The document discusses several key figures from the Medical Renaissance period who advanced scientific understanding of human anatomy:
1) Andreas Vesalius proved that some of Galen's anatomical theories were incorrect by performing dissections, establishing anatomy as a field of study.
2) Ambroise Pare developed new wound treatment methods involving dressings rather than cauterization, advancing surgical practices.
3) William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood through experimentation, proving Galen's theory wrong and establishing the heart as a pump.
This is a brief and limited presentation about the history of pharmacology which may be helpful for students of pharmacy, nursing as well as medical, for any error or complain please contact me
The Romans initially paid little attention to Greek medicine and doctors like Hippocrates when they invaded Greece. However, Hippocrates was considered the father of modern medicine for establishing medicine as a science separate from philosophy and myth. Most Roman medical treatment occurred at home, where herbal remedies passed down for generations were used. Women played a key role in household medical care and treatment. When herbal remedies failed, some trained doctors could be consulted, though many doctors had little training. The Romans advanced surgery to treat soldiers, developing tools like saws, scalpels, probes, and catheters. While Roman medicine was primitive, the tools they developed led to modern medical instruments that save many lives today.
The aim of this presentation is to help Digital Marketing managers to implement an efficient e-marketing strategy in the particular and constrained environment of the pharmaceutical industry. This presentation can also be a good opportunity for Operational Marketing professionals jammed with the traditional 4p to realise that implementing a 360° marketing strategy is not only aligning Web and Marketing (or vice versa).
I took the opportunity of the success of my previous release to enhance and complete some slides in this V2.0. You will discover how a Biopharmaceutical company (Celgene) has taken a good start after my advises in 2010 and how they have implemented an e-marketing strategy with the evolution of their Internet portals and their connections to medical portals.
It seems to me that you can significantly improve your knowledge of e-marketing tactics with free tools in order to audit and monitor your consumer’s behaviours in the digital space by reading my other presentation: Digital Marketing Management.
- Germany was in a poor state after WWI with food shortages and unrest. The Weimar Republic was established with a democratic constitution. However, it faced significant opposition from communists and right-wing nationalists.
- The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, fueling nationalist sentiment. Hyperinflation in the early 1920s caused economic devastation. The Nazis gained popularity by blaming the Weimar government for Germany's problems.
- Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933 and quickly consolidated power, establishing a fascist dictatorship. The Nazi regime suppressed opposition and persecuted minorities while promoting propaganda to maintain support.
Andreas vesalius contribution to medicine during medieval ageBossmanKuffour
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Through his own dissections, he discovered errors in the anatomical descriptions of Galen, who relied only on animal dissections. In 1543, Vesalius published De humani corporis fabrica, the first comprehensive textbook of human anatomy based on dissections. The book revolutionized the study of anatomy and medical science. Despite its success, Vesalius abruptly quit research and became a royal physician, dying during a trip to Palestine at age 50. Galen (129-199 AD) was a physician in ancient Rome considered the father of experimental physiology. Through animal dissections and treating gladiators' wounds, he
This summer's Section A of the Medicine Exam will focus on the 'Development of Renaissance Anatomy.' Key figures to be studied include Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey. Vesalius challenged Galen's views through his own dissections and illustrations in works like his 1543 'Fabric of the Human Body,' which offered the first comprehensive study of human anatomy based on dissections rather than ancient texts. William Harvey further advanced anatomy by proving Galen was wrong about blood circulation through experiments showing the heart is a pump and blood flows in one direction through valves.
During the Renaissance, physicians began to study medicine in a more scientific way by dissecting human bodies to learn anatomy. Andreas Vesalius and Leonardo Da Vinci created detailed anatomical drawings that improved understanding of the human body. Doctors also experimented on battlefields to develop new surgical techniques, such as using ligatures instead of cauterization. While some ideas from Galen remained influential, the study of diseases like the plague and syphilis forced doctors to develop new treatments through experimentation.
- Galen was an influential physician in ancient Rome whose medical theories dominated European medicine for over 1,000 years.
- Andreas Vesalius, a 16th century physician, discovered through dissection that some of Galen's anatomical ideas were incorrect, such as the structure of the jawbone and the heart having septums.
- Vesalius' work with detailed anatomical illustrations in his famous book "On the Fabric of the Human Body" challenged Galen's authority and was highly significant as it encouraged doctors to question established theories through direct observation rather than just accept ancient teachings.
This is a brief and limited presentation about the history of pharmacology which may be helpful for students of pharmacy, nursing as well as medical, for any error or complain please contact me
The Romans initially paid little attention to Greek medicine and doctors like Hippocrates when they invaded Greece. However, Hippocrates was considered the father of modern medicine for establishing medicine as a science separate from philosophy and myth. Most Roman medical treatment occurred at home, where herbal remedies passed down for generations were used. Women played a key role in household medical care and treatment. When herbal remedies failed, some trained doctors could be consulted, though many doctors had little training. The Romans advanced surgery to treat soldiers, developing tools like saws, scalpels, probes, and catheters. While Roman medicine was primitive, the tools they developed led to modern medical instruments that save many lives today.
The aim of this presentation is to help Digital Marketing managers to implement an efficient e-marketing strategy in the particular and constrained environment of the pharmaceutical industry. This presentation can also be a good opportunity for Operational Marketing professionals jammed with the traditional 4p to realise that implementing a 360° marketing strategy is not only aligning Web and Marketing (or vice versa).
I took the opportunity of the success of my previous release to enhance and complete some slides in this V2.0. You will discover how a Biopharmaceutical company (Celgene) has taken a good start after my advises in 2010 and how they have implemented an e-marketing strategy with the evolution of their Internet portals and their connections to medical portals.
It seems to me that you can significantly improve your knowledge of e-marketing tactics with free tools in order to audit and monitor your consumer’s behaviours in the digital space by reading my other presentation: Digital Marketing Management.
- Germany was in a poor state after WWI with food shortages and unrest. The Weimar Republic was established with a democratic constitution. However, it faced significant opposition from communists and right-wing nationalists.
- The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, fueling nationalist sentiment. Hyperinflation in the early 1920s caused economic devastation. The Nazis gained popularity by blaming the Weimar government for Germany's problems.
- Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933 and quickly consolidated power, establishing a fascist dictatorship. The Nazi regime suppressed opposition and persecuted minorities while promoting propaganda to maintain support.
