R
CHAPTER ONE (toc1.html#c01a)
The Selection of a Research Approach (toc1.html#c01a)
esearch approaches (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s78) are plans and
the procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection,
analysis, and interpretation. This plan involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which
they make sense to me and the order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which approach should be
used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to the
study; procedures of inquiry (called research designs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s79) ); and specific research methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s80) of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The selection of a research approach is also based on the nature of the research problem
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s81) or issue being addressed, the researchers’
personal experiences, and the audiences for the study. Thus, in this book, research approaches, research designs, and
research methods are three key terms that represent a perspective about research that presents information in a
successive way from broad constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc1.html#c01a
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc1.html#c01a
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s78
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s79
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s80
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s81
1.1 THE THREE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH (toc2.html#s5a)
In this book, three research approaches are advanced: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods.
Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches
should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends
on a continuum (Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed
methods research (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s46) resides in the middle of
this continuum because it incorporates elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Often the distinction between qualitative research
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s68) and quantitative research
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/gls#s72) is framed in terms of using words
(qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or using closed-ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather than
open-end ...
CHAPTER 1 THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH APPROACHResearch approacEstelaJeffery653
CHAPTER 1 THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH APPROACH
Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This plan involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to us and the order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which approach should be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to the study; procedures of inquiry (called research designs); and specific research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The selection of a research approach is also based on the nature of the research problem or issue being addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences, and the audiences for the study. Thus, in this book, research approaches, research designs, and research methods are three key terms that represent a perspective about research that presents information in a successive way from broad constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods.
THE THREE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
In this book, three research approaches are advanced: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods. Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends on a continuum (Creswell, 2015; Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed methods research resides in the middle of this continuum because it incorporates elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Often the distinction between qualitative research and quantitative research is framed in terms of using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or better yet, using closed-ended questions and responses (quantitative hypotheses) or open-ended questions and responses (qualitative interview questions). A more complete way to view the gradations of differences between them is in the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study, the types of research strategies used in the research (e.g., quantitative experiments or qualitative casestudies), and the specific methods employed in conducting these strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively on instruments versus collecting qualitative data through observing a setting). Moreover, there is a historical evolution to both approaches—with the quantitative approaches dominating the forms of research in the social sciences from the late 19th century up until the mid-20th century. During the latter half of the 20th century, interest in qualitative research increased and along with it, the development of mixed methods research. With this background, it should prove helpful to view definitions of these three key t ...
Q CHAPTER NINE (toc1.html#c09a)Qualitative Methods.docxmakdul
Q
CHAPTER NINE (toc1.html#c09a)
Qualitative Methods (toc1.html#c09a)
ualitative methods demonstrate a different approach to scholarly inquiry than methods of quantitative research.
Although the processes are similar, qualitative methods rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data
analysis, and draw on diverse designs. Writing a methods section for a proposal for qualitative research partly
requires educating readers as to the intent of qualitative research, mentioning specific designs, carefully reflecting on the
role the researcher plays in the study, drawing from an ever-expanding list of types of data sources, using specific protocols
for recording data, analyzing the information through multiple steps of analysis, and mentioning approaches for
documenting the accuracy—or validity—of the data collected. This chapter addresses these important components of
writing a good qualitative methods section into a proposal. Table 9.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/c09#tab9.1) presents a checklist for reviewing the
qualitative methods section of your proposal to determine whether you have addressed important topics.
Table 9.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/c09#tab9.1a) A Checklist of Questions
for Designing a Qualitative Procedure
_____________ Are the basic characteristics of qualitative studies mentioned?
_____________ Is the specific type of qualitative design to be used in the study mentioned? Is the history of, a definition
of, and applications for the design mentioned?
_____________ Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher’s role in the study (past historical, social,
cultural experiences, personal connections to sites and people, steps in gaining entry, and sensitive
ethical issues) and how they may shape interpretations made in the study?
_____________ Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and individuals identified?
_____________ Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and a rationale given for their use?
_____________ Are the procedures for recording information during the data collection detailed (such as protocols)?
_____________ Are the data analysis steps identified?
_____________ Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the data for analysis?
_____________ Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a sense of the information?
_____________ Has the researcher coded the data?
_____________ Have the codes been developed to form a description and/or to identify themes?
_____________ Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis and abstraction?
_____________ Are the ways that the data will be represented mentioned—such as in tables, graphs, and figures?
_____________ Have the bases for interpreting the analysis been specified (personal experiences, the literature,
questions, action agenda)?
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc1.html#c09a
https://content.ashfo ...
CHAPTER 1 THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH APPROACHResearch approacEstelaJeffery653
CHAPTER 1 THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH APPROACH
Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This plan involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to us and the order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which approach should be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to the study; procedures of inquiry (called research designs); and specific research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The selection of a research approach is also based on the nature of the research problem or issue being addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences, and the audiences for the study. Thus, in this book, research approaches, research designs, and research methods are three key terms that represent a perspective about research that presents information in a successive way from broad constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods.
THE THREE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
In this book, three research approaches are advanced: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods. Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends on a continuum (Creswell, 2015; Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed methods research resides in the middle of this continuum because it incorporates elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Often the distinction between qualitative research and quantitative research is framed in terms of using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or better yet, using closed-ended questions and responses (quantitative hypotheses) or open-ended questions and responses (qualitative interview questions). A more complete way to view the gradations of differences between them is in the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study, the types of research strategies used in the research (e.g., quantitative experiments or qualitative casestudies), and the specific methods employed in conducting these strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively on instruments versus collecting qualitative data through observing a setting). Moreover, there is a historical evolution to both approaches—with the quantitative approaches dominating the forms of research in the social sciences from the late 19th century up until the mid-20th century. During the latter half of the 20th century, interest in qualitative research increased and along with it, the development of mixed methods research. With this background, it should prove helpful to view definitions of these three key t ...
Q CHAPTER NINE (toc1.html#c09a)Qualitative Methods.docxmakdul
Q
CHAPTER NINE (toc1.html#c09a)
Qualitative Methods (toc1.html#c09a)
ualitative methods demonstrate a different approach to scholarly inquiry than methods of quantitative research.
Although the processes are similar, qualitative methods rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data
analysis, and draw on diverse designs. Writing a methods section for a proposal for qualitative research partly
requires educating readers as to the intent of qualitative research, mentioning specific designs, carefully reflecting on the
role the researcher plays in the study, drawing from an ever-expanding list of types of data sources, using specific protocols
for recording data, analyzing the information through multiple steps of analysis, and mentioning approaches for
documenting the accuracy—or validity—of the data collected. This chapter addresses these important components of
writing a good qualitative methods section into a proposal. Table 9.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/c09#tab9.1) presents a checklist for reviewing the
qualitative methods section of your proposal to determine whether you have addressed important topics.
Table 9.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/c09#tab9.1a) A Checklist of Questions
for Designing a Qualitative Procedure
_____________ Are the basic characteristics of qualitative studies mentioned?
_____________ Is the specific type of qualitative design to be used in the study mentioned? Is the history of, a definition
of, and applications for the design mentioned?
_____________ Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher’s role in the study (past historical, social,
cultural experiences, personal connections to sites and people, steps in gaining entry, and sensitive
ethical issues) and how they may shape interpretations made in the study?
_____________ Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and individuals identified?
_____________ Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and a rationale given for their use?
_____________ Are the procedures for recording information during the data collection detailed (such as protocols)?
_____________ Are the data analysis steps identified?
_____________ Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the data for analysis?
_____________ Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a sense of the information?
_____________ Has the researcher coded the data?
_____________ Have the codes been developed to form a description and/or to identify themes?
_____________ Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis and abstraction?
_____________ Are the ways that the data will be represented mentioned—such as in tables, graphs, and figures?
_____________ Have the bases for interpreting the analysis been specified (personal experiences, the literature,
questions, action agenda)?
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc1.html#c09a
https://content.ashfo ...
Quantitative Methods of Research-Intro to research
Once a researcher has written the research question, the next step is to determine the appropriate research methodology necessary to study the question. The three main types of research design methods are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data.
Acceptable Methods in Action Researc.docxannetnash8266
Acceptable Methods in Action
Research
Schools of Public Service Leadership and Nursing and Health Sciences
Version 1.1 Effective January 2015
Capella University
225 South Sixth Street, Ninth Floor
Minneapolis, MN 55402
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 3
Action Research Acceptable Methods and Research Designs ................................... 4
Action Research is an Approach ................................................................................... 5
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................... 5
Quantitative Methods .................................................................................................. 7
Mixed Methods ........................................................................................................... 8
References ................................................................................................................ 9
3
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
ACTION RESEARCH ACCEPTABLE METHODS AND RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The overarching goal of Action Research (AR) is to collaborate with stakeholders and
participants in an effort to empower and effect social change. AR can be considered a
continuum ranging from appreciative inquiry to pure participatory research: appreciative
and cooperative inquiry (Heron, 1996; Reason & Rowan, 1981, Stowell & West, 1991,
Torbert, 1976, 2004), action research or action science (Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994; Argyris,
Putnam, & Smith, 1985), participatory action research (Freire, 1970), and participatory
research (Lewin,1958). The common factor is that the participants or subjects are directly
involved in the research activities and the project solves a practice or problem that impacts
the participants (Springer, 2007).
Appreciative Action Participatory Participatory
Inquiry Research Action Research Research
Research Mutually Question Question generated Community generates and
Process generated
generated by the by the community. is in control of the process
question organization. Research process
Research controlled by
controlled and researcher
conducted by
researcher
Degree of Group Researcher asks High High
Participation process. for participation
Authentic
as needed
dialogue
Knowledge For practice Problem-solving Transform and Transformational
Generation improvement advance scientific
knowledge
Knowledge Advance Improve system. Community action. Social action.
Utilization practice. Self-
Advance
determination knowledge
Advance Development of critical
knowledge. consciousness.
Power Shared Held by Shared
Egalitarian
researcher
Outcomes Improvement
Solution
to Empowerment. Empowerment
of shared organizational Generation of community
of
practice problem. .
Developing of climate data for building simulation with future weather condit...Rasmus Madsen
Today, climate models are used frequently to describe past, current or future climate conditions in par-ticular building simulation. A research study of how future climate change will affect the future indoor environment and buildings energy use in a Danish context has been conducted. To fulfil this research study, information of how climate models are developed are needed as well. The research study includes an objective descriptive approach from both Danish and global research of the given topic. The gathered information from the publications is evaluated with respect to indicators for the quality of the journals as well as the authors. The method used for development of the Danish design reference year, is not clear, and to have a full knowledge of how the climate change will affect building simulation in a Danish context, further research is needed. This research for development of a new Danish weather file will require both a descriptive and analytical research.
Contextualizing Scientific Research Methodologiesiosrjce
This article dissects the various research instruments currently employed, against the backdrop of
the research design, methodology, population, sampling, and sample size. It highlights quantitative and
qualitative research, data collection methods, as well as the validity and reliability of the investigations. The
article adopted a qualitative research design that utilized documentation analyses to evaluate conventional
approaches to research methods. The study concludes by recommending both qualitative and quantitative
analyses in adding depth to an empirical scientific study
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURESHow would you write a mixed mEstelaJeffery653
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
How would you write a mixed methods procedure section for your proposal or study? Up until this point, we have considered collected quantitative data and qualitative data. We have not discussed “mixing” or combining the two forms of data in a study. We can start with the assumption that both forms of data provide different types of information (open-ended data in the case of qualitative and closed-ended data in the case of quantitative). If we further assume that each type of data collection has both limitations and strengths, we can consider how the strengths can be combined to develop a stronger understanding of the research problem or questions (and, as well, overcome the limitations of each). In a sense, more insight into a problem is to be gained from mixing or integration of the quantitative and qualitative data. This “mixing” or integrating of data, it can be argued, provides a stronger understanding of the problem or question than either by itself. Mixed methods research, therefore, is simply “mining” the databases more by integrating them. This idea is at the core of a new methodology called “mixed methods research.”
Conveying the nature of mixed methods research and its essential characteristics needs to begin a good mixed methods procedure. Start with the assumption that mixed methods is a methodology in research and that the readers need to be educated as to the basic intent and definition of the design, the reasons for choosing the procedure, and the value it will lend to a study. Then, decide on a mixed methods design to use. There are several from which to choose; consider the different possibilities and decide which one is best for your proposed study. With this choice in hand, discuss the data collection, the data analysis, and the data interpretation, discussion, and validation procedures within the context of the design. Finally, end with a discussion of potential ethical issues that need to be anticipated in the study, and suggest an outline for writing the final study. These are all standard methods procedures, and they are framed in this chapter as they apply to mixed methods research. Table 10.1 shows a checklist of the mixed methods procedures addressed in this chapter.
COMPONENTS OF MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
Mixed methods research has evolved into a set of procedures that proposal developers and study designers can use in planning a mixed methods study. In 2003, the Handbook of Mixed Methods in the Social and Behavior Sciences (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003) was published (and later added to in a second edition, see Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010), providing a comprehensive overview of this approach. Now several journals emphasize mixed methods research, such as the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, Quality and Quantity, Field Methods, and the International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches. Additional journals actively encourage this form of inquiry (e.g., International Journal of ...
According to Davenport (2014) social media and health care are c.docxmakdul
According to Davenport (2014) social media and health care are collaborating in meeting the needs of health care providers and patients. Social media is taking a step towards focusing on an analytic model to evaluate the value of social media in healthcare. For this assignment you research and investigate the areas of social media that might embrace and benefit from an analytic model combining acquired data and value-based analytics. You will then evaluate the resource addressing the following points:
· Five major stakeholder roles of social media—patients, physicians (and other outpatient care), hospitals, payers (employers, health plans), and health information technology (IT)
· Will social media improve a practice? How so? Provide a thorough rationale.
· Provide a conclusion with the main points .
format:
· Must be two to four
· Must use at least three scholarly sources
.
