly, and its organs and systems mature. The mother
may begin to feel fetal movements (quickening) during this time. The fetus's skin is covered in a protective substance
called vernix caseosa. The genitals are formed, and the fetus's sex can usually be determined through ultrasound. By the
end of the second trimester, the fetus can hear, swallow, and has developed a sleep-wake cycle.
3. Third trimester (Weeks 28-40): The fetus continues to grow, and its organs mature further. The lungs develop, and the
fetus starts practicing breathing movements. The fetus gains weight and accumulates fat, which helps regulate body
temperature after birth. The brain develops rapidly, and the fetus becomes more responsive to external stimuli. In the final
weeks of pregnancy, the fetus typically moves into a head-down position, preparing for birth. Labor and delivery usually
occur during this trimester.
23. Parturition
Parturition is the process of childbirth, during which a baby is born,
and the placenta is expelled from the uterus. It involves a series of
coordinated events, including uterine contractions and changes in
the cervix, which facilitate the delivery of the baby and the
placenta.
24. Stages
1. Stage 1: Dilation of the cervix
2. This stage begins with the onset of regular contractions and ends when the cervix is fully dilated
(approximately 10 centimeters).
3. It is further divided into two phases: the latent phase and the active phase.
4. Latent phase: Contractions are mild and irregular, and the cervix begins to soften and dilate
slowly.
5. Active phase: Contractions become stronger, more regular, and closer together, and the cervix
dilates more rapidly.
6. During this stage, the amniotic sac may rupture ("water breaking"), releasing amniotic fluid.
7. Stage 2: Delivery of the baby
25. Continue .
1. This stage starts when the cervix is fully dilated and ends with the delivery of the baby.
2. The mother feels a strong urge to push during contractions, which helps move the baby
through the birth canal.
3. The baby's head crowns (becomes visible) as it passes through the vaginal opening, and
the rest of the body follows.
4. Once the baby is born, the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
5. Stage 3: Delivery of the placenta
6. This stage begins after the baby is born and ends with the delivery of the placenta
(afterbirth).
7. The uterus continues to contract, causing the placenta to detach from the uterine wall and
be expelled through the vagina.
8. This stage usually takes 5-30 minutes but can be longer in some cases.