Andreas vesalius contribution to medicine during medieval ageBossmanKuffour
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Through his own dissections, he discovered errors in the anatomical descriptions of Galen, who relied only on animal dissections. In 1543, Vesalius published De humani corporis fabrica, the first comprehensive textbook of human anatomy based on dissections. The book revolutionized the study of anatomy and medical science. Despite its success, Vesalius abruptly quit research and became a royal physician, dying during a trip to Palestine at age 50. Galen (129-199 AD) was a physician in ancient Rome considered the father of experimental physiology. Through animal dissections and treating gladiators' wounds, he
This summer's Section A of the Medicine Exam will focus on the 'Development of Renaissance Anatomy.' Key figures to be studied include Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey. Vesalius challenged Galen's views through his own dissections and illustrations in works like his 1543 'Fabric of the Human Body,' which offered the first comprehensive study of human anatomy based on dissections rather than ancient texts. William Harvey further advanced anatomy by proving Galen was wrong about blood circulation through experiments showing the heart is a pump and blood flows in one direction through valves.
During the Renaissance, physicians began to study medicine in a more scientific way by dissecting human bodies to learn anatomy. Andreas Vesalius and Leonardo Da Vinci created detailed anatomical drawings that improved understanding of the human body. Doctors also experimented on battlefields to develop new surgical techniques, such as using ligatures instead of cauterization. While some ideas from Galen remained influential, the study of diseases like the plague and syphilis forced doctors to develop new treatments through experimentation.
- Galen was an influential physician in ancient Rome whose medical theories dominated European medicine for over 1,000 years.
- Andreas Vesalius, a 16th century physician, discovered through dissection that some of Galen's anatomical ideas were incorrect, such as the structure of the jawbone and the heart having septums.
- Vesalius' work with detailed anatomical illustrations in his famous book "On the Fabric of the Human Body" challenged Galen's authority and was highly significant as it encouraged doctors to question established theories through direct observation rather than just accept ancient teachings.
During the Renaissance, major advances were made in medicine through anatomical research and discovery. Leonardo da Vinci's detailed drawings from dissections of human bodies increased anatomical understanding. Andreas Vesalius wrote The Fabric of the Human Body which corrected Galen's anatomical errors and became the authoritative text. Ambroise Pare developed new wound treatment methods like using ointments instead of cauterization that reduced pain and infection. William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood through the heart and veins, though this challenged existing practices like bloodletting.
Islamic cultures made many important scientific and medical contributions despite being burned in Europe:
They developed navigational tools like the astrolab and compass which enabled long sea voyages and discovery. Astronomers like Al-Biruni discussed theories of Earth's rotation centuries before Galileo.
Medicine advanced with discoveries in anatomy, use of anesthesia and cauterization in surgery, and linking disease to human contact. Figures like Ibn Sina and Al-Razi wrote influential medical encyclopedias and treatises. Hospitals were also established.
Other fields like optics, sociology, and physics also saw innovations through scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham,
Science has developed greatly from ancient to modern times. In ancient times, myths and superstitions dominated beliefs about the natural world. During the Scientific Revolution from 1500-1700, early scientists like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton established the foundations of modern science through experimentation and mathematical analysis of the natural world. Their work helped shift views away from ancient authorities like Aristotle and towards evidence-based understanding. Today, science continues to advance our knowledge through rigorous testing of hypotheses and theories against facts gathered through observation and experimentation.
The document summarizes important figures and developments in the history of medicine. It describes how Hippocrates in ancient Greece first attempted to separate medicine from religion and superstition. It also discusses the influential Roman physician Galen and his anatomical studies. During the Middle Ages, superstition returned and diseases were thought to be divine punishment. Significant later developments included advances made by Islamic physicians like Avicenna, and the anatomical discoveries of Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius during the Renaissance, which improved medical understanding.
Avenzoar was an Al-Andalus wisemen who lived between 1092 and 1162 (according to some sources). He is known because of his knowledge about medicine. Averroes, another important wiseman, was his disciple.
The Renaissance meant a rebirth of culture, science, and art through examining the works and methods of ancient Greeks and Romans. Artists improved their observation and depiction of the human body through dissections and anatomy studies. Developments like the printing press allowed new ideas to spread more widely and limit the church's authority, enabling more questioning of traditional views. Collectively these factors encouraged advances in medicine through improved understanding of anatomy and a greater willingness to question established authorities like Galen.
This document is Michael Mangino's honors thesis from Northern Illinois University submitted in 2007 titled "The Anatomy of Anatomy Education". It discusses the history of anatomy education from ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to modern times. Key figures discussed include Hippocrates, Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey and their important contributions to the field through observations, dissections, and experiments that advanced the understanding of human anatomy. The thesis also examines how knowledge was considered and taught during this evolution using Aristotelian philosophical techniques of commentary and examining causes.
Erasmus was a 15th-16th century Dutch scholar and humanist who wrote in Latin and promoted religious toleration. Thomas More was a 16th century English humanist and statesman who opposed the Protestant Reformation and was beheaded for refusing to accept King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England. Juan Luis Vives was a 15th-16th century Spanish humanist and philosopher who was exiled from Spain after his family was killed by the Spanish Inquisition.
The document provides background information on Andreas Vesalius and his work. It discusses that Vesalius lived during the Renaissance period from 1514-1564 and published his famous book "The Fabric of the Human Body" in 1543. This challenged prior theories from Galen, as Vesalius discovered some of Galen's anatomical ideas were incorrect through his own dissections. The document examines factors that allowed Vesalius to develop and promote his theories, as well as the significance of his work in establishing more accurate understandings of human anatomy.
Renaissance 1300 - 1500 A.D in the Western WorldElsieJoyLicarte
The document summarizes the advancements in science and technology during the Renaissance period from 1300 to 1550 AD in Western Europe. Key developments included the invention of the printing press which allowed mass publication of books and spread of ideas, improvements in fields like astronomy with Copernicus' theory of a sun-centered solar system, advancements in anatomy from dissections, and innovations in areas such as mining, firearms, and parachutes. The widespread availability of knowledge through printing supported greater literacy and an overall rebirth of learning.