According to (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.) theoretical orient.docxmakdul
According to (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.) theoretical orientation represent styles of mind for understanding reality. This theoretical orientation can be organized as a continuum from theoretical constructs that are independent and concrete as with the Behavioral/ CBT theories, to theoretical constructs that are interdependent and abstract as with the Psychodynamic theories (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.). Family systems and Humanistic/Existential are theoretical midpoints (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.). Trait theory tends to focus on the premise that we are born with traits or characteristics that make us unique and explain our behaviors (Cervone& Pervin, 2019). For example, introversion, extroversion, shyness, agreeableness, kindness, etc. all these innate characteristics that we are born help to explain why we behave in a certain manner according to the situations we face, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019). Psychoanalytic perspective on the other hand focuses on childhood experiences and the unconscious mind which plays a role in our personality development, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019).
According to Freud, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019) our unconscious mind includes all our hidden desires and conflicts which form the root cause of our mental health issues or maladaptive behaviors. The main difference between these two perspectives is that trait theory helps to explain why we behave in a certain manner, whereas psychoanalytic theory only describes the personality and predicting behavior and not really explaining why we behave the way we do. There is no such evident similarity between the two perspectives, but kind of rely on underlying mechanisms to explain personality. Also, there is some degree of subjectivity present in both the perspectives. Trait theories involve subjectivity regarding interpretations of which can be considered as important traits that explain our behaviors, and psychoanalytic theory is subjective and vague in the concepts been used like the unconscious mind. My opinions accord with the visible contrasts between the two, one focused on internal features describing our behaviors in clearer words, whilst other concentrating on unconscious mind in anticipating behavior which is ambiguous and harder to grasp.
References
Cervone, D., & Pervin, L. A. (2019). Personality: Theory and research (14th ed.). Wiley.
Fatehi, M., Gordon, R. M., & Florida, O. A Meta-Theoretical Integration of Psychotherapy Orientations.
.
More Related Content
Similar to R CHAPTER ONE (toc1.html#c01a)The Selection of a R.docx
Quantitative Methods of Research-Intro to research
Once a researcher has written the research question, the next step is to determine the appropriate research methodology necessary to study the question. The three main types of research design methods are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data.
Acceptable Methods in Action Researc.docxannetnash8266
Acceptable Methods in Action
Research
Schools of Public Service Leadership and Nursing and Health Sciences
Version 1.1 Effective January 2015
Capella University
225 South Sixth Street, Ninth Floor
Minneapolis, MN 55402
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 3
Action Research Acceptable Methods and Research Designs ................................... 4
Action Research is an Approach ................................................................................... 5
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................... 5
Quantitative Methods .................................................................................................. 7
Mixed Methods ........................................................................................................... 8
References ................................................................................................................ 9
3
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
ACTION RESEARCH ACCEPTABLE METHODS AND RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The overarching goal of Action Research (AR) is to collaborate with stakeholders and
participants in an effort to empower and effect social change. AR can be considered a
continuum ranging from appreciative inquiry to pure participatory research: appreciative
and cooperative inquiry (Heron, 1996; Reason & Rowan, 1981, Stowell & West, 1991,
Torbert, 1976, 2004), action research or action science (Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994; Argyris,
Putnam, & Smith, 1985), participatory action research (Freire, 1970), and participatory
research (Lewin,1958). The common factor is that the participants or subjects are directly
involved in the research activities and the project solves a practice or problem that impacts
the participants (Springer, 2007).
Appreciative Action Participatory Participatory
Inquiry Research Action Research Research
Research Mutually Question Question generated Community generates and
Process generated
generated by the by the community. is in control of the process
question organization. Research process
Research controlled by
controlled and researcher
conducted by
researcher
Degree of Group Researcher asks High High
Participation process. for participation
Authentic
as needed
dialogue
Knowledge For practice Problem-solving Transform and Transformational
Generation improvement advance scientific
knowledge
Knowledge Advance Improve system. Community action. Social action.
Utilization practice. Self-
Advance
determination knowledge
Advance Development of critical
knowledge. consciousness.
Power Shared Held by Shared
Egalitarian
researcher
Outcomes Improvement
Solution
to Empowerment. Empowerment
of shared organizational Generation of community
of
practice problem. .
Developing of climate data for building simulation with future weather condit...Rasmus Madsen
Today, climate models are used frequently to describe past, current or future climate conditions in par-ticular building simulation. A research study of how future climate change will affect the future indoor environment and buildings energy use in a Danish context has been conducted. To fulfil this research study, information of how climate models are developed are needed as well. The research study includes an objective descriptive approach from both Danish and global research of the given topic. The gathered information from the publications is evaluated with respect to indicators for the quality of the journals as well as the authors. The method used for development of the Danish design reference year, is not clear, and to have a full knowledge of how the climate change will affect building simulation in a Danish context, further research is needed. This research for development of a new Danish weather file will require both a descriptive and analytical research.
Contextualizing Scientific Research Methodologiesiosrjce
This article dissects the various research instruments currently employed, against the backdrop of
the research design, methodology, population, sampling, and sample size. It highlights quantitative and
qualitative research, data collection methods, as well as the validity and reliability of the investigations. The
article adopted a qualitative research design that utilized documentation analyses to evaluate conventional
approaches to research methods. The study concludes by recommending both qualitative and quantitative
analyses in adding depth to an empirical scientific study
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURESHow would you write a mixed mEstelaJeffery653
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
How would you write a mixed methods procedure section for your proposal or study? Up until this point, we have considered collected quantitative data and qualitative data. We have not discussed “mixing” or combining the two forms of data in a study. We can start with the assumption that both forms of data provide different types of information (open-ended data in the case of qualitative and closed-ended data in the case of quantitative). If we further assume that each type of data collection has both limitations and strengths, we can consider how the strengths can be combined to develop a stronger understanding of the research problem or questions (and, as well, overcome the limitations of each). In a sense, more insight into a problem is to be gained from mixing or integration of the quantitative and qualitative data. This “mixing” or integrating of data, it can be argued, provides a stronger understanding of the problem or question than either by itself. Mixed methods research, therefore, is simply “mining” the databases more by integrating them. This idea is at the core of a new methodology called “mixed methods research.”
Conveying the nature of mixed methods research and its essential characteristics needs to begin a good mixed methods procedure. Start with the assumption that mixed methods is a methodology in research and that the readers need to be educated as to the basic intent and definition of the design, the reasons for choosing the procedure, and the value it will lend to a study. Then, decide on a mixed methods design to use. There are several from which to choose; consider the different possibilities and decide which one is best for your proposed study. With this choice in hand, discuss the data collection, the data analysis, and the data interpretation, discussion, and validation procedures within the context of the design. Finally, end with a discussion of potential ethical issues that need to be anticipated in the study, and suggest an outline for writing the final study. These are all standard methods procedures, and they are framed in this chapter as they apply to mixed methods research. Table 10.1 shows a checklist of the mixed methods procedures addressed in this chapter.
COMPONENTS OF MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
Mixed methods research has evolved into a set of procedures that proposal developers and study designers can use in planning a mixed methods study. In 2003, the Handbook of Mixed Methods in the Social and Behavior Sciences (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003) was published (and later added to in a second edition, see Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010), providing a comprehensive overview of this approach. Now several journals emphasize mixed methods research, such as the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, Quality and Quantity, Field Methods, and the International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches. Additional journals actively encourage this form of inquiry (e.g., International Journal of ...
According to Davenport (2014) social media and health care are c.docxmakdul
According to Davenport (2014) social media and health care are collaborating in meeting the needs of health care providers and patients. Social media is taking a step towards focusing on an analytic model to evaluate the value of social media in healthcare. For this assignment you research and investigate the areas of social media that might embrace and benefit from an analytic model combining acquired data and value-based analytics. You will then evaluate the resource addressing the following points:
· Five major stakeholder roles of social media—patients, physicians (and other outpatient care), hospitals, payers (employers, health plans), and health information technology (IT)
· Will social media improve a practice? How so? Provide a thorough rationale.
· Provide a conclusion with the main points .
format:
· Must be two to four
· Must use at least three scholarly sources
.
According to (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.) theoretical orient.docxmakdul
According to (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.) theoretical orientation represent styles of mind for understanding reality. This theoretical orientation can be organized as a continuum from theoretical constructs that are independent and concrete as with the Behavioral/ CBT theories, to theoretical constructs that are interdependent and abstract as with the Psychodynamic theories (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.). Family systems and Humanistic/Existential are theoretical midpoints (Fatehi, Gordon & Florida, N.D.). Trait theory tends to focus on the premise that we are born with traits or characteristics that make us unique and explain our behaviors (Cervone& Pervin, 2019). For example, introversion, extroversion, shyness, agreeableness, kindness, etc. all these innate characteristics that we are born help to explain why we behave in a certain manner according to the situations we face, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019). Psychoanalytic perspective on the other hand focuses on childhood experiences and the unconscious mind which plays a role in our personality development, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019).
According to Freud, (Cervone& Pervin, 2019) our unconscious mind includes all our hidden desires and conflicts which form the root cause of our mental health issues or maladaptive behaviors. The main difference between these two perspectives is that trait theory helps to explain why we behave in a certain manner, whereas psychoanalytic theory only describes the personality and predicting behavior and not really explaining why we behave the way we do. There is no such evident similarity between the two perspectives, but kind of rely on underlying mechanisms to explain personality. Also, there is some degree of subjectivity present in both the perspectives. Trait theories involve subjectivity regarding interpretations of which can be considered as important traits that explain our behaviors, and psychoanalytic theory is subjective and vague in the concepts been used like the unconscious mind. My opinions accord with the visible contrasts between the two, one focused on internal features describing our behaviors in clearer words, whilst other concentrating on unconscious mind in anticipating behavior which is ambiguous and harder to grasp.
References
Cervone, D., & Pervin, L. A. (2019). Personality: Theory and research (14th ed.). Wiley.
Fatehi, M., Gordon, R. M., & Florida, O. A Meta-Theoretical Integration of Psychotherapy Orientations.
.
According to Libertarianism, there is no right to any social service.docxmakdul
According to Libertarianism, there is no right to any social services besides those of a night-watchman state, protecting citizens from harming each other via courts, police, and military.
Consider this town
that decided to remove fire rescue as a basic social service. To benefit from it, one had to pay a yearly fee. Do you think libertarians would generally have to support such a policy in order to be consistent? Why or why not? Also, can you think of any other social services that might no longer exist in a libertarian society? (Btw, none has ever existed).
.
According to Kirk (2016), most of your time will be spent working wi.docxmakdul
According to Kirk (2016), most of your time will be spent working with your data. The four following group actions were mentioned by Kirk (2016):
Data acquisition: Gathering the raw material
Data examination: Identifying physical properties and meaning
Data transformation: Enhancing your data through modification and consolidation
Data exploration: Using exploratory analysis and research techniques to learn
Select 1 data action and elaborate on the actions performed in that action group.
.
According to cultural deviance theorists like Cohen, deviant sub.docxmakdul
According to cultural deviance theorists like Cohen, deviant subcultures have their own value system that often opposes those of society at large. These contradictory "values" have been embraced by generations within that culture—and as a way to act out against the majority value system from which they feel excluded. Write an essay of 750-1,000 words that addresses the following:
How has rap culture perpetuated subcultural values, and promoted violence and crime among young men?
Given its sharp deviation from conventional values and norms, how and why would theorists explain the persistence and popularity of this subculture? (See examples Tupac Shakur page 109-110 and 50 Cent page 135).
Be sure to cite three to five relevant scholarly sources in support of your content
.
According to Gray et al, (2017) critical appraisal is the proce.docxmakdul
According to Gray et al, (2017) “critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically assessing the outcome of all aspects of a study, judging the strengths, limitation, trustworthiness, meaning, and its applicability to practice”. The steps involved in critical appraisal include “identifying the study's elements or processes, determining the strengths and weaknesses, and evaluating the credibility and trustworthiness of the study” (Gray et al., 2017). The journal article chosen is
“change in staff perspectives on indwelling urinary catheter use after implementation of an intervention bundle in seven Swiss acute care hospitals: a result of a before/after survey study”
by Niederhauser, Zullig, Marschall, Schweiger, John, Kuster, and Schwappach. (2019).
Identifying the study's elements or processes
A significant issue addressed by the study is the nursing “staffs’ perspective towards indwelling urinary catheter (IUC) and evaluation of changes in their perspectives towards indwelling urinary catheter (IUC) use after implementation of a 1-year quality improvement project” (Niederhauser et al, 2019). the process of the research was conducted in “seven acute care hospitals in Switzerland” (Niederhauser et al, 2019). With a “sample size of 1579 staff members participated in the baseline survey and 1527 participated in the follow-up survey. The survey captures all nursing and medical staff members working at the participating hospitals at the time of survey distribution, using a multimodal intervention bundle, consisting of an evidence-based indication list, daily re-evaluation of ongoing catheter needs, and staff training were implemented over the course of 9 months” (Niederhauser et al, 2019).
Determining the strengths and weaknesses
A great strength of the study is a large sample size of over 1000 and the use of well-constructed and easy-to-read heading for better understanding. Also, the use of figures, graphs, and tables make the article less cumbersome to read. Another strength is the implementation of the ethical principles of research by enabling informed consent and voluntary participation as well as confidentiality and anonymity of information.
On the other hand, the study has several weaknesses such as the use of “the theory of planned behavior to model intentions to reduce catheter use, but it is not possible to know if changes observed in staff perception led to a true change in practice” (Niederhauser et al, 2019). Another weakness of the study is the repeated survey design which allows assessment of changes in staff perspectives after implementation of a quality improvement intervention but the sustainability of the effects over time could not be evaluated.
Evaluating the credibility and trustworthiness of the study
Although the study used a larger sample size of over 1000, the “use of a single-group design and no control group weakens its credibility and trustworthiness because there are no causal inferences abou.
