The document provides information about refrigeration and refrigeration systems. It discusses:
1. The definition and basic principles of refrigeration, including the removal of heat from a low-temperature reservoir and transfer to a high-temperature reservoir.
2. Types of refrigeration systems including domestic, commercial, industrial, marine, air conditioning, and food preservation.
3. Early natural refrigeration methods like ice harvesting and evaporative cooling.
4. Components of refrigeration cycles like compressors, condensers, expansion devices, and evaporators.
5. Different refrigeration cycles including vapor compression, absorption, and gas refrigeration cycles.
Removing undesirable heat from one item, substance, or area and transferring it to another is known as refrigeration, sometimes known as chilling. The temperature can be reduced by removing heat, which can be accomplished by the use of ice, snow, cooled water, or mechanical refrigeration.
Removing undesirable heat from one item, substance, or area and transferring it to another is known as refrigeration, sometimes known as chilling. The temperature can be reduced by removing heat, which can be accomplished by the use of ice, snow, cooled water, or mechanical refrigeration.
ENERGY AUDIT presentationin power system .pptxReshevSharma
An energy audit is a systematic process of evaluating and analyzing energy usage in a building, facility, or industrial process to identify opportunities for energy efficiency improvements, cost savings, and environmental sustainability. The goal of an energy audit is to assess energy consumption patterns, identify areas of inefficiency or waste, and recommend measures to optimize energy usage and reduce overall energy consumption.
Here's an overview of the typical steps involved in conducting an energy audit:
1. **Pre-Audit Planning:**
Define the scope and objectives of the energy audit, including the areas or systems to be evaluated, the level of detail required, and the desired outcomes. Identify key stakeholders, establish audit goals, and gather relevant documentation, such as utility bills, building plans, and equipment specifications.
2. **Data Collection and Analysis:**
Collect comprehensive data on energy consumption, including utility bills, meter readings, and operational data
Heat Recovery System in Domestic RefrigeratorIjrdt Journal
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. Refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in last century from ice harvesting to temperature controlled rail cars. Most widely used current application of refrigeration is for air-conditioning of homes and public buildings. During refrigeration, heat from the refrigerant is dissipated for the successful completion of a refrigeration cycle. In normal household refrigerators, the heat from the refrigerant is removed using a condenser where the refrigerant cools and the air surrounding the condenser heats up. The strategy of how to recover the dissipated heat to develop a waste heat recovery system is relevant. The energy lost in waste heat cannot be fully recovered. However, much of the heat can be recovered and the loss can be minimized by adopting different measures. Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm air. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a heat recovery system to recover waste heat from the condenser in the refrigerator and to reuse it for heating application.
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle, Refrigerants,
Coefficient of performance, Capacity, Factors affecting Refrigeration and Air conditioning
system performance and savings opportunities.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system: Working principle, Types and comparison with
vapor compression system, Saving potential
ENERGY AUDIT presentationin power system .pptxReshevSharma
An energy audit is a systematic process of evaluating and analyzing energy usage in a building, facility, or industrial process to identify opportunities for energy efficiency improvements, cost savings, and environmental sustainability. The goal of an energy audit is to assess energy consumption patterns, identify areas of inefficiency or waste, and recommend measures to optimize energy usage and reduce overall energy consumption.
Here's an overview of the typical steps involved in conducting an energy audit:
1. **Pre-Audit Planning:**
Define the scope and objectives of the energy audit, including the areas or systems to be evaluated, the level of detail required, and the desired outcomes. Identify key stakeholders, establish audit goals, and gather relevant documentation, such as utility bills, building plans, and equipment specifications.