The document discusses key figures and developments during the Scientific Revolution. It describes how Ptolemy viewed the universe as geocentric, while Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model contradicting Ptolemy. Galileo used a telescope to observe celestial bodies and confirm Copernicus' theories. Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey used human dissection to disprove some of Galen's principles and describe the circulatory system. The Scientific Revolution changed the deductive approach to the scientific method championed by Sir Francis Bacon, using experimentation and observation. Rene Descartes further changed the view of the universe as mechanical rather than living and spiritual.
The history of anatomy extends from early examinations of sacrificial victims in ancient Egypt to modern scientific analyses. Over time, understanding of organ and body structure functions has continually developed. In ancient Egypt and Greece, early anatomists like Alcmaeon began the first scientific dissections and discoveries about structures like the brain, heart, and blood vessels. Galen's 2nd century AD dissections of apes and pigs informed his influential works on anatomy, though some theories like blood flow were later found to be incorrect. Anatomical study declined in the Middle Ages but resumed with innovations like Vesalius' cadaver dissections in the 16th century and Harvey's discovery of blood circulation. Modern anatomy applies new technologies to further understand structure
Early Greek physicians like Hippocrates believed illness had physical causes and rejected superstitions, basing treatments on observations. Later, Galen and Da Vinci advanced anatomy through dissections of animals and humans, though Galen mistakenly assumed human and animal anatomy were identical. Andreas Vesalius was the first to accurately document human anatomy through dissecting criminals with papal permission. As medical schools opened, anatomists relied on executed criminals for cadavers due to beliefs that dissection prevented resurrection. William Harvey advanced circulation studies by dissecting family members. Some later anatomists resorted to grave robbing due to corpse shortages.
The document discusses the anatomical framework that classifies humans as members of the animal kingdom and mammalian class. It provides an overview of human anatomy and evolutionary traits shared with other mammals. The history of human anatomy is explored, from early Egyptian and Greek understandings, through the influential work of Galen and Vesalius, to modern reference texts like Gray's Anatomy.
This document provides an overview of medicine in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It discusses that during the Middle Ages, medical knowledge declined as Roman and Greek works were lost. Disease was often attributed to religious causes, and medical practices were limited. The Renaissance brought revivals in learning, anatomy, and the scientific method. Figures like Vesalius, Harvey, and Paracelsus advanced understandings of anatomy and circulation through observations and experimentation, moving away from past authorities like Galen. Overall, medicine transitioned from being primarily religiously-based to increasingly scientific and evidence-driven over these eras.
The document provides a history of anaesthesia from ancient times to the 20th century. It discusses early uses of opium, cannabis, cocaine, and carotid compression for pain relief in ancient civilizations. It then covers key developments like Crawford Long's first use of ether anaesthesia in 1842, Morton's public demonstration of ether anaesthesia at the Ether Dome in 1846, Simpson's introduction of chloroform in 1847, Koller's discovery of cocaine as a local anaesthetic in 1884, and Bier's first spinal anaesthesia in 1898. The 20th century saw advances in airway management and new anaesthetic agents that improved safety and efficacy.
The Scientific Revolution began as natural philosophers in the 15th-16th centuries began to abandon ancient authorities like Aristotle and instead make their own observations. Developments like the printing press and new instruments helped spread ideas. Thinkers applied mathematics to understand nature, including Copernicus proposing a sun-centered universe, Kepler discovering elliptical orbits, and Galileo's telescopic discoveries supporting Copernicus. Isaac Newton then defined universal laws of motion and gravitation, dominating the worldview until Einstein. Anatomists like Vesalius and Harvey also improved on Galen's models, while philosophers like Descartes and Bacon emphasized reason and the scientific method.
1. In the 1700-1900s, there were three main beliefs about what caused illness: miasmas (poisoned air), spontaneous generation (germs appearing from nowhere), and germ theory proposed by Pasteur in 1861.
2. Common treatments included herbal remedies, patent medicines, and some prayer/magic. Aspirin was also invented in the late 1800s.
3. Doctors received more university training, nurses emerged through Florence Nightingale's training schools, and hospitals became more sanitary and efficient under her influence.
1) During the medieval and Renaissance periods, common beliefs about the causes of illness included an imbalance of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), God punishing sin, poisonous air, astrological alignments, and magic. Treatments focused on bleeding, purging, prayer, herbal remedies, and basic surgery.
2) Hospitals of the time were small and overcrowded, run by the Catholic Church or charities, and primarily offered prayer and herbal remedies rather than medical care. Most people received treatment at home.
3) Key figures included Galen, whose works influenced medieval medicine, Andreas Vesalius who challenged Galen through dissection, and
During the Renaissance, major advances were made in medicine through anatomical research and discovery. Leonardo da Vinci's detailed drawings from dissections of human bodies increased anatomical understanding. Andreas Vesalius wrote The Fabric of the Human Body which corrected Galen's anatomical errors and became the authoritative text. Ambroise Pare developed new wound treatment methods like using ointments instead of cauterization that reduced pain and infection. William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood through the heart and veins, though this challenged existing practices like bloodletting.
Islamic cultures made many important scientific and medical contributions despite being burned in Europe:
They developed navigational tools like the astrolab and compass which enabled long sea voyages and discovery. Astronomers like Al-Biruni discussed theories of Earth's rotation centuries before Galileo.
Medicine advanced with discoveries in anatomy, use of anesthesia and cauterization in surgery, and linking disease to human contact. Figures like Ibn Sina and Al-Razi wrote influential medical encyclopedias and treatises. Hospitals were also established.
Other fields like optics, sociology, and physics also saw innovations through scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham,
Science has developed greatly from ancient to modern times. In ancient times, myths and superstitions dominated beliefs about the natural world. During the Scientific Revolution from 1500-1700, early scientists like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton established the foundations of modern science through experimentation and mathematical analysis of the natural world. Their work helped shift views away from ancient authorities like Aristotle and towards evidence-based understanding. Today, science continues to advance our knowledge through rigorous testing of hypotheses and theories against facts gathered through observation and experimentation.
The document summarizes important figures and developments in the history of medicine. It describes how Hippocrates in ancient Greece first attempted to separate medicine from religion and superstition. It also discusses the influential Roman physician Galen and his anatomical studies. During the Middle Ages, superstition returned and diseases were thought to be divine punishment. Significant later developments included advances made by Islamic physicians like Avicenna, and the anatomical discoveries of Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius during the Renaissance, which improved medical understanding.