According to article Insecure Policing Under Racial Capitalism by.docxmakdul
According to article "Insecure: Policing Under Racial Capitalism" by Robin D.G. Kelley and the article "Yes, We Mean Literally Abolish the Police" by Mariame Kaba, the police are no longer an attribute of safety and security. The facts that are given in the articles are similar within the meaning of the content. The police do not serve for the benefit of the whole community. Racial and class division according to social status became the basis of lawlessness and injustice on the part of the police. Kaaba in his article cites several stories confirming the racial hatred that led to the murder of African Americans. After that, people massively took to the streets of many cities in several countries, demanding an end to racial discrimination and the murder of African Americans. Kelley's article describes numerous manifestos where demands for police abolition have been raised, but all have been rejected. In the protests, people suggested that they themselves would take care of each other, which the police could not do. I understand that the police system is far from ideal and the permissiveness of police representatives should be limited. Ruth Wilson Gilmore says that "capitalism is never racial." I think that this phrase she wants to say that the stronger people take away from the weak people and use them for their own well-being. And since the roots of history go back to slavery, then African Americans are the weak link. In this regard, a huge number of prisons and police power appeared. The common and small class do not feel protected, on the contrary; they expect a threat from people who must protect them. The police take an oath to respect and protect human and civil rights and freedoms, regardless of skin color and social status. If this does not happen, then you need to change the system.
.
Abstract In this experiment, examining the equivalence poi.docxmakdul
Abstract:
In this experiment, examining the equivalence point in a titration with NaOH identified an
unknown diprotic acid. The molar mass of the unknown was found to be 100.78 g/mol with pKa
values of 2.6 and 6.6. The closest diprotic acid to this molar mass is malonic acid with a percent
error of 3.48%.
Introduction:
The purpose of the experiment was to determine the identity of an unknown diprotic acid. The
equivalence and half-equivalence points on the titration curve give important information, which
can then be used to calculate the molecular weight of the acid. The equivalence point is the
moment when there is an equal amount of acid and NaOH. Knowing the concentration and
volume of added NaOH at that moment, the amount of moles of NaOH can be determined. The
amount of moles of NaOH is then equivalent to the amount of acid present. Dividing the original
mass of the acid by the moles present gave the molar mass of the acid.
In this particular titration, there were two equivalence points as the acid is diprotic.
Consequently, the titration curve had two inflection points. The acid dissociated in a two-step
process with the net reaction being:
H2X + 2 NaOH Na2X + 2 H2O
This was important to take into consideration when calculating the molar mass of the diprotic
acid. If the first equivalence point was to be used, the ratio of acid to NaOH was 1:1. If the
second equivalence point was used in the calculations, the ratio became 1:2 as now a second
set of NaOH molecules reacted with the acid to dissociate the second hydrogen ion. The
titration curve also showed the pKa values of the acid. This happened at the half-equivalence
point where half of the acid was dissociated to its conjugate base (again, because of the diprotic
properties of the acid, this happens twice on the curve). The Henderson Hasselbalch equation
pH = pKa+log(A-/HA)
shows that at the half-equivalence point, the pKa value equaled the pH and was visually
represented by the flattest part of the graphs.
Discussion:
The titration graph showed that the data was consistent with the methodology and proved to be
an precise execution of the procedure and followed the expected shape. One possible source of
error was the actual mass of the acid solid. While transferring the dust from the weigh boat to
the solution, some remained in the weigh boat this could have altered the molar mass
calculations and shifted the final the final mass lighter than actual.
The Vernier pH method was definitely a much more concrete method of interpreting the results.
It was possible to see which addition of NaOH gave the greatest increase in pH ( greatest 1st
derivative of the titration graph). The relying solely on the indicator color would make it very
difficult to judge at which precise point the color shifted most, as the shift was a lot more gradual
compared to the precise numbers. This may have been a more reliable method if there was a
de.
ACC 403- ASSIGNMENT 2 RUBRIC!!!
Points: 280
Assignment 2: Audit Planning and Control
Criteria
UnacceptableBelow 60% F
Meets Minimum Expectations60-69% D
Fair70-79% C
Proficient80-89% B
Exemplary90-100% A
1. Outline the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Based upon the type of company selected, provide specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program.
Weight: 15%
Did not submit or incompletely outlined the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Did not submit or incompletely provided specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program, based upon the type of company selected.
Insufficiently outlined the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Insufficiently provided specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program, based upon the type of company selected.
Partially outlined the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Partially provided specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program, based upon the type of company selected.
Satisfactorily outlined the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Satisfactorily provided specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program, based upon the type of company selected.
Thoroughly outlined the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Thoroughly provided specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program, based upon the type of company selected.
2. Examine at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests to perform. Identify the accounts that you would test, and select at least three (3) analytical procedures that you would use in your audit.
Weight: 15%
Did not submit or incompletely examined at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests to perform. Did not submit or incompletely identified the accounts that you would test; did not submit or incompletely selected at least three (3) analytical procedures that you would use in your audit.
Insufficiently examined at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests to perform. Insufficiently identified the accounts that you would test; insufficiently selected at least three (3) analytical procedures that you would use in your audit.
Partially examined at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests .
ACC 601 Managerial Accounting Group Case 3 (160 points) .docxmakdul
ACC 601 Managerial Accounting
Group Case 3 (160 points)
Instructions:
1. As a group, complete the following activities in good form. Use excel or
word only. Provide all supporting calculations to show how you arrived at
your numbers
2. Add only the names of group members who participated in the completion
of this assignment.
3. Submit only one copy of your completed work via Moodle. Do not send it to
me by email.
4. Due: No later than the last day of Module 7. Please note that your professor
has the right to change the due date of this assignment.
Part A: Capital Budgeting Decisions
Chee Company has gathered the following data on a proposed investment project:
Investment required in equipment ............. $240,000
Annual cash inflows .................................. $50,000
Salvage value ............................................ $0
Life of the investment ............................... 8 years
Required rate of return .............................. 10%
Assets will be depreciated using straight
line depreciation method
Required:
Using the net present value and the internal rate of return methods, is this a good investment?
Part B: Master Budget
You have just been hired as a new management trainee by Earrings Unlimited, a distributor of
earrings to various retail outlets located in shopping malls across the country. In the past, the
company has done very little in the way of budgeting and at certain times of the year has
experienced a shortage of cash. Since you are well trained in budgeting, you have decided to
prepare a master budget for the upcoming second quarter. To this end, you have worked with
accounting and other areas to gather the information assembled below.
The company sells many styles of earrings, but all are sold for the same price—$10 per pair. Actual
sales of earrings for the last three months and budgeted sales for the next six months follow (in pairs
of earrings):
January (actual) 20,000 June (budget) 50,000
February (actual) 26,000 July (budget) 30,000
March (actual) 40,000 August (budget) 28,000
April (budget) 65,000 September (budget) 25,000
May (budget) 100,000
The concentration of sales before and during May is due to Mother’s Day. Sufficient inventory should
be on hand at the end of each month to supply 40% of the earrings sold in the following month.
Suppliers are paid $4 for a pair of earrings. One-half of a month’s purchases is paid for in the month
of purchase; the other half is paid for in the following month. All sales are on credit. Only 20% of a
month’s sales are collected in the month of sale. An additional 70% is collected in the following
month, and the remaining 10% is collected in the second month following sale. Bad debts have been
negligible.
Monthly operating expenses for the company are given below:
Variable:
Sales commissions 4 % of sales
.
Academic Integrity A Letter to My Students[1] Bill T.docxmakdul
Academic Integrity:
A Letter to My Students[1]
Bill Taylor
Professor of Political Science
Oakton Community College
Des Plaines, IL 60016
[email protected]
Here at the beginning of the semester I want to say something to you about academic integrity.[2]
I’m deeply convinced that integrity is an essential part of any true educational experience, integrity on
my part as a faculty member and integrity on your part as a student.
To take an easy example, would you want to be operated on by a doctor who cheated his way through
medical school? Or would you feel comfortable on a bridge designed by an engineer who cheated her
way through engineering school. Would you trust your tax return to an accountant who copied his
exam answers from his neighbor?
Those are easy examples, but what difference does it make if you as a student or I as a faculty member
violate the principles of academic integrity in a political science course, especially if it’s not in your
major?
For me, the answer is that integrity is important in this course precisely because integrity is important in
all areas of life. If we don’t have integrity in the small things, if we find it possible to justify plagiarism or
cheating or shoddy work in things that don’t seem important, how will we resist doing the same in areas
that really do matter, in areas where money might be at stake, or the possibility of advancement, or our
esteem in the eyes of others?
Personal integrity is not a quality we’re born to naturally. It’s a quality of character we need to nurture,
and this requires practice in both meanings of that word (as in practice the piano and practice a
profession). We can only be a person of integrity if we practice it every day.
What does that involve for each of us in this course? Let’s find out by going through each stage in the
course. As you’ll see, academic integrity basically requires the same things of you as a student as it
requires of me as a teacher.
I. Preparation for Class
What Academic Integrity Requires of Me in This Area
With regard to coming prepared for class, the principles of academic integrity require that I come having
done the things necessary to make the class a worthwhile educational experience for you. This requires
that I:
reread the text (even when I’ve written it myself),
clarify information I might not be clear about,
prepare the class with an eye toward what is current today (that is, not simply rely on past
notes), and
plan the session so that it will make it worth your while to be there.
What Academic Integrity Requires of You in This Area
With regard to coming prepared for class, the principles of academic integrity suggest that you have a
responsibility to yourself, to me, and to the other students to do the things necessary to put yourself in
a position to make fruitful contributions to class discussion. This will require you to:
read the text before.
Access the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) Nu.docxmakdul
Access the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s)
“Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity: Data, Trends and Maps”
database. Choose a state other than your home state and compare their health status and associated behaviors. What behaviors lead to the current obesity status?
Initial discussion post should be approximately 300 words. Any sources used should be cited in APA format.
.
According to DSM 5 This patient had very many symptoms that sugg.docxmakdul
According to DSM 5 This patient had very many symptoms that suggested Major Depressive Disorder.
Objective(s)
Analyze psychometric properties of assessment tools
Evaluate appropriate use of assessment tools in psychotherapy
Compare assessment tools used in psychotherapy
.
Acceptable concerts include professional orchestras, soloists, jazz,.docxmakdul
Acceptable concerts include professional orchestras, soloists, jazz, Broadway musicals and instrumental or vocal ensembles, and comparable college or community groups performing music relevant to the content of this class. (Optionally, either your concert report
or
your concert review - but not both unless advance permission is given - may be based on a concert of non-western music selected from events on the concert list.)
Acceptable concerts include the following:
• Symphony orchestras • Concert bands and wind ensembles • Chamber Music (string quartets, brass and woodwind quintets, etc.) • Solo recitals (piano, voice, etc.) • Choral concerts • Early music concerts • Non-western music • Some jazz concerts • Opera• Broadway Musicals• Flamenco• Ballet• Tango
Assignment Format
The following are required on the concert review assignment and, thus, may affect your grade.
• Must be typed• Must be double-spaced• Must be between
2 and 4 pages
in length
not including the cover sheet
.• Must use conventional size and formatting of text - e.g. 10-12 point serif or sans serif fonts with normal margins. • Must include the printed program from the concert and/or your ticket stubs. Photocopies are unacceptable. (Contact me at least 24 hours before due date if any materials are unavailable.)• All materials (text, program, ticket stub) must be
stapled
together securely. Folded corners, paper clips, etc. instead of staples will not be accepted.• Careful editing, proofreading, and spelling are expected, although minor errors will not affect your grade.
Papers that do not follow these format guidelines may be returned for resubmission, and late penalties will apply.
Concert Review Assignment Content
I. Cover Sheet:
Include the following on a cover sheet attached to the front of your review:
• Title or other description of the event/performers you heard, along with the date and location of the performance. For example:
New World Symphony Orchestra
1258 Lincoln Road
Saturday, June 5, 2013
Lincoln Road Theater, Miami Beach
• Your name, assignment submission date, course. For example:
Pat Romero
October 31, 2013
Humanities 1020 MWF 8:05 a.m.
II. Descriptions
The main body of the concert review should include brief discussions of
three of the
pieces
in the concert you attend. In most cases, a single paragraph for each piece should be sufficient, although you may wish to break descriptions of longer pieces into separate short paragraphs, one per movement.
Your description of each piece (song) should include:
• The title of the piece and the composer's name if possible, as listed in the concert program.• A brief description of your reaction to the piece. For example:
When the piece started I thought it was going to be slow and boring, but the faster section in the first movement made it more exciting. A really great flute solo full of fast and high notes in the third movement caught my attention. I'm not sure, but I thought that som.
ACA was passed in 2010, under the presidency of Barack Obama. Pr.docxmakdul
ACA was passed in 2010, under the presidency of Barack Obama. Prior to this new act, there were plenty of votes that did not agree with the notion of accessible insurance. Before 2010, The private sector had been given coverage in such a way that Milstead and Short (2019) called it sickness insurance; meaning companies will risk incurring medical expenses as long as it was balanced by healthy people. They were doing so by excluding people that had pre-existing conditions, becoming a very solvent business (Milstead & Short, 2019). After ACA was passed that was no longer the case. When President Trump came into term he did so by bringing his own healthcare agenda, which attempted to repeal ACA, but ultimately failed to come up with a replacement.
In 2016, the Republican's party platform was to repeal ACA, while continuing Medicare and Medicaid, but on the other hand, democrats put down that Obamacare is a step towards the goals of universal health care, and that this was just the beginning (Physicians for a National Health Program, n.d.). As for the cost analysis of repealing the Affordable Care Act, this would increase the number of uninsured people by 23 million, and it will cost about 350 billion through 2027, as well as creating costly coverage provisions to replace it (Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, 2017).
(2 references required)
.
Access the FASB website. Once you login, click the FASB Accounting S.docxmakdul
Access the FASB website. Once you login, click the FASB Accounting Standards Codification link. Review the materials in the FASB Codification, especially the links on the left side column. Next, write a 1-page memo to a friend introducing and explaining this new accounting research resource that you have found. Provide at least one APA citation to the FASB Codification and reference that citation using the APA guidelines.
.