2. **Data Collection and Analysis:**
Collect comprehensive data on energy consumption, including utility bills, meter readings, and operational data
Heat Recovery System in Domestic RefrigeratorIjrdt Journal
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. Refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in last century from ice harvesting to temperature controlled rail cars. Most widely used current application of refrigeration is for air-conditioning of homes and public buildings. During refrigeration, heat from the refrigerant is dissipated for the successful completion of a refrigeration cycle. In normal household refrigerators, the heat from the refrigerant is removed using a condenser where the refrigerant cools and the air surrounding the condenser heats up. The strategy of how to recover the dissipated heat to develop a waste heat recovery system is relevant. The energy lost in waste heat cannot be fully recovered. However, much of the heat can be recovered and the loss can be minimized by adopting different measures. Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm air. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a heat recovery system to recover waste heat from the condenser in the refrigerator and to reuse it for heating application.
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle, Refrigerants,
Coefficient of performance, Capacity, Factors affecting Refrigeration and Air conditioning
system performance and savings opportunities.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system: Working principle, Types and comparison with
vapor compression system, Saving potential
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
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About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
2. Refrigeration defined as the process of achieving and maintaining
a temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to
cool some product or space to the required temperature. In other
words, refrigeration is artificial (human-made) cooling. Energy in
the form of heat is removed from a low-temperature reservoir and
transferred to a high-temperature reservoir. The work of energy
transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also
be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means.
2
4. In olden days refrigeration was achieved by natural means such as
the use of ice or evaporative cooling.
In Europe, America and Iran a number of icehouses were built to store ice.
Materials like sawdust or wood shavings were used as insulating materials
in these icehouses. Later on, cork was used as insulating material.
In earlier times, ice was either:
1. Transported from colder regions,
2. Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use or,
3. Made during night by cooling of water by radiation to stratosphere.
4
6. The ice was stored inside the ice house in a pit like this, and the
surrounding earth and layers of straw would help insulate the ice.
6
7. The dome of the ice house helped keep the ice from melting, and at the top there was
a hole covered with a piece marble that prevented the cool air from exiting but allowed
7
8. The ice house at Moggerhanger Park,
Moggerhanger, Bedfordshire
8
9. The ice house entrance, Eglinton
Country Park, Scotland
9
11. In this method ice was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a
shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the tray to the night sky.
Compacted hay of about 0.3 m thickness was used as insulation. The
water looses heat by radiation to the stratosphere, which is at around -
55°C and by early morning hours the water in the trays freezes to ice.
This method of ice production was very popular in India.
11
12. Evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature of a system
by evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling has been used in India for
centuries to obtain cold water in summer by storing the water in earthen
pots. The water permeates through the pores of earthen vessel to its outer
surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent heat in
part from the vessel, which cools the water.
12
15. :
Certain substances such as common salt, when added to water dissolve
in water and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic
process). This reduces the temperature of the solution (water+salt).
Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20°C and
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to - 50°C in properly insulated containers.
However, as it is this process has limited application, as the dissolved
salt has to be recovered from its solution by heating.
15
16. 1. What are the advantages of natural refrigeration
methods.
• Cost.
• Epact on the environment.
• Dependable(reliable).
2. Explain why Evaporative Cooling Systems are ideal for
hot and dry conditions.
2. EXPLAN THE IMPACT OF LATENT HEAT ON EVAPORATIVE COOLING
16
17.
.
is a cyclic device & the working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycles are called refrigerants.
Another device that transfer heat from a low- temperature medium to
a high- temperature one is the heat pump. Refrigerators & heat pumps
are the same devices they differ in their objectives only.
17
18. As shown in figure bellow the Q1 is the magnitude of the heat removed from the
refrigerated space at temperature T1 and Q2 is the magnitude of the heat rejected to the
warm space at temperature T2 and W net is the net work input to the refrigerator.
18
19. The objective of refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at low
temperature by removing heat from it.
The objective of a heat pump is to maintain a heated space at a high
temperature.
This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low- temperature source such as
cold outside air in winter & supplying this heat to a warmer medium such as a
house.
19
20. The performance of refrigerators & heat pump is expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance (COP)
20
21. The cooling capacity of refrigeration system which is the rate of heat removal
from the refrigerated space is often expressed in terms of Ton of Refrigeration
(TR).