Avenzoar was an Al-Andalus wisemen who lived between 1092 and 1162 (according to some sources). He is known because of his knowledge about medicine. Averroes, another important wiseman, was his disciple.
The Renaissance meant a rebirth of culture, science, and art through examining the works and methods of ancient Greeks and Romans. Artists improved their observation and depiction of the human body through dissections and anatomy studies. Developments like the printing press allowed new ideas to spread more widely and limit the church's authority, enabling more questioning of traditional views. Collectively these factors encouraged advances in medicine through improved understanding of anatomy and a greater willingness to question established authorities like Galen.
This document is Michael Mangino's honors thesis from Northern Illinois University submitted in 2007 titled "The Anatomy of Anatomy Education". It discusses the history of anatomy education from ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to modern times. Key figures discussed include Hippocrates, Galen, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey and their important contributions to the field through observations, dissections, and experiments that advanced the understanding of human anatomy. The thesis also examines how knowledge was considered and taught during this evolution using Aristotelian philosophical techniques of commentary and examining causes.
Erasmus was a 15th-16th century Dutch scholar and humanist who wrote in Latin and promoted religious toleration. Thomas More was a 16th century English humanist and statesman who opposed the Protestant Reformation and was beheaded for refusing to accept King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England. Juan Luis Vives was a 15th-16th century Spanish humanist and philosopher who was exiled from Spain after his family was killed by the Spanish Inquisition.
The document provides background information on Andreas Vesalius and his work. It discusses that Vesalius lived during the Renaissance period from 1514-1564 and published his famous book "The Fabric of the Human Body" in 1543. This challenged prior theories from Galen, as Vesalius discovered some of Galen's anatomical ideas were incorrect through his own dissections. The document examines factors that allowed Vesalius to develop and promote his theories, as well as the significance of his work in establishing more accurate understandings of human anatomy.
Renaissance 1300 - 1500 A.D in the Western WorldElsieJoyLicarte
The document summarizes the advancements in science and technology during the Renaissance period from 1300 to 1550 AD in Western Europe. Key developments included the invention of the printing press which allowed mass publication of books and spread of ideas, improvements in fields like astronomy with Copernicus' theory of a sun-centered solar system, advancements in anatomy from dissections, and innovations in areas such as mining, firearms, and parachutes. The widespread availability of knowledge through printing supported greater literacy and an overall rebirth of learning.
The document discusses key figures and developments during the Scientific Revolution. It describes how Ptolemy viewed the universe as geocentric, while Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model contradicting Ptolemy. Galileo used a telescope to observe celestial bodies and confirm Copernicus' theories. Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey used human dissection to disprove some of Galen's principles and describe the circulatory system. The Scientific Revolution changed the deductive approach to the scientific method championed by Sir Francis Bacon, using experimentation and observation. Rene Descartes further changed the view of the universe as mechanical rather than living and spiritual.
The history of anatomy extends from early examinations of sacrificial victims in ancient Egypt to modern scientific analyses. Over time, understanding of organ and body structure functions has continually developed. In ancient Egypt and Greece, early anatomists like Alcmaeon began the first scientific dissections and discoveries about structures like the brain, heart, and blood vessels. Galen's 2nd century AD dissections of apes and pigs informed his influential works on anatomy, though some theories like blood flow were later found to be incorrect. Anatomical study declined in the Middle Ages but resumed with innovations like Vesalius' cadaver dissections in the 16th century and Harvey's discovery of blood circulation. Modern anatomy applies new technologies to further understand structure
Early Greek physicians like Hippocrates believed illness had physical causes and rejected superstitions, basing treatments on observations. Later, Galen and Da Vinci advanced anatomy through dissections of animals and humans, though Galen mistakenly assumed human and animal anatomy were identical. Andreas Vesalius was the first to accurately document human anatomy through dissecting criminals with papal permission. As medical schools opened, anatomists relied on executed criminals for cadavers due to beliefs that dissection prevented resurrection. William Harvey advanced circulation studies by dissecting family members. Some later anatomists resorted to grave robbing due to corpse shortages.
The document discusses the anatomical framework that classifies humans as members of the animal kingdom and mammalian class. It provides an overview of human anatomy and evolutionary traits shared with other mammals. The history of human anatomy is explored, from early Egyptian and Greek understandings, through the influential work of Galen and Vesalius, to modern reference texts like Gray's Anatomy.
This document provides an overview of medicine in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It discusses that during the Middle Ages, medical knowledge declined as Roman and Greek works were lost. Disease was often attributed to religious causes, and medical practices were limited. The Renaissance brought revivals in learning, anatomy, and the scientific method. Figures like Vesalius, Harvey, and Paracelsus advanced understandings of anatomy and circulation through observations and experimentation, moving away from past authorities like Galen. Overall, medicine transitioned from being primarily religiously-based to increasingly scientific and evidence-driven over these eras.
The document provides a history of anaesthesia from ancient times to the 20th century. It discusses early uses of opium, cannabis, cocaine, and carotid compression for pain relief in ancient civilizations. It then covers key developments like Crawford Long's first use of ether anaesthesia in 1842, Morton's public demonstration of ether anaesthesia at the Ether Dome in 1846, Simpson's introduction of chloroform in 1847, Koller's discovery of cocaine as a local anaesthetic in 1884, and Bier's first spinal anaesthesia in 1898. The 20th century saw advances in airway management and new anaesthetic agents that improved safety and efficacy.
The Scientific Revolution began as natural philosophers in the 15th-16th centuries began to abandon ancient authorities like Aristotle and instead make their own observations. Developments like the printing press and new instruments helped spread ideas. Thinkers applied mathematics to understand nature, including Copernicus proposing a sun-centered universe, Kepler discovering elliptical orbits, and Galileo's telescopic discoveries supporting Copernicus. Isaac Newton then defined universal laws of motion and gravitation, dominating the worldview until Einstein. Anatomists like Vesalius and Harvey also improved on Galen's models, while philosophers like Descartes and Bacon emphasized reason and the scientific method.
1. In the 1700-1900s, there were three main beliefs about what caused illness: miasmas (poisoned air), spontaneous generation (germs appearing from nowhere), and germ theory proposed by Pasteur in 1861.
2. Common treatments included herbal remedies, patent medicines, and some prayer/magic. Aspirin was also invented in the late 1800s.
3. Doctors received more university training, nurses emerged through Florence Nightingale's training schools, and hospitals became more sanitary and efficient under her influence.