Academic Paper Overview This performance task was intended to asse.docxmakdul
Academic Paper Overview This performance task was intended to assess students’ ability to conduct scholarly and responsible research and articulate an evidence-based argument that clearly communicates the conclusion, solution, or answer to their stated research question. More specifically, this performance task was intended to assess students’ ability to: • Generate a focused research question that is situated within or connected to a larger scholarly context or community; • Explore relationships between and among multiple works representing multiple perspectives within the scholarly literature related to the topic of inquiry; • Articulate what approach, method, or process they have chosen to use to address their research question, why they have chosen that approach to answering their question, and how they employed it; • Develop and present their own argument, conclusion, or new understanding while acknowledging its limitations and discussing implications; • Support their conclusion through the compilation, use, and synthesis of relevant and significant evidence generated by their research; • Use organizational and design elements to effectively convey the paper’s message; • Consistently and accurately cite, attribute, and integrate the knowledge and work of others, while distinguishing between their voice and that of others; and • Generate a paper in which word choice and syntax enhance communication by adhering to established conventions of grammar, usage, and mechanics.
.
Academic Research Team Project PaperCOVID-19 Open Research Datas.docxmakdul
Academic Research Team Project Paper
COVID-19 Open Research Dataset Challenge (CORD-19)
An AI challenge with AI2, CZI, MSR, Georgetown, NIH & The White House
(1) FULL-LENGTH PROJECT
Dataset Description
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the White House and a coalition of leading research groups have prepared the COVID-19 Open Research Dataset (CORD-19). CORD-19 is a resource of over 44,000 scholarly articles, including over 29,000 with full text, about COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, and related corona viruses. This freely available dataset is provided to the global research community to apply recent advances in natural language processing and other AI techniques to generate new insights in support of the ongoing fight against this infectious disease. There is a growing urgency for these approaches because of the rapid acceleration in new coronavirus literature, making it difficult for the medical research community to keep up.
Call to Action
We are issuing a call to action to the world's artificial intelligence experts to develop text and data mining tools that can help the medical community develop answers to high priority scientific questions. The CORD-19 dataset represents the most extensive machine-readable coronavirus literature collection available for data mining to date. This allows the worldwide AI research community the opportunity to apply text and data mining approaches to find answers to questions within, and connect insights across, this content in support of the ongoing COVID-19 response efforts worldwide. There is a growing urgency for these approaches because of the rapid increase in coronavirus literature, making it difficult for the medical community to keep up.
A list of our initial key questions can be found under the
Tasks
section of this dataset. These key scientific questions are drawn from the NASEM’s SCIED (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s Standing Committee on Emerging Infectious Diseases and 21st Century Health Threats)
research topics
and the World Health Organization’s
R&D Blueprint
for COVID-19.
Many of these questions are suitable for text mining, and we encourage researchers to develop text mining tools to provide insights on these questions.
In this project, you will follow your own interests to create a portfolio worthy single-frame viz or multi-frame data story that will be shared in your presentation. You will use all the skills taught in this course to complete this project step-by-step, with guidance from your instructors along the way. You will first create a project proposal to identify your goals for the project, including the question you wish to answer or explore with data. You will then find data that will provide the information you are seeking. You will then import that data into Tableau and prepare it for analysis. Next, you will create a dashboard that will allow you to explore the data in-depth and identify meaningful insights. You will then give structure .
AbstractVoice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is an advanced t.docxmakdul
Abstract
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is an advanced telecommunication technology which transfers the voice/video over
high speed network that provides advantages of flexibility, reliability and cost efficient advanced telecommunication
features. Still the issues related to security are averting many organizations to accept VoIP cloud environment due to
security threats, holes or vulnerabilities. So, the novel secured framework is absolutely necessary to prevent all kind of
VoIP security issues. This paper points out the existing VoIP cloud architecture and various security attacks and issues
in the existing framework. It also presents the defense mechanisms to prevent the attacks and proposes a new security
framework called Intrusion Prevention System (IPS) using video watermarking and extraction technique and Liveness
Voice Detection (LVD) technique with biometric features such as face and voice. IPSs updated with new LVD features
protect the VoIP services not only from attacks but also from misuses.
A Comprehensive Survey of Security Issues and
Defense Framework for VoIP Cloud
Ashutosh Satapathy* and L. M. Jenila Livingston
School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University, Chennai - 600127, Tamil Nadu, India;
[email protected], [email protected]
Keywords: Defense Mechanisms, Liveness Voice Detection, VoIP Cloud, Voice over Internet Protocol, VoIP Security Issues
1. Introduction
The rapid progress of VoIP over traditional services is
led to a situation that is common to many innovations
and new technologies such as VoIP cloud and peer to
peer services like Skype, Google Hangout etc. VoIP is the
technology that supports sending voice (and video) over
an Internet protocol-based network1,2. This is completely
different than the public circuit-switched telephone net-
work. Circuit switching network allocates resources to
each individual call and path is permanent throughout
the call from start to end. Traditional telephony services
are provided by the protocols/components such as SS7, T
carriers, Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS), the Public
Switch Telephone Network (PSTN), dial up, local loops
and anything under International Telecommunication
Union. IP networks are based on packet switching and
each packet follows different path, has its own header and
is forwarded separately by routers. VoIP network can be
constructed in various ways by using both proprietary
protocols and protocols based on open standards.
1.1 VoIP Layer Architecture
VoIP communication system typically consist of a front
end platform (soft-phone, PBX, gateway, call manager),
back end platform (server, CPU, storage, memory, net-
work) and intermediate platforms such as VoIP protocols,
database, authentication server, web server, operating sys-
tems etc. It is mainly divided into five layers as shown in
Figure1.
1.2 VoIP Cloud Architecture
VoIP cloud is the framework for delivering telephony
services in which resourc.
Abstract
Structure of Abstract
Background on the problem
purpose/objective of the study
Method used
Interpretation of results
Conclusion&Recommendation for future research
.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution Class 9 Study Material pdf free download
R CHAPTER ONE (toc1.html#c01a)The Selection of a R.docx
1. R
CHAPTER ONE (toc1.html#c01a)
The Selection of a Research Approach (toc1.html#c01a)
esearch approaches
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tions/gls#s78) are plans and
the procedures for research that span the steps from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection,
analysis, and interpretation. This plan involves several
decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which
they make sense to me and the order of their presentation here.
The overall decision involves which approach should be
used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the
philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to the
study; procedures of inquiry (called research designs
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tions/gls#s79) ); and specific research methods
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tions/gls#s80) of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The selection of a research approach is also
based on the nature of the research problem
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tions/gls#s81) or issue being addressed, the researchers’
personal experiences, and the audiences for the study. Thus, in
this book, research approaches, research designs, and
research methods are three key terms that represent a
2. perspective about research that presents information in a
successive way from broad constructions of research to the
narrow procedures of methods.
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1.1 THE THREE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
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In this book, three research approaches are advanced: (a)
qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods.
Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they
first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches
should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar
opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends
on a continuum (Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be
more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed
methods research
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tions/gls#s46) resides in the middle of
this continuum because it incorporates elements of both
qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Often the distinction between qualitative research
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tions/gls#s68) and quantitative research
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tions/gls#s72) is framed in terms of using words
(qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or using closed-
ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather than
open-ended questions (qualitative interview questions). A more
complete way to view the gradations of differences
between them is in the basic philosophical assumptions
researchers bring to the study, the types of research strategies
used in the research (e.g., quantitative experiments or
qualitative case studies
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tions/gls#s4) ), and the specific methods employed in
conducting these strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively
on instruments versus collecting qualitative data through
observing a setting). Moreover, there is a historical evolution to
both approaches—with the quantitative approaches
dominating the forms of research in the social sciences from the
late 19th century up until the mid-20th century. During
the latter half of the 20th century, interest in qualitative
research increased and along with it, the development of mixed
methods research. With this background, it should prove helpful
to view definitions of these three key terms as used in
this book:
• Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem. The process of research involves
emerging questions and procedures, data typically
collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively
building from particulars to general themes, and the
researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
The final written report has a flexible structure. Those
who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at
research that honors an inductive style, a focus on
individual meaning, and the importance of rendering the
complexity of a situation.
4. • Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective
theories
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tions/gls#s97) by examining the relationship among
variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically
on instruments, so that numbered data can be
analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report
has a set structure consisting of introduction,
literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like
qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form
of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively,
building in protections against bias, controlling for
alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and
replicate the findings.
• Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data,
integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs
that may involve philosophical assumptions and
theoretical frameworks. The core assumption of this form of
inquiry is that the combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches provides a more complete
understanding of a research problem than either approach alone.
These definitions have considerable information in each one of
them. Throughout this book, I discuss the parts of the
definitions so that their meanings will become clear to you as
you read ahead.
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1.2 THREE COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN AN APPROACH
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Two important components in each definition are that the
approach to research involves philosophical assumptions as
well as distinct methods or procedures. The broad research
approach is the plan or proposal to conduct research,
involves the intersection of philosophy, research designs, and
specific methods. A framework that I use to explain the
interaction of these three components is seen in Figure 1.1
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tions/s6#fig1.1) . To reiterate, in planning a study,
researchers need to think through the philosophical worldview
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tions/gls#s108) assumptions that they bring to the study, the
research design that is related to this worldview, and the
specific methods or procedures of research that translate the
approach into practice.
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Philosophical Worldviews (toc2.html#s7a)
Although philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in research
6. (Slife & Williams, 1995), they still influence the
practice of research and need to be identified. I suggest that
individuals preparing a research proposal or plan make
explicit the larger philosophical ideas they espouse. This
information will help explain why they chose qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods approaches for their research. In
writing about worldviews, a proposal might include a
section that addresses the following:
Figure 1.1
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tions/s6#fig1.1a) A Framework for
Research—The Interconnection of Worldviews, Design, and
Research Methods
• The philosophical worldview proposed in the study
• A definition of basic ideas of that worldview
• How the worldview shaped their approach to research
I have chosen to use the term worldview as meaning “a basic set
of beliefs that guide action” (Guba, 1990, p. 17).
Others have called them paradigms (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba,
2011; Mertens, 2010); epistemologies and ontologies
(Crotty, 1998), or broadly conceived research methodologies
(Neuman, 2009). I see worldviews as a general philosophical
orientation about the world and the nature of research that a
researcher brings to a study. Worldviews arise based on
discipline orientations, students’ advisors/mentors inclinations,
and past research experiences. The types of beliefs held
by individual researchers based on these factors will often lead
to embracing a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods approach in their research. Although there is ongoing
debate about what worldviews or beliefs researchers
bring to inquiry, I will highlight four that are widely discussed
7. in the literature: postpositivism, constructivism,
transformative, and pragmatism
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tions/gls#s57) . The major
elements of each position are presented in Table 1.1
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tions/s6#tab1.1) .
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tions/s6#tab1.1a) Four Worldviews
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Postpositivism Constructivism
• Determination
• Reductionism
• Empirical observation and measurement
• Theory verification
• Understanding
• Multiple participant meanings
• Social and historical construction
• Theory generation
8. Transformative Pragmatism
• Political
• Power and justice oriented
• Collaborative
• Change-oriented
• Consequences of actions
• Problem-centered
• Pluralistic
• Real-world practice oriented
The Postpositivist Worldview (toc2.html#s8a)
The postpositivist assumptions have represented the traditional
form of research, and these assumptions hold true
more for quantitative research than qualitative research. This
worldview is sometimes called the scientific method, or
doing science research. It is also called positivist/postpositivist
research, empirical science, and postpositivism. This last
term is called post-positivism because it represents the thinking
after positivism, challenging the traditional notion of
the absolute truth of knowledge (Phillips & Burbules, 2000) and
recognizing that we cannot be positive about our claims
of knowledge when studying the behavior and actions of
humans. The postpositivist tradition comes from 19th-century
writers, such as Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton, and Locke
(Smith, 1983) and more recently from writers such as
Phillips and Burbules (2000).
Postpositivists
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tions/gls#s56) hold a deterministic
philosophy in which causes (probably) determine effects or
outcomes. Thus, the problems studied by postpositivists
reflect the need to identify and assess the causes that influence
outcomes, such as found in experiments. It is also
reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce the ideas into a
small, discrete set to test, such as the variables that comprise
hypotheses and research questions. The knowledge that
develops through a postpositivist lens is based on careful
observation and measurement of the objective reality that exists
“out there” in the world. Thus, developing numeric
measures of observations and studying the behavior of
individuals becomes paramount for a postpositivist. Finally,
there
are laws or theories that govern the world, and these need to be
tested or verified and refined so that we can understand
the world. Thus, in the scientific method—the accepted
approach to research by postpositivists—a researcher begins
with a theory, collects data that either supports or refutes the
theory, and then makes necessary revisions and conducts
additional tests.
In reading Phillips and Burbules (2000), you can gain a sense of
the key assumptions of this position, such as the
following:
1. Knowledge is conjectural (and antifoundational)—absolute
truth can never be found. Thus, evidence
established in research is always imperfect and fallible. It is for
this reason that researchers state that they do
not prove a hypothesis; instead, they indicate a failure to reject
the hypothesis.
2. Research is the process of making claims and then refining or
abandoning some of them for other claims more
10. strongly warranted. Most quantitative research, for example,
starts with the test of a theory.
3. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge.
In practice, the researcher collects information on
instruments based on measures completed by the participants or
by observations recorded by the researcher.
4. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements, ones that
can serve to explain the situation of concern or
that describe the causal relationships of interest. In quantitative
studies, researchers advance the relationship
among variables and pose this in terms of questions or
hypotheses.
5. Being objective is an essential aspect of competent inquiry;
researchers must examine methods and conclusions
for bias. For example, standard of validity and reliability are
important in quantitative research.