21
22. The heat engine that operates most efficiently between high-temperature reservoir& a low-
temperature reservoir is the Carnot engine. It is an ideal engine that uses reversible
processes to form its cycle of operation. Thus it is also called a reversible engine
22
23. We can see that the thermal efficiency
of a Carnot engine is dependent only on
the high & low absolute temperature of
the reservoirs.
This relation of efficiency is applicable
for all working substances or for all
reversible engines regardless of the
particular design characteristics.
23
24. The Carnot engine when operated in reverse become a heat pump or refrigerator.
Depending on the desired heat transfer. The COP for a heat pump becomes:
The COP of refrigerator becomes:
The a above measures of performance set limits that real devices can only approach. The
reversible cycles assumed are unrealistic but the fact that we have limits which we know we
cannot exceed is often very helpful in evaluating proposed design & determining the
direction for further effort. 24
25. Example 1 :
A machine working on a Carnot cycle operates between 305K and 260K Determine the
C.O.P. when it is operated as : (1). refrigerating machine; (2). a heat pump; and
(3). a heat engine.
Example 2:
A cold storage is to be maintained at -5 °C while the surroundings are at 35 °C. the heat
leakage from the surroundings into the cold storage is estimated to be 29kW. The actual
C.O.P. of the refrigeration plant is one-third of an ideal plant working between the same
Temperatures. Find the power required to drive the plant.
25
26. Is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators,
air- conditioning systems and heat pump. It
consists of four processes:
1-2 isentropic compression in a compressor.
2-3 constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
3-4 throttling in an expansion device
4-1 constant pressure heat absorption in an evaporator.
26
28. In an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle.
The refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1 as
saturated vapor & is compressed isentropically to
the condenser pressure. The temperature of the
refrigerant increases during this isentropic
compression process to well above the temperature
of the surrounding medium.
28
29. The refrigerant then enters the
condenser as a superheated
vapor at state 2 and leaves as
saturated liquid at state 3 as a
result of heat rejection to the
surroundings. The temperature
of the refrigerant at this state is
still above the temperature of
the surrounding.
29
30. The saturated liquid refrigerant
at state3 is throttled to the
evaporator pressure by passing
it through an expansion valve
or capillary tube. The
temperature of refrigerant
drops below the temperature
of the refrigerated space during
this process.
30
31. The refrigerant enters the
evaporator at state 4 as low
quality saturated mixture and it
completely evaporates by
absorbing heat from the
refrigerated space. The
refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor
and re enters the compressor,
completing the cycle.
31
32. The steady flow energy equation per unit mass
The condenser & evaporator do not involve any work and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic.
32
33. An actual vapor compression
cycle differs from the ideal one
in several ways, mostly to the
irreversibility that occur in
various components. Two
common sources of
irreversibility are fluid friction
(causes pressure drop) & heat
transfer to or from the
surrounding.
33
34. • Sometimes the vapor refrigerant is required to be delivered at a very high pressure.
• In such cases either we should compress the vapor refrigerant by employing single stage
compressor with a very high pressure ratio or compress it in two or more compressors
placed in series.
• The compression carried out in two or more compressors is called compound or
multistage compression.
34
35. • The COP can be increased either by increasing the refrigerating effect or by
decreasing the compression work. The compression work is greatly reduced if the
refrigerant is compressed very close to the saturated vapor line.
• This can be achieved by compressing the refrigerant in more stages with
intermediate inter-cooling.
35
37. m1: mass of refrigerant passing through the
evaporator (low pressure Compressor) (kg/min)
m2: mass of refrigerant passing through the
condenser (high pressure Compressor) (kg/min)
m3: mass of liquid evaporated in the inter cooler
m3 = m2 - m1
37
38. The value of m2 may obtained by considering the thermal equilibrium for the liquid inter
cooler
m2 h5 + m1 h2 = m1 h6 + m 2h3
The mass of liquid evaporated in the intercooler
38
40. The absorption refrigeration system is one of the oldest method of producing refrigeration
effect. The principle of vapor absorption was first discovery by Michael faraday in 1824.