1) During the medieval and Renaissance periods, common beliefs about the causes of illness included an imbalance of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), God punishing sin, poisonous air, astrological alignments, and magic. Treatments focused on bleeding, purging, prayer, herbal remedies, and basic surgery.
2) Hospitals of the time were small and overcrowded, run by the Catholic Church or charities, and primarily offered prayer and herbal remedies rather than medical care. Most people received treatment at home.
3) Key figures included Galen, whose works influenced medieval medicine, Andreas Vesalius who challenged Galen through dissection, and
Medicine in the 20th century was driven by the acceptance of germ theory and the discovery of viruses and DNA. Treatments included chemical drugs like penicillin, radiotherapy, and alternative medicines. Doctors and nurses became highly trained professionals and hospitals were nationalized under the NHS, providing free healthcare. Key figures included Alexander Fleming who discovered penicillin, and Watson and Crick who discovered the structure of DNA. Factors pushing medicine forward included scientific discoveries, social attitudes favoring healthcare access, communication technologies, and wartime efforts, while limits included reliance on individual genius and social competition between groups.
Hitler consolidated power in Germany between 1933 and 1934, becoming both chancellor and president. He established a one-party Nazi state, suppressed dissent, and increased rearmament in preparation for war. After initial successes in expanding German territory, Germany began to lose ground after 1941 and was eventually invaded and defeated in 1945, with the Nazi party destroyed.
Germany faced many political and economic problems in the years following World War 1. The Treaty of Versailles damaged the German economy and led to unrest. Hyperinflation crippled the country in the early 1920s until Stresemann introduced economic reforms. The later 1920s saw some stability and improvement under the Dawes Plan and Locarno Treaty. However, the Great Depression starting in 1929 caused unemployment to rise drastically and extremist parties gained support. Eventually, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor in 1933, though Hitler was still in a weak position initially.
1. Public health in the medieval and Renaissance periods was poor, with sewage, water, living conditions, diet, healthcare access, and health education all being dealt with in a haphazard and piecemeal way by individuals and local councils.
2. During the industrial period, the 1875 Public Health Act made sewer systems and clean water supplies mandatory, leading to major improvements. However, living conditions remained very poor at the start of the industrial revolution.
3. By the 20th century, sewage and water issues were mostly resolved across the country. Housing, diet, healthcare access, and health education all significantly improved over the century due to factors like the establishment of the NHS in 1946.
This document outlines the history of public health in Europe from the Medieval period to the late 20th century. During the Medieval and Renaissance eras, some laws were introduced but the causes of disease were unknown. As industrialization took hold, rapidly growing cities became overcrowded and polluted, leading to poor living conditions. The recognition of germ theory and working class political empowerment in the late 19th century forced governments to address water, sewage, and housing issues to improve public health, though poverty remained a major challenge. After World War 2, the UK government established the free National Health Service to provide healthcare to all.
The document discusses several key events in early 20th century Germany:
1) The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany after World War 1, which caused resentment and instability.
2) Hyperinflation in 1923 devastated the German economy and people's livelihoods, further weakening the new Weimar Republic government.
3) The Great Depression starting in 1929 exacerbated Germany's economic problems and unrest, aiding the rise of the Nazi party.
4) Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 and quickly consolidated power by outlawing other parties, suppressing dissent, and intimidating political opponents.
This document provides guidance on answering questions about sources in a history exam. It outlines 5 key question types and what students should do for each type. The question types are: 1) making inferences from sources, 2) recognizing how information is portrayed, 3) judging source reliability, 4) cross-referencing multiple sources, and 5) making a judgement on a historical question. For each type, it provides example question phrases and describes what pupils should do to correctly answer the question.
This document discusses different types of questions that may appear on a Surgery exam, including inference questions, portrayal questions, reliability questions, cross-referencing questions, and usefulness questions. It notes that students will definitely get asked an inference question and a judgement question, and will need to answer a total of five questions. It provides two sample exam questions and asks the reader to identify what type of question each one is.
This document provides a list of 20 questions about the rise of the Nazi party in Germany. The questions cover a variety of topics including the consequences of key events, how lives changed over time, analyzing sources, explaining plans and treaties, describing roles and changes over time, and judging arguments. The questions also involve different skills like inference, causation, consequences, roles, and making judgements.
This document provides guidance on answering different types of history exam questions, including:
1) Inference questions ask students to make an inference from a source and support it with two details from the source. Answers should begin with "This source suggests...".
2) 4-mark questions require students to support their point with several details from the source.
3) Causation, consequences, and role questions follow a similar structure - state the cause/consequence/role at the start of each paragraph and develop it thoroughly with 2-3 reasons for 9-12 mark questions.
4) Judgement questions require students to plan their answer first and write one paragraph on each of at least three bullet
This document provides an overview of different types of history exam questions related to medicine. It lists 20 sample questions and categorizes them as testing inference, causation, consequences, roles, or judgment. The questions cover a range of topics from the role of the church in medieval medicine to the creation of the NHS and impact of technology on hospital treatment.
The document provides guidance on answering different types of exam questions including inference, causation, consequences, role, and judgement questions. It outlines the expected length and structure of responses, highlighting key elements to include such as stating the main point, supporting with details, and linking ideas. Students are advised to structure responses with multiple paragraphs or sections and use linking language to clearly show connections between ideas.
The document provides discussion questions about various aspects of life in Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945. The questions cover topics like how students and the White Rose Group opposed the Nazis, how education and the treatment of Jews changed over time, the roles of women and propaganda in Nazi Germany, and the consequences of events like the Night of the Long Knives. It also asks questions about the roles of Goebbels and the Nazi curriculum in schools, as well as judgments about the reasons for Nazi control and employment in Germany.
Aneurin Bevan played a key role in the creation of the NHS in 1948 as the Minister of Health. As Minister of Health, Bevan oversaw the establishment of the NHS and the nationalization of the hospitals in England and Wales. The document provides guidance on answering questions about historical figures or events by describing what happened and their impact in 1-3 sentences (Level 1), describing key details in 4-6 sentences (Level 2), or fully explaining their significance in 7-9 sentences (Level 3).
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson's success at qualifying as a doctor in 1865 significantly changed the role of women in medicine. As the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain, she paved the way for other women to enter the medical profession. Her achievement challenged the prevailing assumption that medicine was unsuitable for women and helped establish medicine as a viable career option for females. Over time, more women gained medical qualifications and joined the profession, expanding their opportunities and influence in the field of healthcare.