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The Constructivist Worldview (toc2.html#s9a)
Others hold a different worldview. Constructivism or social
constructivism (often combined with interpretivism) is
such a perspective, and it is typically seen as an approach to
qualitative research. The ideas came from Mannheim and
from works such as Berger and Luekmann’s (1967) The Social
Construction of Reality and Lincoln and Guba’s (1985)
Naturalistic Inquiry. More recent writers who have summarized
this position are Lincoln and colleagues (2011), Mertens
(2010), and Crotty (1998), among others. Social constructivists
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tions/gls#s89) believe that individuals seek understanding
of the world in which they live and work. Individuals develop
subjective meanings of their experiences—meanings
directed toward certain objects or things. These meanings are
varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the
complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few
categories or ideas. The goal of the research is to rely as
much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation
being studied. The questions become broad and general so
that the participants can construct the meaning of a situation,
typically forged in discussions or interactions with other
persons. The more open-ended the questioning, the better, as the
researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in
their life settings. Often these subjective meanings are
negotiated socially and historically. They are not simply
imprinted
on individuals but are formed through interaction with others
(hence social constructivism) and through historical and
cultural norms that operate in individuals’ lives. Thus,
constructivist researchers often address the processes of
interaction among individuals. They also focus on the specific
contexts in which people live and work in order to
understand the historical and cultural settings of the
participants. Researchers recognize that their own backgrounds
shape their interpretation, and they position themselves in the
research to acknowledge how their interpretation flows
from their personal, cultural, and historical experiences. The
researcher’s intent is to make sense of (or interpret) the
meanings others have about the world. Rather than starting with
a theory (as in postpositivism), inquirers generate or
inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning.
For example, in discussing constructivism, Crotty (1998)
identified several assumptions:
12. 1. Human beings construct meanings as they engage with the
world they are interpreting. Qualitative researchers
tend to use open-ended questions so that the participants can
share their views.
2. Humans engage with their world and make sense of it based
on their historical and social perspectives—we are
all born into a world of meaning bestowed upon us by our
culture. Thus, qualitative researchers seek to
understand the context or setting of the participants through
visiting this context and gathering information
personally. They also interpret what they find, an interpretation
shaped by the researcher’s own experiences
and background.
3. The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in
and out of interaction with a human community. The
process of qualitative research is largely inductive; the inquirer
generates meaning from the data collected in the
field.
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The Transformative Worldview (toc2.html#s10a)
Another group of researchers holds to the philosophical
assumptions of the transformative approach. This position
arose during the 1980s and 1990s from individuals who felt that
the postpositivist assumptions imposed structural laws
and theories that did not fit marginalized individuals in our
society or issues of power and social justice, discrimination,
and oppression that needed to be addressed. There is no uniform
body of literature characterizing this worldview, but it
13. includes groups of researchers that are critical theorists;
participatory action researchers; Marxists; feminists; racial and
ethnic minorities; persons with disabilities; indigenous and
postcolonial peoples; and members of the lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transsexual, and queer communities. Historically, the
transformative writers have drawn on the works of Marx,
Adorno, Marcuse, Habermas, and Freire (Neuman, 2009). Fay
(1987), Heron and Reason (1997), Kemmis and Wilkinson
(1998), Kemmis and McTaggart (2000), and Mertens (2009,
2010) are additional writers to read for this perspective.
In the main, these inquirers felt that the constructivist stance
did not go far enough in advocating for an action agenda
to help marginalized peoples. A transformative worldview
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tions/gls#s103) holds that research inquiry needs to be
intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to
confront social oppression at whatever levels it occurs
(Mertens, 2010). Thus, the research contains an action agenda
for reform that may change lives of the participants, the
institutions in which individuals work or live, and the
researcher’s life. Moreover, specific issues need to be addressed
that speak to important social issues of the day, issues such as
empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination,
suppression, and alienation. The researcher often begins with
one of these issues as the focal point of the study. This
research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed
collaboratively so as to not further marginalize the participants
as a
result of the inquiry. In this sense, the participants may help
design questions, collect data, analyze information, or reap
the rewards of the research. Transformative research provides a
voice for these participants, raising their consciousness
or advancing an agenda for change to improve their lives. It
becomes a united voice for reform and change.
14. This philosophical worldview focuses on the needs of groups
and individuals in our society that may be marginalized
or disenfranchised. Therefore, theoretical perspectives may be
integrated with the philosophical assumptions that
construct a picture of the issues being examined, the people to
be studied, and the changes that are needed, such as
feminist perspectives, racialized discourses, critical theory,
queer theory, and disability theory—theoretical lens to be
discussed more in Chapter 3 (c03.html) .
Although these are diverse groups and my explanations here are
generalizations, it is helpful to view the summary by
Mertens (2010) of key features of the transformative worldview
or paradigm:
• It places central importance on the study of lives and
experiences of diverse groups that have traditionally been
marginalized. Of special interest for these diverse groups is how
their lives have been constrained by oppressors and
the strategies that they use to resist, challenge, and subvert
these constraints.
• In studying these diverse groups, the research focuses on
inequities based on gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual
orientation, and socioeconomic class that result in asymmetric
power relationships.
• The research in the transformative worldview links political
and social action to these inequities.
• Transformative research uses a program theory of beliefs
about how a program works and why the problems of
oppression, domination, and power relationships exist.
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The Pragmatic Worldview (toc2.html#s11a)
Another position about worldviews comes from the pragmatists.
Pragmatism derives from the work of Peirce, James,
Mead, and Dewey (Cherryholmes, 1992). Other writers include
Murphy (1990), Patton (1990), and Rorty (1990). There
are many forms of this philosophy, but for many, pragmatism as
a worldview arises out of actions, situations, and
consequences rather than antecedent conditions (as in
postpositivism). There is a concern with applications—what
works—and solutions to problems (Patton, 1990). Instead of
focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research
problem and use all approaches available to understand the
problem (see Rossman & Wilson, 1985). As a philosophical
underpinning for mixed methods studies, Morgan (2007), Patton
(1990), and Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010) convey its
importance for focusing attention on the research problem in
social science research and then using pluralistic
approaches to derive knowledge about the problem. Using
Cherryholmes (1992), Morgan (2007), and my own views,
pragmatism provides a philosophical basis for research:
• Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy
and reality. This applies to mixed methods research in
that inquirers draw liberally from both quantitative and
qualitative assumptions when they engage in their research.
• Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. In this way,
researchers are free to choose the methods, techniques,
and procedures of research that best meet their needs and
purposes.
16. • Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a
similar way, mixed methods researchers look to many
approaches for collecting and analyzing data rather than
subscribing to only one way (e.g., quantitative or
qualitative).
• Truth is what works at the time. It is not based in a duality
between reality independent of the mind or within the
mind. Thus, in mixed methods research, investigators use both
quantitative and qualitative data because they work
to provide the best understanding of a research problem.
• The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to
research based on the intended consequences—where they
want to go with it. Mixed methods researchers need to establish
a purpose for their mixing, a rationale for the
reasons why quantitative and qualitative data need to be mixed
in the first place.
• Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social,
historical, political, and other contexts. In this way, mixed
methods studies may include a postmodern turn, a theoretical
lens that is reflective of social justice and political
aims.
• Pragmatists have believed in an external world independent of
the mind as well as that lodged in the mind. But they
believe that we need to stop asking questions about reality and
the laws of nature (Cherryholmes, 1992). “They
would simply like to change the subject” (Rorty, 1983, p. xiv).
• Thus, for the mixed methods researcher, pragmatism opens the
door to multiple methods, different worldviews, and
different assumptions, as well as different forms of data
collection and analysis.
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Research Designs (toc2.html#s12a)
The researcher not only selects a qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods study to conduct; the inquirer also
decides on a type of study within these three choices. Research
designs are types of inquiry within qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches that provide
specific direction for procedures in a research design. Others
have called them strategies of inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011). The designs available to the researcher have grown over
the years as computer technology has advanced our data
analysis and ability to analyze complex models and as
individuals have articulated new procedures for conducting
social science research. Select types will be emphasized in
Chapters 8 (c08.html) , 9 (c09.html) , and 10 (c10.html) —
designs that are frequently used in the social sciences. Here I
introduce those that are discussed later and that are cited in
examples throughout the book. An overview of these
designs is shown in Table 1.2
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Quantitative Designs (toc2.html#s13a)
During the late 19th and throughout the 20th century, strategies
18. of inquiry associated with quantitative research were
those that invoked the postpositivist worldview and that
originated mainly in psychology. These include true
experiments and the less rigorous experiments called quasi-
experiments (see, an original, early treatise on this, Campbell
& Stanley, 1963). An additional experimental design is applied
behavioral analysis or single-subject experiments in which
an experimental treatment is administered over time to a single
individual or a small number of individuals (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007; Neuman & McCormick, 1995). One
type of nonexperimental quantitative research is causal-
comparative research in which the investigator compares two or
more groups in terms of a cause (or independent
variable) that has already happened. Another nonexperimental
form of research is the correlational design in which
investigators use the correlational statistic to describe and
measure the degree or association (or relationship) between
two or more variables or sets of scores (Creswell, 2012). These
designs have been elaborated into more complex
relationships among variables found in techniques of structural
equation modeling, hierarchical linear modeling, and
logistic regression. More recently, quantitative strategies have
involved complex experiments with many variables and
treatments (e.g., factorial designs and repeated measure
designs). They have also included elaborate structural equation
models that incorporate causal paths and the identification of
the collective strength of multiple variables. Rather than
discuss all of these quantitative approaches, I will focus on two
designs: surveys and experiments.
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tions/s6#tab1.2a) Alternative Research
Designs
Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods
19. • Experimental designs
• Nonexperimental designs, such as
surveys
• Narrative
research
• Phenomenology
• Grounded
theory
• Ethnographies
• Case study
• Convergent
• Explanatory sequential
• Exploratory sequential
• Transformative, embedded, or
multiphase
• Survey research
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tions/gls#s95) provides a
quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that
population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
using questionnaires or structured interviews for
data collection—with the intent of generalizing from a sample
to a population (Fowler, 2008).
• Experimental research
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tions/gls#s24) seeks to
determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The
researcher assesses this by providing a specific
treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then
determining how both groups scored on an
outcome. Experiments include true experiments, with the
random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions,
and quasi-experiments that use nonrandomized assignments
(Keppel, 1991). Included within quasi-experiments are
single-subject designs.
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Qualitative Designs (toc2.html#s14a)
In qualitative research, the numbers and types of approaches
have also become more clearly visible during the 1990s
and into the 21st century. The historic origin for qualitative
research comes from anthropology, sociology, the
humanities, and evaluation. Books have summarized the various
types, and complete procedures are now available on
specific qualitative inquiry approaches. For example, Clandinin
and Connelly (2000) constructed a picture of what
narrative researchers do. Moustakas (1994) discussed the
philosophical tenets and the procedures of the
phenomenological method; Charmaz (2006), Corbin and Strauss
(2007), and Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) identified
the procedures of grounded theory
21. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s30) .
Fetterman (2010) and Wolcott (2008) summarized ethnographic
procedures and the many faces and research strategies
of ethnography,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s22) and Stake (1995) and Yin
(2009, 2012) suggested processes involved in case study
research. In this book, illustrations are drawn from the
following strategies, recognizing that approaches such as
participatory action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000),
discourse analysis (Cheek, 2004), and others not mentioned are
also viable ways to conduct qualitative studies:
• Narrative research
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s51) is a design of
inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher studies the
lives of individuals and asks one or more
individuals to provide stories about their lives (Riessman,
2008). This information is then often retold or restoried
by the researcher into a narrative chronology. Often, in the end,
the narrative combines views from the participant’s
life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative
narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
• Phenomenological research
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s55) is a
design of inquiry coming from philosophy and psychology in
which the researcher describes the lived experiences of
individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants.
This description culminates in the essence of the
experiences for several individuals who have all experienced
the phenomenon. This design has strong philosophical
underpinnings and typically involves conducting interviews
22. (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994).
• Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in
which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of
a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants. This process involves using multiple stages of
data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of
categories of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin &
Strauss, 2007).
• Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology
and sociology in which the researcher studies the
shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged
period of time. Data collection often involves observations and
interviews.
• Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields,
especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops
an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity,
process, or one or more individuals. Cases are
bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection
procedures over a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin,
2009, 2012).
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23. Mixed Methods Designs (toc2.html#s15a)
Mixed methods involves combining or integration of qualitative
and quantitative research and data in a research study.
Qualitative data tends to be open-ended without predetermined
responses while quantitative data usually includes
closed-ended responses such as found on questionnaires or
psychological instruments. The field of mixed methods
research is relatively new with major work in developing it
stemming from the middle to late 1980s. Its origins, however,
go back further. In 1959, Campbell and Fisk used multiple
methods to study psychological traits—although their
methods were only quantitative measures. Their work prompted
others to begin collecting multiple forms of data, such
as observations and interviews (qualitative data) with
traditional surveys (Sieber, 1973). Early thoughts about the
value
of multiple methods—called mixed methods—resided in the
idea that all methods had bias and weaknesses, and the
collection of both quantitative and qualitative data neutralized
the weaknesses of each form of data. Triangulating data
sources—a means for seeking convergence across qualitative
and quantitative methods—was born (Jick, 1979). By the
early 1990s, mixed methods turned toward the systematic
convergence of quantitative and qualitative databases, and
the idea of integration in different types of research designs
emerged. These types of designs were extensively discussed
in a major handbook addressing the field in 2003 (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 2010). Procedures for expanding mixed
methods developed such as follows:
• Ways to integrate the quantitative and qualitative data, such as
one database, could be used to check the accuracy
(validity) of the other database.
24. • One database could help explain the other database, and one
database could explore different types of questions
than the other database.
• One database could lead to better instruments when
instruments are not well-suited for a sample or population.
• One database could build on other databases, and one database
could alternate with another database back and
forth during a longitudinal study.
Further, the designs were developed and notation was added to
help the reader understand the designs; challenges to
working with the designs emerged (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2011). Practical issues are being widely discussed today in
terms of examples of “good” mixed methods studies and
evaluative criteria, the use of a team to conduct this model of
inquiry, and the expansion of mixed methods to other countries
and disciplines. Although many designs exist in the
mixed methods field, this book will focus on the three primary
models found in the social sciences today:
• Convergent parallel mixed methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s13)
is a form of mixed methods design in which the researcher
converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in
order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research
problem. In this design, the investigator typically collects
both forms of data at roughly the same time and then integrates
the information in the interpretation of the overall
results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are explained or
further probed in this design.