This system may be used in both the domestic & large industrial refrigerating plants. The
refrigerants commonly used in a vapour absorption system are ammonia & water.
The vapor absorption system uses heat energy instead of mechanical energy as in vapor
compression system.
In the vapor absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber, a pump, a
generator & a pressure reducing valve.
40
42. - The refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator is absorbed in the low temperature hot
solution in the absorber. This process is accompanied by the rejection of heat. The
refrigerant in water solution is pumped to the higher pressure & is heated in the generator.
- Due to increasing the temperature of solution in generator as a result of adding heat,
most of the refrigerant is evaporated & removed from the solution. The vapor then passes
to the condenser & the weak solution is returned to the absorber.
42
47. This system uses a solution of lithium bromide in water. In this system, the water is being
used as a refrigerant where as lithium bromide, which is a highly hydroscopic salt, as an
absorbent. The lithium bromide solution has a strong affinity for water vapour because of its
very low vapour pressure .
This system is very popular for air conditioning in which low refrigeration temperature (not
below 0c ) are required.
47
48. Lithium bromide- water system designed in two forms:
The first where all the components of cycle are placed in same shell, its upper half
contain the generator & condenser while its lower half contain the evaporator & absorber
this type called (one shell system) as in simple absorption system.
The second form consists of two shells, the first shell (high pressure side) contain the
generator & condenser, while the second shell (low pressure side) contain the evaporator
& absorber. This system called (two shell system) as show in figure.
The pressure difference between the generator & the absorber & the gravity due to the
height difference of the two shells is utilized to create the pressure for the spray.
48
53. A typical refrigeration system consists of several basic components
such as compressors, condensers, expansion devices and
evaporators in addition to several accessories such as filters. It is
essential to study the design and performance characteristics of
individual components.
Is the most important & often the costliest component (typically 30
to 40 percent of total cost) of any vapor compression refrigeration
system. The functions of a compressor is to continuously draw the
refrigerant vapour from the evaporator so that a low pressure &
low temperature can be maintained in the evaporator at which the
refrigerant can boil extracting heat from the refrigerated space.
53
54. 1- According to the method of compression
a- Reciprocating compressors
b- Rotary compressors
c- Centrifugal compressors
The compressors may be classified in many ways as follow
54
64. 5- According to the location of the prime mover:
a- semi- hermetic compressors (direct drive, motor &
compressor in separate housing)
b- hermetic compressors (direct drive, motor &
compressor in same housing.
64
65. It is the compressor in which the vapor refrigerant is compressed
by the reciprocating motion of the piston. These compressors are
used for refrigerant which have comparatively low volume per kg
& large differential pressure such as ammonia R-717,R-12, R-22.
These compressors are available in small size which are used in
small domestic refrigerators & large size for large capacity
installations.
There are two types of reciprocating compressors in general use
which are single acting vertical compressors & double acting
horizontal compressors.
65
67. Piston displacement volume or stroke volume:
It is the volume swept by the piston when it moves from its top or
inner dead position to bottom or outer dead center position.
D: diameter of cylinder.
L: length of piston stroke
Clearance factor:
It is the ratio of clearance volume (Vc) to the piston displacement
volume (Vp)
67
68. It is the volume of the actual amount of refrigerant passing
through the compressor in a unit time it is equal to the suction
volume (Vs) and expressed in (m3/s)
It is the ratio of the compressor capacity or the suction volume (Vs)
to the piston displacement volume (Vp).
68
69. Suction pressure:
It is the a absolute pressure of refrigerant at the inlet of a
compressor.
Discharge pressure:
It is the absolute pressure of refrigerant at the outlet of a
compressor.
Compression ratio (pressure Ratio):
It is the ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute
suction pressure. Since the absolute discharge pressure is always
more than the absolute suction pressure, therefore the value of
compression ratio is more than unity.
Suction volume:
It is the volume of refrigerant sucked by the compressor during its
suction stroke.
69
70. 1. What is the function of compressor in an Ac refrigeration cycle.
2. Refrigerant changes from vapor to a liquid in which component?
70