The document discusses factors that led the British government to pass the 1875 Public Health Act. It provides context about living standards in the 19th century, including the Great Stink of 1858 where pollution forced Parliament to leave London. It also mentions the publication of Germ Theory by Louis Pasteur in 1864 and requirements of the 1875 Act for local councils to provide clean water, sewers, and remove slums.
The passage discusses differences in public health provision between the 19th and 20th centuries in England. In the 19th century, the 1875 Public Health Act was passed. In the 20th century, a national vaccination program for diphtheria was introduced in 1941 and the National Health Service was established in 1948. Public health provision improved significantly from the 19th to the 20th century with the establishment of programs and services like vaccination and the National Health Service.
From Sources A and B, we can learn the following about changes in nursing between the Middle Ages and the early 20th century:
1) In the Middle Ages, nursing was not considered a skilled profession and was often performed by housewives, as shown by the illustration in Source A.
2) By the early 20th century, nursing had become a trained and skilled profession, as the letter in Source B emphasizes that nurses are not inferior servants but trained workers.
3) Over time, the role and perception of nurses shifted from unskilled housework to an intelligent, trained medical profession working under doctors.
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
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Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
1. Key Features of the Renaissance 1500-1700
The word ‘renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’ in French. The period 1500-1700 was
called the Renaissance because during that period there was a rebirth of interest
in the ideas of the classical period. Once more the ideas of Hippocrates and
Galen were studied. The Four Humours became the focus for medical treatments
and bloodletting was very popular.
Modern science as we know it began in this period and
began to replace superstition in medicine. The Royal
Society, a body of leading scientists, was founded in 1660
in England with King Charles II as its patron. During this
period it was seen as important for well-educated people to
be knowledgeable in both science and art.
Leonardo da Vinci is best known for his works of art
like the Mona Lisa, but he was also a scientist and
regularly attended dissections. The picture on the left is
an anatomical drawing made by Leonardo da Vinci.
Printing
In 1445, a Swedish man, Thomas Gutenberg,
invented the printing press. Before printing, books
had to be copied by hand. This meant that there
were few copies of books. Printing encouraged the
spread of new ideas, and books were more widely
available and were also much cheaper.
The Reformation happened during the Renaissance period, largely because
people were thinking about the things around them and were not content just to
accept what had always been.
In 1517, Martin Luther nailed a list of things that he thought
was wrong with the church to the door of a church in
Wittenberg in Germany. Many people liked his ideas. They
became known as Protestants because they protested
against the Catholic church. There was much debate which led
Martin Luther
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 1
2. to new ideas being formed and spoken about. The domination of the Catholic
church was threatened for the first time.
The Catholic church persecuted many renaissance
thinkers. Galileo Galilei was imprisoned for life for saying
that the sun was the centre of the universe not the
Earth and Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake for
suggesting that there was more than one universe.
Galileo
(1564-1642)
Paracelsus was a German
physician and chemist. In 1527,
he began a lecture to students by burning one of
Galen’s books and calling Avicenna a kitchen master.
He disagreed with the four humours theory. Paracelsus
believed that disease attacks the body from the outside
and that cures should help the body to defend itself
against attack from disease, His criticisms of Galen
encouraged medical thinking towards scientific thought
by people such as Vesalius.
Paracelsus
(1493-1542)
Vesalius (1510-1590) conducting
a dissection with students at
Padua university
Despite the efforts of the Church to preserve the existing order, new ideas,
inventions and discoveries did take place in what we now call the Renaissance.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 2
3. In 1500 the most important books used in the training of doctors were still those
written by Claudius Galen. Galen’s ideas had been dominant for hundreds of
years, but were only proved wrong for the first time by Andreas Vesalius.
Who was Andreas Vesalius?
Vesalius was born in Brussels and completed his medical training
in Paris. He went on to become Professor of Anatomy at Padua
University in Italy. During the Renaissance Padua was a famous
centre for medical training. Vesalius believed that the dissection
of human bodies was necessary if doctors were to find out how
bodies worked. However, the dissection of human bodies was
restricted by the Church. Vesalius therefore had to resort to taking
bones from graves and even stealing a body from the gallows so
that he could explore the anatomy of the human body.
How did he become well known?
In 1543 Vesalius wrote the first major book about anatomy.
It was called ‘de Humani Corporis Fabrica’ (The Fabric of the
Human Body). Vesalius worked closely with the famous artist
Titian who produced 277 anatomical illustrations for his book. He pioneered the
use of highly illustrated medical text, where the drawings showed the human body
in greater detail then ever before.
How did he change medical ideas?
Vesalius’s work brought about an important change in medical thinking. He was
able to prove that some of Galen’s theories were wrong. Galen, who was only able
to dissect animals, assumed that humans had the same anatomy. Vesalius by
performing dissections on humans revealed anatomical structures previously
unknown.
How important was Vesalius?
Vesalius helped establish surgery as a separate medical
profession. At the time, though he was criticised, as many
people refused to believe that Galen’s work could be wrong.
The popularity of Vesalius’s book, however, meant that his
views gradually gained acceptance and greater emphasis
began to be placed upon the study of anatomy in medical
training.
A picture of Vesalius, carrying out a
dissection at Padua University,
surrounded by medical students.
Did advances in scientific knowledge improve
the understanding of human anatomy?
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 3
4. From the late I5th century, a ‘Renaissance’, or re-birth,
of interest in the sciences spread from Italy through
Europe. A re-discovery of the ancient Greek and Roman
texts was combined with a new, more rigorous approach
to the study of science. The emphasis now was on
explaining the natural world through observation and
experimentation.
Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and
Titian in Italy began for the first
time to accurately record their
observations. With the invention of
printing, their detailed anatomical
drawings could be faithfully
reproduced and published widely.
The writings of Galen attracted
renewed his books on anatomy
were published in Paris, translated
directly from Greek into Latin. A
medical student in Paris, Andreas
Vesalius, read Galen’s text when
it was published.
Later, as Professor of Anatomy at Padua university, Vesalius
published a number of anatomical texts, most famously ‘The Fabric
of the Human Body’ in 1543, based on his own human
dissections. He discovered that some of Galen’s observations were
incorrect; Galen’s description of the liver, for example, was based
on an animal’s liver, not one from a human. The discoveries of
Vesalius, and other scientists like Ambroise Pare and William
Harvey, encouraged other doctors to question their long-held
assumptions about the anatomy of the human body.