• Explanatory sequential mixed methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
25. tions/gls#s25) is one in which the researcher first
conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results and then
builds on the results to explain them in more detail
with qualitative research. It is considered explanatory because
the initial quantitative data results are explained
further with the qualitative data. It is considered sequential
because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the
qualitative phase. This type of design is popular in fields with a
strong quantitative orientation (hence the project
begins with quantitative research), but it presents challenges of
identifying the quantitative results to further
explore and the unequal sample sizes for each phase of the
study.
• Exploratory sequential mixed methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s26) is the reverse sequence from the
explanatory sequential design. In the exploratory sequential
approach the researcher first begins with a qualitative
research phase and explores the views of participants. The data
are then analyzed, and the information used to build
into a second, quantitative phase. The qualitative phase may be
used to build an instrument that best fits the sample
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under study, to identify appropriate instruments to use in the
follow-up quantitative phase, or to specify variables
that need to go into a follow-up quantitative study. Particular
26. challenges to this design reside in focusing in on the
appropriate qualitative findings to use and the sample selection
for both phases of research.
• These basic models can then be used in more advanced mixed
methods strategies. Transformative mixed
methods
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tions/gls#s102) is a design that uses a
theoretical lens drawn from social justice or power (see Chapter
3 (c03.html) ) as an overarching perspective within
a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data.
The data in this form of study could be converged or it
could be ordered sequentially with one building on the other.
An embedded mixed methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s20) design involves as well either the
convergent or sequential use of data, but the core idea is that
either quantitative or qualitative data is embedded
within a larger design (e.g., an experiment) and the data sources
play a supporting role in the overall design. A
multiphase mixed methods
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s49) design is
common in the fields of evaluation and program interventions.
In this advanced design, concurrent or sequential
strategies are used in tandem over time to best understand a
long-term program goal.
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27. Research Methods (toc2.html#s16a)
The third major element in the framework is the specific
research methods that involve the forms of data collection,
analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their
studies. As shown in Table 1.3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s6#tab1.3) , it is useful to consider the full range of
possibilities of data collection and to organize these methods,
for example, by their degree of predetermined nature,
their use of closed-ended versus open-ended questioning, and
their focus on numeric versus nonnumeric data analysis.
These methods will be developed further in Chapters 8
(c08.html) through 10 (c10.html) .
Researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g., a set of
questions about attitudes toward self-esteem) or gather
information on a behavioral checklist (e.g., observation of a
worker engaged in a complex skill). On the other end of the
continuum, collecting data might involve visiting a research site
and observing the behavior of individuals without
predetermined questions or conducting an interview in which
the individual is allowed to talk openly about a topic,
largely without the use of specific questions. The choice of
methods turns on whether the intent is to specify the type of
information to be collected in advance of the study or to allow
it to emerge from participants in the project. Also, the
type of data analyzed may be numeric information gathered on
scales of instruments or text information recording and
reporting the voice of the participants. Researchers make
interpretations of the statistical results, or they interpret the
themes or patterns that emerge from the data. In some forms of
research, both quantitative and qualitative data are
collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Instrument data may be
28. augmented with open-ended observations, or census data
may be followed by in-depth exploratory interviews. In this
case of mixing methods, the researcher makes inferences
across both the quantitative and qualitative databases.
Table 1.3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s6#tab1.3a) Quantitative, Mixed,
and Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods
Pre-determined Both predetermined and
emerging methods
Emerging methods
Instrument based questions Both open- and closed-
ended questions
Open-ended questions
Performance data, attitude data,
observational data, and census data
Multiple forms of data
drawing on all possibilities
Interview data, observation data,
document data, and audiovisual data
Statistical analysis Statistical and text analysis Text and image
analysis
Statistical interpretation Across databases
interpretation
30. In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by specifying
narrow hypotheses and the collection of data to support
or refute the hypotheses. An experimental design is used in
which attitudes are assessed both before and after an
experimental treatment. The data are collected on an instrument
that measures attitudes, and the information is
analyzed using statistical procedures and hypothesis testing.
• Qualitative approach: Constructivist worldview, ethnographic
design, and observation of behavior
In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the meaning
of a phenomenon from the views of participants.
This means identifying a culture-sharing group and studying
how it develops shared patterns of behavior over time
(i.e., ethnography). One of the key elements of collecting data
in this way is to observe participants’ behaviors during
their engagement in activities.
• Qualitative approach: Transformative worldview, narrative
design, and open-ended interviewing
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For this study, the inquirer seeks to examine an issue related to
oppression of individuals. To study this, stories are
collected of individual oppression using a narrative approach.
Individuals are interviewed at some length to
determine how they have personally experienced oppression.
31. • Mixed methods approach: Pragmatic worldview, collection of
both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially in
the design
The researcher bases the inquiry on the assumption that
collecting diverse types of data best provides a more
complete understanding of a research problem than either
quantitative or qualitative data alone. The study begins
with a broad survey in order to generalize results to a
population and then, in a second phase, focuses on qualitative,
open-ended interviews to collect detailed views from
participants to help explain the initial quantitative survey.
1.4 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH APPROACH
(toc2.html#s18a)
Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods approaches, what factors affect a choice of one
approach over another for the design of a proposal? Added to
worldview, design, and methods would be the research
problem, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the
audience(s) for whom the report will be written.
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The Research Problem and Questions (toc2.html#s19a)
A research problem, more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 5
(c05.html) , is an issue or concern that needs to be
addressed (e.g., the issue of racial discrimination). The problem
comes from a void in the literature, and conflict in
research results in the literature, topics that have been neglected
in the literature; a need to lift up the voice of
32. marginalized participants; and “real-life” problems found in the
workplace, the home, the community, and so forth.
Certain types of social research problems call for specific
approaches. For example, if the problem calls for (a) the
identification of factors that influence an outcome, (b) the
utility of an intervention, or (c) understanding the best
predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best. It
is also the best approach to use to test a theory or
explanation. On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon
needs to be explored and understood because little research
has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach.
Qualitative research is especially useful when the researcher
does not know the important variables to examine. This type of
approach may be needed because the topic is new, the
subject has never been addressed with a certain sample or group
of people, and existing theories do not apply with the
particular sample or group under study (Morse, 1991). A mixed
methods design is useful when the quantitative or
qualitative approach, each by itself, is inadequate to best
understand a research problem and the strengths of both
quantitative and qualitative research (and its data) can provide
the best understanding. For example, a researcher may
want to both generalize the findings to a population as well as
develop a detailed view of the meaning of a phenomenon
or concept for individuals. In this research, the inquirer first
explores generally to learn what variables to study and then
studies those variables with a large sample of individuals.
Alternatively, researchers may first survey a large number of
individuals and then follow up with a few participants to obtain
their specific views and their voices about the topic. In
these situations, collecting both closed-ended quantitative data
and open-ended qualitative data proves advantageous.
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33. Personal Experiences (toc2.html#s20a)
Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also
influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in
technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer statistical
programs and familiar with quantitative journals in the
library would most likely choose the quantitative design. On the
other hand, individuals who enjoy writing in a literary
way or conducting personal interviews or making up-close
observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The
mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with both
quantitative and qualitative research. This person also has
the time and resources to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data and has outlets for mixed methods studies,
which
tend to be large in scope.
Since quantitative studies are the traditional mode of research,
carefully worked out procedures and rules exist for
them. Researchers may be more comfortable with the highly
systematic procedures of quantitative research. Also, for
some individuals, it can be uncomfortable to challenge accepted
approaches among some faculty by using qualitative
and transformative approaches to inquiry. On the other hand,
qualitative approaches allow room to be innovative and to
work more within researcher-designed frameworks. They allow
more creative, literary-style writing, a form that
individuals may like to use. For transformative writers, there is
undoubtedly a strong stimulus to pursue topics that are
of personal interest—issues that relate to marginalized people
and an interest in creating a better society for them and
everyone.
For the mixed methods researcher, the project will take extra
34. time because of the need to collect and analyze both
quantitative and qualitative data. It fits a person who enjoys
both the structure of quantitative research and the
flexibility of qualitative inquiry.
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Audience (toc2.html#s21a)
Finally, researchers write for audiences that will accept their
research. These audiences may be journal editors and
readers, faculty committees, conference attendees, or colleagues
in the field. Students should consider the approaches
typically supported and used by their advisers. The experiences
of these audiences with quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed methods studies can shape the decision made about the
choice of design.
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SUMMARY (toc2.html#s22a)
In planning a research project, researchers need to identify
whether they will employ a qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods approach. This approach is based on bringing
together a worldview or assumptions about research, a
specific design, and research methods. Decisions about choice
of an approach are further influenced by the research
problem or issue being studied, the personal experiences of the
researcher, and the audience for whom the researcher
writes.
Writing Exercises (toc2.html#s23a)
35. 1. Identify a research question in a journal article and discuss
what approach would be best to study the question
and why.
2. Take a topic that you would like to study, and using the four
combinations of worldviews, designs, and research
methods in Figure 1.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s6#fig1.1) , discuss a
project that brings together a worldview, designs, and methods.
Identify whether this would be quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods research. Use the typical
scenarios that I have advanced in this chapter as a guide.
3. What distinguishes a quantitative study from a qualitative
study? Mention three characteristics.
ADDITIONAL READINGS (toc2.html#s24a)
Cherryholmes, C. H. (1992, August–September). Notes on
pragmatism and scientific realism. Educational Researcher,
14, 13–17.
Cleo Cherryholmes discusses pragmatism as a contrasting
perspective from scientific realism. The strength of this
article lies in the numerous citations of writers about
pragmatism and a clarification of one version of pragmatism.
Cherryholmes’s version points out that pragmatism is driven by
anticipated consequences, reluctance to tell a true story,
and the idea that there is an external world independent of our
minds. Also included in this article are numerous
references to historical and recent writers about pragmatism as a
philosophical position.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning
and perspective in the research process. Thousand Oaks,
36. CA: Sage.
Michael Crotty offers a useful framework for tying together the
many epistemological issues, theoretical perspectives,
methodology, and methods of social research. He interrelates
the four components of the research process and shows in
a table a representative sampling of topics of each component.
He then goes on to discuss nine different theoretical
orientations in social research, such as postmodernism,
feminism, critical inquiry, interpretivism, constructionism, and
positivism.
Kemmis, S., & Wilkinson, M. (1998). Participatory action
research and the study of practice. In B. Atweh, S. Kemmis, &
P. Weeks (Eds.), Action research in practice: Partnerships for
social justice in education (pp. 21–36). New York:
Routledge.
Stephen Kemmis and Mervyn Wilkinson provide an excellent
overview of participatory research. In particular, they
note the six major features of this inquiry approach and then
discuss how action research is practiced at the individual,
the social, or at both levels.
Lincoln, Y. S., Lynham, S. A., & Guba, E. G. (2011).
Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging
confluences revisited. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln, The
SAGE handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 97–128).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
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6#fig1.1
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37. Yvonna Lincoln, Susan Lynham, and Egon Guba have provided
the basic beliefs of five alternative inquiry paradigms in
social science research: (a) positivism, (b) post-positivism, (c)
critical theory, (d) constructivism, and (e) participatory.
These extend the earlier analysis provided in the first and
second editions of the handbook. Each is presented in terms of
ontology (i.e., nature of reality), epistemology (i.e., how we
know what we know), and methodology (i.e., the process of
research). The participatory paradigm adds another alternative
paradigm to those originally advanced in the first
edition. After briefly presenting these five approaches, they
contrast them in terms of seven issues, such as the nature of
knowledge, how knowledge accumulates, and goodness or
quality criteria.
Mertens, D. (2009). Transformative research and evaluation.
New York: Guilford.
Donna Mertens has devoted an entire text to advancing the
transformative paradigm and the process of
transformative research. She discusses the basic features of the
transformative paradigm as an umbrella term, provides
examples of groups affiliated with this paradigm, and links the
paradigm to quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods
approaches. In this book she also discusses the research
procedures of sampling, consent, reciprocity, data collection
methods and instruments, data analysis and interpretation, and
reporting.
Phillips, D. C., & Burbules, N. C. (2000). Postpositivism and
educational research. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
D. C. Phillips and Nicholas Burbules summarize the major ideas
of postpostivist thinking. Through two chapters,
“What is Postpositivism?” and “Philosophical Commitments of
38. Postpositivist Researchers,” the authors advance major
ideas about postpositivism—especially those that differentiate it
from positivism. These include knowing that human
knowledge is conjectural rather than unchallengeable and that
our warrants for knowledge can be withdrawn in light of
further investigations.
B
CHAPTER TWO (toc1.html#c02a)
Review of the Literature (toc1.html#c02a)
esides selecting a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
approach, the proposal designer also needs to
review the literature about a topic
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tions/gls#s101) .
This literature review helps to determine whether the topic is
worth studying, and it provides insight into ways in
which the researcher can limit the scope to a needed area of
inquiry.
This chapter continues the discussion about preliminary
considerations before launching into a proposal. It begins
with a discussion about selecting a topic and writing this topic
down so that the researcher can continually reflect on it.
At this point, researchers also need to consider whether the
topic can and should be researched. Then the discussion
moves into the actual process of reviewing the literature;
addressing the general purpose for using literature in a study;
and then turning to principles helpful in designing literature
into qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies.
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2.1 THE RESEARCH TOPIC (toc2.html#s25a)
Before considering what literature to use in a project, first
identify a topic to study and reflect on whether it is practical
and useful to undertake the study. The topic is the subject or
subject matter of a proposed study, such as “faculty
teaching,” “organizational creativity,” or “psychological
stress.” Describe the topic in a few words or in a short phrase.
The
topic becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore.