A picture of Vesalius from ‘The Fabric of the
Human Body published in Latin in 1543.
Think about this:
• The difference printing made to the dissemination of information
• How the availability of bodies for dissection during the Renaissance helped
improve anatomical knowledge
• The benefits of a scientific method in the study of medicine.
Ambroise Pare (1510-1590)
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 4
5. At the beginning of the 16th century many surgical and medical treatments had not
changed for hundreds of years. The main method of stopping a wound bleeding,
for example, was to cauterise or seal it with a hot iron. Muslim doctors had
developed this technique 500 years earlier. The man
who stumbled upon a better method was Ambroise
Pare.
Who was Ambroise Pare?
Pare originally trained as a barber-surgeon and later
joined the French army as a surgeon. The French were
involved in many wars during the 16th century so Pare
gained a great deal of practical experience.
How did he make his breakthrough? Ambroise Pare
It was by chance that Pare made his important
discovery about the treatment of soldiers’ wounds. In
an attempt to stop soldiers bleeding to death, wounds
were usually scorched with burning oil or a hot iron to
seal them. Pare had run out of oil in the battlefield so had to try an alternative
method. He made a dressing of egg whites, oil of roses and turpentine, which
he applied to a wound. A similar method of treatment had originally been used by
the Romans.
The dressing successfully sealed the wound and provided relief from pain. Pare
also developed the use of a ligature to stop bleeding after an amputation. He
realised that by tightening a belt around an artery the blood supply could be
stemmed. After an amputation, Pare recommended that silk thread ligatures be
used to tie off the individual blood vessels before the ointment was applied.
Was he accepted by the medical establishment of his day?
Few surgeons adopted Pare’s ideas. He had no formal university medical training
and this meant that many other physicians did not take his ideas seriously.
However, Pare did enjoy a long medical career, during which he made other
advances to help wounded soldiers, including the design of artificial limbs. Pare
was also interested in obstetrics; he wrote a book on midwifery and founded a
school for midwives in Paris.
How important was Pare?
Pare’s ideas were important as he developed an alternative to cauterization which
was a major breakthrough in wound treatment. However wounds could still
become infected. Despite opposition from the medical establishment, his case
studies were published with the support of the French King. He was the official
royal surgeon to four French Kings (serving Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and
Henry III). He is considered one of the fathers of surgery.
A Scientific experiment in the service of the king:
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 5
6. In 1565, Ambroise Paré described an experiment to test the properties of the Bezoar Stone. At
the time, the bezoar stone was commonly believed to be able to cure the effects of any poison,
but Paré believed this to be impossible. It happened that a cook at the king's court was caught
stealing fine silver cutlery, and was condemned to be hanged. The cook agreed to be poisoned,
on the conditions that he would be given some bezoar straight after the poison and go free in
case he survived. The stone did not cure him, and he died in agony seven hours after being
poisoned. Thus Paré had proved that the bezoar stone could not cure all poisons.
An end to cauterisation
The facts
Wars produced terrible wounds and the invention of
firearms added gunshot wounds to the horrors of the
battlefield. When soldiers became badly injured they
often preferred their companions to cut their throats than
to suffer an agonising death.
Even if the wounded soldier reached the operating table
he had only a slim chance of survival. Amputations were
carried out without anaesthetic, so the patient had to
endure an enormous amount of pain. The main methods
used to stop the flow of blood were a red-hot iron (called
a cautery iron), or hot oil.
Ambroise Pare a barber-surgeon serving in the French
army developed an
alternative to cauterising
when he ran out of oil while treating soldiers on the
battlefield. He used a mixture of egg white, turpentine
and rose oil and found it was more effective and less
painful in treating wounds than cauterisation.
However, although Pare practised as a successful
barber-surgeon for 20 years and served four
successive kings he was not accepted by the medical
Pare treating wounded soldiers establishment and many opposed his ground-
breaking methods.
Memory time...
• Only 450 years ago wounds and amputated limbs were sealed with either a red
hot iron or boiling oil
• In 1545 Pare published his new method of treatment, using a mixture of eggs,
rose oil and turpentine
• Pare was a barber-surgeon and his new methods, although around-breaking,
met with opposition from more qualified surgeons.
William Harvey (1578-1657)
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 6
7. Until the early 17th century Claudius Galen’s books were still being used in some
medical schools. Although Andreas Vesalius had proved some of his ideas to be
incorrect, Galen’s explanation of the heart was still preferred by most doctors. It
was William Harvey who proved that Galen was wrong and so made one of the
most famous of medical discoveries.
Who was William Harvey?
Harvey was a doctor at St.Bartholomew’s hospital in London and a
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. He was also the
physician to James I and Charles I. Harvey studied at Cambridge
and in Italy at the University of Padua where he became interested William Harvey
in anatomy and in particular, the work of Vesalius.
What were his important discoveries?
In 161 5 Harvey began to work on the idea that
blood circulated around the body. By
experimenting on live animals and dissecting the
bodies of executed criminals, Harvey was able to
prove that the heart was a pump which forced
blood around the body through arteries. Veins then
returned the blood to the heart where it was
recycled. Harvey’s work was helped by the
discovery that veins contained valves. Harvey
realised that these valves stopped the blood from
travelling back the wrong way to the heart. Galen’s
theory (that the body made new blood as its
supplies were used up) was proved wrong. In
1628, Harvey published details of his work in his
book entitled ‘An Anatomical Disquisition on the Movement of the Heart and
Blood.’
Why did Harvey face opposition?
After his work was published, Harvey actually lost patients, as his ideas were
considered eccentric. It was not until after his death that others became convinced
that he was right. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), an Italian physician, used better
quality microscopes to prove that Harvey’s ideas were correct.
How important was Harvey?
Harvey’s work made little difference to general medical practice at the time. Blood
letting continued to be a popular practice and it was not until the 20th century that
doctors realised the importance of checking a patient’s blood flow by taking a
pulse. Harvey’s work did encourage others to investigate blood circulation, e.g. the
blood’s role in carrying air from the lungs. His discovery of blood circulation was
central to a proper understanding of the workings of the body.