There are several ways that researchers gain some insight into
their topics when they are initially planning their
research (my assumption is that the topic is chosen by the
researcher and not by an adviser or committee member). One
way is to draft a brief working title to the study. I am surprised
at how often researchers fail to draft a title early in the
development of their projects. In my opinion, the working or
draft title becomes a major road sign in research—a
tangible idea that the researcher can keep refocusing on and
changing as the project goes on (see Glesne & Peshkin,
1992). It becomes an orienting device. I find that in my
research, this topic grounds me and provides a sign of what I am
studying, as well as a sign useful for conveying to others the
central notion of my study. When students first provide their
research project idea to me, I often ask them to supply a
working title if they do not already have one written down on
paper.
40. How would this working title be written? Try completing this
sentence: “My study is about …” A response might be,
“My study is about at-risk children in the junior high,” or “My
study is about helping college faculty become better
researchers.” At this stage in the design, frame the answer to the
question so that another scholar might easily grasp the
meaning of the project. A common shortcoming of beginning
researchers is that they frame their study in complex and
erudite language. This perspective may result from reading
published articles that have undergone numerous revisions
before being set in print. Good, sound research projects begin
with straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts that are
easy to read and understand. Think about a journal article that
you have read recently. If it was easy and quick to read, it
was likely written in general language that many readers could
easily identify with in a way that was straightforward
and simple in overall design and conceptualization. As a project
develops it will become more complicated.
Wilkinson (1991) provided useful advice for creating a title: Be
brief and avoid wasting words. Eliminate unnecessary
words, such as “An Approach to …,” “A Study of …,” and so
forth. Use a single title or a double title. An example of a
double
title would be “An Ethnography: Understanding a Child’s
Perception of War.” In addition to Wilkinson’s thoughts,
consider a title no longer than 12 words, eliminate most articles
and prepositions, and make sure that it includes the
focus or topic of the study.
Another strategy for topic development is to pose the topic as a
brief question. What question needs to be answered in
the proposed study? A researcher might ask, “What treatment is
best for depression?” “What does it mean to be Arabic
in U.S. society today?” “What brings people to tourist sites in
the Midwest?” When drafting questions such as these, focus
41. on the key topic in the question as the major signpost for the
study. Consider how this question might be expanded later
to be more descriptive of your study (see Chapters 6 (c06.html)
and 7 (c07.html) on the purpose statement and research
questions and hypotheses).
Actively elevating this topic to a research study calls for
reflecting on whether the topic can and should be researched.
A topic can be researched if a researcher has participants
willing to serve in the study. It also can be researched if the
investigator has resources such as collecting data over a
sustained period of time and using available computer
programs to help in the analysis of data.
The question of should is a more complex matter. Several
factors might go into this decision. Perhaps the most
important are whether the topic adds to the pool of research
knowledge in the literature available on the topic,
replicates past studies, lifts up the voices of underrepresented
groups or individuals, helps address social justice, or
transforms the ideas and beliefs of the researcher.
A first step in any project is to spend considerable time in the
library examining the research on a topic (strategies for
effectively using the library and library resources appear later
in this chapter). This point cannot be overemphasized.
Beginning researchers may advance a great study that is
complete in every way, such as in the clarity of research
questions, the comprehensiveness of data collection, and the
sophistication of statistical analysis. But the researcher
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https://content.ashford.edu/print/c06.html
https://content.ashford.edu/print/c07.html
42. may garner little support from faculty committees or conference
planners because the study does not add anything new
to the body of research. Ask, “How does this project contribute
to the literature?” Consider how the study might address
a topic that has yet to be examined, extend the discussion by
incorporating new elements, or replicate (or repeat) a
study in new situations or with new participants.
The issue of should the topic be studied also relates to whether
anyone outside of the researcher’s own immediate
institution or area would be interested in the topic. Given a
choice between a topic that might be of limited regional
interest or one of national interest, I would opt for the latter
because it would have wide appeal to a much broader
audience. Journal editors, committee members, conference
planners, and funding agencies all appreciate research that
reaches a broad audience. Finally, the should issue also relates
to the researcher’s personal goals. Consider the time it
takes to complete a project, revise it, and disseminate the
results. All researchers should consider how the study and its
heavy commitment of time will pay off in enhancing career
goals, whether these goals relate to doing more research,
obtaining a future position, or advancing toward a degree.
Before proceeding with a proposal or a study, one needs to
weigh these factors and ask others for their reaction to a
topic under consideration. Seek reactions from colleagues,
noted authorities in the field, academic advisers, and faculty
committee members. I often have students bring to me a one-
page sketch of their proposed project that includes the
problem or issue leading to a need for the study, the central
research question they plan on asking, the types of data they
will collect, and the overall significance of their study.
43. 2.2 THE LITERATURE REVIEW (toc2.html#s26a)
Once the researcher identifies a topic that can and should be
studied, the search can begin for related literature on the
topic. The literature review accomplishes several purposes. It
shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the one being undertaken. It relates a study to
the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature, filling in
gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 2010; Marshall &
Rossman, 2011). It provides a framework for establishing
the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results with other findings. All or some of these
reasons may be the foundation for writing the scholarly
literature into a study (see Boote & Beile, 2005, for a more
extensive discussion of purposes for compiling a literature
review in research). Studies need to add to the body of
literature on a topic, and literature sections in proposals are
generally shaped from the larger problem to the narrower
issue that leads directly into the methods of a study.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s26a
The Use of the Literature (toc2.html#s27a)
Beyond the question of why literature is used is the additional
issue of how it is used in research and proposals. It can
assume various forms. My best advice is to seek the opinion of
your adviser or faculty members as to how they would
like to see the literature addressed. I generally recommend to
my advisees that the literature review in a proposal be
brief and provide a summary of the major studies on the
research problem; it does not need to be fully developed and
comprehensive at this point, since faculty may ask for major
changes in the study at the proposal meeting. In this model,
the literature review is shorter—say 20 to 30 pages in length—
44. and tells the reader that the student is aware of the
literature on the topic and the latest writings. Another approach
is to develop a detailed outline of the topics and
potential references that will later be developed into an entire
chapter, usually the second, titled “Literature Review,”
which might run from 20 to 60 pages or so.
The literature review in a journal article is an abbreviated form
of that found in a dissertation or master’s thesis. It
typically is contained in a section called “Related Literature”
and follows the introduction to a study. This is the pattern
for quantitative research articles in journals. For qualitative
research articles, the literature review may be found in a
separate section, included in the introduction, or threaded
throughout the study. Regardless of the form, another
consideration is how the literature might be reviewed,
depending on whether a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods approach has been selected.
In general, the literature review can take several forms. Cooper
(2010) discussed four types: literature reviews that
(a) integrate what others have done and said, (b) criticize
previous scholarly works, (c) build bridges between related
topics, and (d) identify the central issues in a field. With the
exception of criticizing previous scholarly works, most
dissertations and theses serve to integrate the literature,
organize it into a series of related topics (often from general
topics to narrower ones), and summarize the literature by
pointing out the central issues.
In qualitative research, inquirers use the literature in a manner
consistent with the assumptions of learning from the
participant, not prescribing the questions that need to be
answered from the researcher’s standpoint. One of the chief
reasons for conducting a qualitative study is that the study is
exploratory. This usually means that not much has been
45. written about the topic or the population being studied, and the
researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an
understanding based on what is heard.
However, the use of the literature in qualitative research varies
considerably. In theoretically oriented studies, such as
ethnographies or critical ethnographies, the literature on a
cultural concept or a critical theory is introduced early in the
report or proposal as an orienting framework. In grounded
theory, case studies, and phenomenological studies,
literature is less often used to set the stage for the study.
With an approach grounded in learning from participants and
variation by type, there are several models for
incorporating the literature review into a qualitative study. I
offer three placement locations, and it can be used in any or
all of these locations. As shown in Table 2.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s26#tab2.1) , the research might include the literature
review in the introduction. In this placement, the literature
provides a useful backdrop for the problem or issue that has
led to the need for the study, such as who has been writing
about it, who has studied it, and who has indicated the
importance of studying the issue. This framing of the problem
is, of course, contingent on available studies. One can find
illustrations of this model in many qualitative studies
employing different types of inquiry strategy.
Table 2.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s26#tab2.1a) Using Literature in a
Qualitative Study
Use of the Literature Criteria Examples of Suitable Strategy
Types
46. https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s27a
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s
26#tab2.1
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s
26#tab2.1a
The literature is used to
frame the problem in the
introduction to the study.
There must be some literature available. Typically, literature is
used in all
qualitative studies, regardless of type.
The literature is presented
in a separate section as a
review of the literature.
This approach is often acceptable to an
audience most familiar with the
traditional postpositivist approach to
literature reviews.
This approach is used with those
studies employing a strong theory and
literature background at the beginning
of a study, such as ethnographies and
critical theory studies.
The literature is presented
in the study at the end; it
becomes a basis for
comparing and contrasting
findings of the qualitative
study.
47. This approach is most suitable for the
inductive process of qualitative research;
the literature does not guide and direct
the study but becomes an aid once
patterns or categories have been
identified.
This approach is used in all types of
qualitative designs, but it is most
popular with grounded theory, where
one contrasts and compares a theory
with other theories found in the
literature.
A second form is to review the literature in a separate section, a
model typically used in quantitative research, often
found in journals with a quantitative orientation. In theory-
oriented qualitative studies, such as ethnography, critical
theory, or with a transformative aim, the inquirer might locate
the theory discussion and literature in a separate section,
typically toward the beginning of the write-up. Third, the
researcher may incorporate the related literature in the final
section, where it is used to compare and contrast with the
results (or themes or categories) to emerge from the study.
This model is especially popular in grounded theory studies,
and I recommend it because it uses the literature
inductively.
Quantitative research, on the other hand, includes a substantial
amount of literature at the beginning of a study to
provide direction for the research questions or hypotheses. It is
also used to introduce a problem or to describe in detail
the existing literature in a section titled “Related Literature” or
“Review of Literature,” or some other similar phrase.
Also, the literature review can introduce a theory—an
48. explanation for expected relationships (see Chapter 3 (c03.html)
)
—describe the theory that will be used, and suggest why it is a
useful theory to examine. At the end of a study, the
researcher then revisits the literature and makes a comparison
between the results with the existing findings in the
literature. In this model, the quantitative researcher uses the
literature deductively as a framework for the research
questions or hypotheses.
In a mixed methods study, the researcher uses either a
qualitative or a quantitative approach to the literature,
depending on the type of strategy being used. In a sequential
approach, the literature is presented in each phase in a way
consistent with the method being used. For example, if the
study begins with a quantitative phase, then the investigator
is likely to include a substantial literature review that helps to
establish a rationale for the research questions or
hypotheses. If the study begins with a qualitative phase, then
the literature is substantially less, and the researcher may
incorporate it more into the end of the study—an inductive
approach. If the researcher advances a concurrent study
with an equal weight and emphasis on both qualitative and
quantitative data, then the literature may take either
qualitative or quantitative forms. The decision as to which form
to use is based on the audience for the study and what
they would be most receptive to as well as to the students’
graduate committees and their orientation. To recap, the
literature use in a mixed methods project will depend on the
strategy and the relative weight given to the qualitative or
quantitative research in the study.
My suggestions for using the literature in planning a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods study are as follows:
• In a qualitative study, use the literature sparingly in the
49. beginning in order to convey an inductive design unless the
design type requires a substantial literature orientation at the
outset.
• Consider the most appropriate place for the literature in a
qualitative study, and base the decision on the audience
for the project. Keep in mind the options: placing it at the
beginning to frame the problem, placing it in a separate
section, and using it at the end to compare and contrast with the
findings.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/c03.html
• Use the literature in a quantitative study deductively—as a
basis for advancing research questions or hypotheses.
• In a quantitative study plan, use the literature to introduce the
study, describe related literature in a separate section,
and compare findings.
• In a mixed methods study, use the literature in a way that is
consistent with the major type of strategy and the
qualitative or quantitative approach most prevalent in the
design.
• Regardless of the type of study, consider the type of literature
review to conduct, such as an integrative, critical,
building bridges among topics or the identification of central
issues.
Design Techniques (toc2.html#s28a)
Regardless of the type of study, several steps are useful in
50. conducting a literature review.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s28a
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review (toc2.html#s29a)
A literature review means locating and summarizing the studies
about a topic. Often these are research studies (since
you are conducting a research study), but they may also include
conceptual articles or opinion pieces that provide
frameworks for thinking about topics. There is no single way to
conduct a literature review, but many scholars proceed
in a systematic fashion to capture, evaluate, and summarize the
literature. Here is the way I recommend:
1. Begin by identifying key words, which is useful in locating
materials in an academic library at a college or
university. These key words may emerge in identifying a topic
or may result from preliminary readings.
2. With these key words in mind, go next to the library (or use
your home computer) and begin searching the
catalog for holdings (i.e., journals and books). Most major
libraries have computerized databases, and I suggest
you focus initially on journals and books related to the topic.
Also, begin to search the computerized databases
that are typically reviewed by social science researchers, such
as ERIC (Educational Resources Information
Center), EBSCO, PsycINFO, Sociofile, the Social Science
Citation Index, Google Scholar, ProQuest, and others
(these are reviewed later in some detail).
3. Initially, try to locate about 50 reports of research in articles
or books related to research on your topic. Set a
priority on the search for journal articles and books because
51. they are easy to locate and obtain. Determine
whether these articles and books exist in your academic library
or whether you need to send for them by
interlibrary loan or purchase them through a bookstore.
4. Skim this initial group of articles or chapters, and duplicate
those that are central to your topic. Throughout this
process, simply try to obtain a sense as to whether the article or
chapter will make a useful contribution to your
understanding of the literature.
5. As you identify useful literature, begin designing a literature
map
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s40) (to be discussed more fully later).
This is a visual picture (or figure) of groupings of the literature
on the topic that illustrates how your particular
study will contribute to the literature, positioning your study
within the larger body of research.
6. As you put together the literature map, also begin to draft
summaries of the most relevant articles. These
summaries are combined into the final literature review that you
write for your proposal or research study.
Include precise references to the literature using an appropriate
style guide, such as the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association (American
Pscyhological Association [APA], 2010) so that you have a
complete reference to use at the end of the proposal or study.
7. After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature
review, structuring it thematically or organizing it by
important concepts. End the literature review with a summary of
the major themes and suggest how your
particular study further adds to the literature and addresses a
gap in the themes. It is at this point as well that
52. you could advance a critique of the past literature and point out
deficiencies in it and issues in its methods (see
Boote & Beile, 2005).
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ls#s40
Searching Computerized Databases (toc2.html#s30a)
To ease the process of collecting relevant material, there are
some techniques useful in accessing the literature quickly
through databases. Computer databases of the literature
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s10) are now available in academic libraries and
through the Internet, and they provide easy access to thousands
of journals, conference papers, and materials on many
different topics. Academic libraries at major universities have
purchased commercial databases as well as obtained
databases in the public domain. Only a few of the major
databases available will be reviewed here, but they are the
major
sources to journal articles and documents that you should
consult to determine what literature is available on your topic.
ERIC is a free online digital library of education research and
information sponsored by the Institute of Education
Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education. This
database can be found at www.eric.ed.gov
(http://www.eric.ed.gov) , and ERIC provides a search of 1.2
million items indexed since 1966. The collection includes
journal articles, books, research syntheses, conference papers,
technical reports, policy papers, and other education-
related materials. ERIC indexes more than hundreds of journals,
and links are available to full-text copies of many of the
53. materials. To best utilize ERIC, it is important to identify
appropriate descriptors for your topic, the terms used by
indexers to categorize article or documents. Researchers can
search through the Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors (ERIC,
1975) or browse the online thesaurus. A research tip
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s82) in conducting an ERIC search is to locate
recent journal articles and documents on your topic. This
process can be enhanced by conducting a preliminary search
using descriptors from the online thesaurus and locating a
journal article or document which is on your topic. Then look
closely at the descriptors used in this article and document and
run another search using these terms. This procedure
will maximize the possibility of obtaining a good list of articles
for your literature review.
Another free database to search is Google Scholar. It provides a
way to broadly search for literature across many
disciplines and sources, such as peer-reviewed papers, theses,
books, abstracts, and articles from academic publishers,
professional societies, universities, and other scholarly
organizations. The articles identified in a Google Scholar search
provide links to abstracts, related articles, electronic versions of
articles affiliated with a library you specify, web
searches for information about this work, and opportunities to
purchase the full text of the article.
Researchers can obtain abstracts to publications in the health
sciences through the free-access PubMed. This database
is a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine, and it
includes over 17 million citations from MEDLINE and life
science journals for biomedical articles going back to the 1950s
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) ).
PubMed includes links to full-text articles (located in academic
libraries) and other related resources. To search PubMed,
the researcher uses MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) terms,
54. the U.S. National Library of Medicine’s controlled
vocabulary thesaurus used for indexing articles for
MEDLINE/PubMed. This MeSH terminology provides a
consistent
way to retrieve information about topics that may be described
using different terms.
Academic libraries also have site licenses to important
commercial databases. One typically available is ProQuest
(http://proquest.com (http://proquest.com) ), which enables a
researcher to search many different databases, and it is
one of the largest online content repositories in the world.
Another would be EBSCO publishing, a for-fee online research
service, including full-text databases, subject indexes, point-of-
care medical reference, historical digital archives, and e-
books. The company provides more than 350 databases and
nearly 300,000 e-books. Also at academic libraries you can
search ERIC, PsycINFO, Dissertation Abstracts, Periodicals
Index, Health and Medical Complete, and many more
specialized databases (e.g., International Index to Black
Periodicals). Because EBSCO taps into many different
databases,
it can be one search tool to use before using more specialized
databases.
Another commercially licensed database found in many
academic libraries is Sociological Abstracts (Cambridge
Scientific Abstracts, www.csa.com (http://www.csa.com) ). This
database indexes over 2,000 journals; conference papers;
relevant dissertation listings; book reviews; and selected books
in sociology, social work, and related disciplines. For
literature in the field of psychology and related areas, consult
another commercial database: PsycINFO (www.apa.org
(http://www.apa.org) ). This database indexes 2,150 journal
titles, books, and dissertations from many countries. It covers
the field of psychology as well as psychological aspects of
55. physiology, linguistics, anthropology, business, and law. It has
a
Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms to locate useful terms
in a literature search.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s30a
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/g
ls#s10
http://www.eric.ed.gov/
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/g
ls#s82
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
http://proquest.com/
http://www.csa.com/
http://www.apa.org/
A final commercial database available in libraries is the Social
Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) (Web of Knowledge,
Thomson Scientific [http://isiwebof knowledge.com
(http://isiwebof knowledge.com) ]). It indexes 1,700 journals
spanning 50 disciplines and selectively indexes relevant items
from over 3,300 scientific and technical journals. It can be
used to locate articles and authors who have conducted research
on a topic. It is especially useful in locating studies that
have referenced an important study. The SSCI enables you to
trace all studies since the publication of the key study that
have cited the work. Using this system, you can develop a
chronological list of references that document the historical
evolution of an idea or study. This chronological list can be
most helpful in tracking the development of ideas about your
literature review topic.
In summary, my research tips for searching computer databases
are to do the following:
56. • Use both the free, online literature databases as well as those
available through your academic library.
• Search several databases, even if you feel that your topic is
not strictly education, as found in ERIC, or psychology, as
found in PsycINFO. Both ERIC and PsycINFO view education
and psychology as broad terms for many topics.
• Use guides to terms to locate your articles, such as a
thesaurus, when available.
• Locate an article that is close to your topic; then look at the
terms used to describe it, and use these terms in your
search.
• Use databases that provide access to full-text copies of your
articles (through academic libraries, your Internet
connection to a library, or for a fee) as much as possible so that
you can reduce the amount of time searching for
copies of your articles.
http://isiwebof%20knowledge.com/
A Priority for Selecting Literature Material (toc2.html#s31a)
I recommend that you establish a priority in a search of the
literature. What types of literature might be reviewed and
in what priority? Consider the following:
1. Especially if you are examining a topic for the first time and
unaware of the research on it, start with broad
syntheses of the literature, such as overviews found in
encyclopedias (e.g., Aikin, 1992; Keeves, 1988). You might
also look for summaries of the literature on your topic presented
in journal articles or abstract series (e.g.,
57. Annual Review of Psychology, 1950–).
2. Next, turn to journal articles in respected national journals—
especially those that report research studies. By
research, I mean that the author or authors pose a question or
hypothesis, collect data, and try to answer the
question or hypothesis. There are journals widely read in your
field, and typically they are publications with a
high-quality editorial board consisting of individuals from
around the United States or abroad. By turning to the
first few pages, you can determine if an editorial board is listed
and whether it is made up of individuals from
around the country or world. Start with the most recent issues of
the journals, and look for studies about your
topic and then work backward in time. Follow up on references
at the end of the articles for more sources to
examine.
3. Turn to books related to the topic. Begin with research
monographs that summarize the scholarly literature.
Then consider entire books on a single topic by a single author
or group of authors or books that contain
chapters written by different authors.
4. Follow this search by looking for recent conference papers.
Look for major national conferences and the papers
delivered at them. Often, conference papers report the latest
research developments. Most major conferences
either require or request that authors submit their papers for
inclusion in computerized indices. Make contact
with authors of pertinent studies. Seek them out at conferences.
Write or phone them, asking if they know of
studies related to your area of interest and inquire also if they
have an instrument that might be used or
modified for use in your study.
58. 5. If time permits, scan the entries in Dissertation Abstracts
(University Microfilms, 1938–). Dissertations vary
immensely in quality, and one needs to be selective in choosing
those to review. A search of the Abstracts might
result in one or two relevant dissertations, and you can request
copies of them through interlibrary loans or
through the University of Michigan Microfilm Library.
6. The web also provides helpful materials for a literature
review. The easy access and ability to capture entire
articles makes this source of material attractive. However,
screen these articles carefully for quality and be
cautious about whether they represent rigorous, thoughtful, and
systematic research suitable for use in a
literature review. Online journals, on the other hand, often
include articles that have undergone rigorous
reviews by editorial boards. You might check to see if the
journal has a refereed editorial board that reviews
manuscripts and has published standards for accepting
manuscripts in an editorial statement.
In summary, I place refereed journal articles high on the list
because they are the easiest to locate and duplicate. They
also report research about a topic. Dissertations are listed lower
in priority because they vary considerably in quality
and are the most difficult reading material to locate and
reproduce. Caution should be used in choosing journal articles
on the web unless they are part of refereed online journals.
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s31a
A Literature Map of the Research (toc2.html#s32a)
One of the first tasks for a researcher working with a new topic
is to organize the literature. As mentioned earlier, this
59. organization enables a person to understand how the proposed
study adds to, extends, or replicates research already
completed.
A useful approach for this step is to design a literature map.
This is an idea that I came up with several years ago, and
it has been a useful tool for students to use when organizing
their review of the literature for making presentations to
graduate committees, summarizing the literature for a scholarly
presentation, or composing an article for journal
publication.
This map is a visual summary of the research that has been
conducted by others, and it is typically represented in a
figure. Maps are organized in different ways. One could be a
hierarchical structure with a top-down presentation of the
literature, ending at the bottom with the proposed study.
Another might be similar to a flowchart in which the reader
understands the literature as unfolding from left to right with
the farthest right-hand section advancing a proposed
study. A third model might be a series of circles; each circle
represents a body of literature and the intersection of the
circles as the place in which the future research is indicated. I
have seen examples of all of these possibilities and found
them all effective.
The central idea is that the researcher begins to build a visual
picture of existing research about a topic. This literature
map presents an overview of existing literature. Figure 2.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/s26/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s26#fig2.1) is an
illustration of a map that shows the literature found on
procedural justice in organizational studies (Janovec, 2001).
Janovec’s map illustrates a hierarchical design, and she used
several principles of good map design:
60. • She placed her topic in the box at the top of the hierarchy.
• Next, she took the studies that she found in computer
searches, located copies of these studies, and organized them
into three broad subtopics (i.e., Justice Perceptions Formation,
Justice Effects, and Justice in Organizational Change).
For another map, the researcher may have more or fewer than
three major categories, depending on the extent and
publications on the topic.
• Within each box are labels that describe the nature of the
studies in the box (i.e., outcomes).
• Also within each box are references to major citations
illustrating its content. It is useful to use references that are
current and illustrative of the topic of the box and to briefly
state the references in an appropriate style, such as APA
(APA, 2010).
• Consider several levels for the literature map. In other words,
major topics lead to subtopics and then to sub-
subtopics.
• Some branches of the chart are more developed than others.
This development depends on the amount of literature
available and the depth of the exploration of the literature by
the researcher.
• After organizing the literature into a diagram, Janovec (2001)
next considered the branches of the figure that
provided a springboard for her proposed study. She placed a
“Need to Study” (or proposed study) box at the bottom
of the map, she briefly identified the nature of this proposed
study (Procedural Justice and Culture), and she then
drew lines to past literature that her project would extend. She
proposed this study based on ideas written by other
61. authors in the future research sections of their studies.
• Include quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies in
your literature map.
• Write a narrative description of your literature map for your
committee or for presentation that begins with your
topic (the heading box at the top), the databases you have
reviewed, the division of the literature into broad topics in
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s32a
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s
26/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s26#fig2.1
the map, the specific topic that you plan to study (at the bottom
box of the map), and how your topic relates to
various branches in the literature (the connecting lines—what
literature your study builds on and how it builds).
Composing a literature map can be challenging. Individuals
seeing this map may not be familiar with this approach to
organizing the literature and making a case for your study. They
need to be told the intent of such a map. It takes time to
develop such a map and locate literature to put into the map.
For a preliminary map, I consider collecting maybe 25
studies. For a full literature map for a dissertation or thesis, I
would consider developing a map with at least 100 studies.
Figuring out how your study adds to the literature takes some
time. It may add to several threads in your literature map.
I would refrain from tying it to all of your subdivisions; select
one or two subdivisions. It is also challenging to figure out
what the broad topic might be for the top of the map. This is the
topic to which your literature map adds. Ask others who
know about your literature, see how the research studies group
according to some synthesis of the literature, and
62. continually ask yourself what body of literature your study will
contribute to. You may also have to develop several
versions of your map before it comes together. Develop your
map, write the discussion, and check it out with others.
Abstracting Studies (toc2.html#s33a)
When researchers write reviews of the literature for proposed
studies, they locate articles and develop brief abstracts
of the articles that comprise the review. An abstract
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
tions/gls#s1) is a brief review of the literature (typically a
short paragraph) that summarizes major elements to enable a
reader to understand the basic features of the article. In
developing an abstract, researchers need to consider what
material to extract and summarize. This is important
information when reviewing perhaps dozens, if not hundreds, of
studies. A good summary of a research study reported
in a journal might include the following points:
• Mention the problem being addressed.
• State the central purpose or focus of the study.
• Briefly state information about the sample, population, or
subjects.
• Review key results that relate to the proposed study.
• If it is a critique or methods review (Cooper, 2010), point out
technical and methodological flaws in the study.
Figure 2.1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sec
63. tions/s26#fig2.1a) An Example of a
Literature Map
When examining a study to develop a summary, there are places
to look for these parts. In well-crafted journal articles,
the problem and purpose statements are clearly stated in the
introduction. Information about the sample, population, or
https://content.ashford.edu/print/toc2.html#s33a
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/g
ls#s1
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Creswell.7641.17.1/sections/s
26#fig2.1a
subjects is found midway through in a method (or procedure)
section, and the results are often reported toward the end.
In the results sections, look for passages in which the
researchers report information to answer or address each
research
question or hypothesis. For book-length research studies, look
for the same points. Consider the following example:
Example 2.1 Literature Review Abstract in a Quantitative Study
(toc2.html#ex2.1a)
Here follows a paragraph summarizing the major components of
a quantitative study (Creswell, Seagren, & Henry,
1979), much like the paragraph might appear in a review of the
literature section of a dissertation or a journal
article. In this passage, I have chosen key components to be
abstracted.
Creswell and colleagues (1979) tested the Biglan model, a
three-dimensional model clustering 36
academic areas into hard or soft, pure or applied, life or nonlife