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 7
8. Circulation of blood
William Harvey announced his discovery that blood
circulated around the body in 1616. He had successfully
challenged Galen’s view, popular for 1400 years, that
blood was continually being made and used up.
Instead, Harvey proved that there was a fixed amount
of blood which was pumped around the body by the
heart. He also showed that blood flowed in one direction
only. By the use of experiments and demonstrations
using ligatures, Harvey set about proving his theory.
In 1628 Harvey published his
book, ‘An Anatomical Exercise
Concerning the Motion of the
Heart and Blood in Animals,
which explained these findings.
This book made him famous
throughout Europe and also
generated much criticism from
those who were unwilling to accept
new ideas.
This is an illustration in Harvey’s book on the circulation. It shows
one of his experiments in which he ‘milks the vein downward’ to
demonstrate the one-way action of the veins. While the heart
pumped blood around the body via the arteries, the veins returned
the blood to the heart. The valves in the veins proved that only a
closed, one-way system of circulation could work.
However, Harvey was not the first to believe in the
circulation of blood. Ibn an-Nafis, an Arab doctor in the 12th century, had
disagreed with Galen, but his ideas had not been followed up. In fact, nobody
realised what he had said until his book was he had said until his book was
rediscovered in 1924. The Egyptians had also believed that blood flowed through
the body and had used leeches and bleeding to unblock the passages carrying
blood.Harvey’s theory on the heart and circulation of the blood met with much
resistance as by implication it threw doubt on the value of blood
letting. Given it was now known that, there could not be too much
blood in the system the practice of bleeding seemed unnecessary.
Memory time...
• William Harvey discovered that blood circulated around the body in
1616
• Galen’s view, that blood was continually being made and used up,
had been popular for 1400 years
• In 1628 Harvey published his book, ‘An Anatomical Exercise Concerning the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals’, which explained these findings.
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 8
9. The Medical Renaissance Key Personalities
Andreas Ambroise William
Vesalius Pare Harvey
Who was he?
When?
Where?
What did he
do?
Why is he
important?
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 9
10. Leading figures of the Medical Renaissance
Aspect Andreas Vesalius Ambroise Pare Sir William Harvey
(1514-1564) (1510-1590) (1578-1657)
Belgian doctor. Studied in French army surgeon. English doctor. Educated in
Paris. Professor of Surgery Apprenticed to his brother. Cambridge and Padua. Worked at
Background and Anatomy in Padua (Italy). Later trained in Paris. Served St Bartholomew’s Hospital,
Influenced by artists who with the French army in various London.
dissected bodies. wars. Became royal surgeon to
4 French kings.
Dissected human bodies and Discovered a new way of Carried out experiments to prove
used artists to draw them for treating wounds when he ran that the heart acts as a pump,
Major work use by medical students. out of boiling oil to ‘cauterise’ or which controls the circulation of
Realised that Galen was wrong seal them. Instead he used a the blood. Valves in the veins
in important respects such as lotion of natural substances. prevent blood from moving the
the anatomy of the heart, liver Stopped bleeding by typing silk wrong way.
and the jaw. ligatures around arteries.
The Fabric of the Human Works on Surgery (1575) On the Movement of the Heart
Book Body (1543) and the Blood in Animals (1628)
His work seriously undermined Another challenge to traditional Harvey finally disproved Galen’s
Galen’s authority and opened ideas. Pare’s methods reduced idea that new blood is made in the
Importance up medicine to modern medical pain from wounds. The use of liver. Harvey did not have an
research based on scientific non-sterile ligatures could cause effective microscope to prove the
dissection of the human body. further infection until Lister’s existence of capillaries.
development of antiseptic
surgery.
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 10
11. How effective was Renaissance Medicine? Case Study: The death
of Charles II
Feb 2 At 8 in the morning the King collapses as he is being shaved. He lets out a terrible shriek
then falls unconscious. His physicians (doctors) are called for.
TREATMENT 1
The King’s doctors open a vein in the King’s arm and bleed 16 ounces of blood.
This did not lead to an improvement in his condition but the doctors repeated the
treatment an hour later.
TREATMENT 2
Three hours after this the King’s servants started to complain that the doctors were
not doing enough to cure him, so they gave him some pills that PURGED him
(made him empty his stomach)
Other treatments considered:
Place pigeons against the soles of the King’s feet;
Shave the King’s head and put burning tongs against his skin.
Feb 3 Briefly the King starts talking again; but then he shrieks again and falls unconscious
TREATMENT 3
The King is bled again: this time 2 veins are opened.
Other treatments considered:
Call Mistress Holder and ask her to give the King a herbal remedy.
Give the King some SACRED TINCTURE which will keep his bowels empty.
Feb 4 The King seems to be better in the morning: in the afternoon though he has another attack
TREATMENT 4
The doctors continued purging the King.
Other treatments considered:
Give the King a Medicine composed of: spirit of human skull mixed with an ounce
and a half of cordial julep.
Just giving up
Feb 6 The King is declining rapidly
TREATMENT 5
The doctors consider giving the King the following remedy:
2 and a half grams of BEZOAR STONE. This is a green stone found on the
stomach of goats, which is a famous remedy for illness. Before they get the chance
to administer the Bezoar stone the king dies. The doctors send their bill to James
II, the new King.
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 11
12. How would you treat Charles II?
Use this worksheet to record the way you treated Charles II. You can choose as
many of the options for each decision as you like. After you have made your
choices work out your score from page 110 in the SHP white book.
Decisions – tick Reasons for your choices Score
your choice
1a) open a vein
b) Mistress Holder
c) nothing
d) X-ray
2a) bleed
b) nothing
c) purge
d) pray
3a) purge
b) shout at servants
c) pigeons
d) shave head
4a) Mistress Holder
b) bleed
c) purge
d) run away
5a) bleed
b) purge
c) use medicine
d) abandon treatments
6a) yes
b) no
7a) send your bill
b) see James II
c) run away
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 12
13. Which Statements do you agree with and which do you disagree
with?
Which statements do you agree with?
Which don’t you agree with?
The King’s Doctors
understood the
King’s illness
The King’s Doctors
did more harm than
good
The King’s Doctors
believed in the ideas
of Galen
The King’s Doctors
were scientific in
their approach, and
did not believe that
illness was caused
by magic or the
Gods
The King’s Doctors
didn’t really have a
clue what was going
on
RW RENAISSANCE BOOKLET 13