This document discusses approaches to measuring well-being for use in policymaking. It defines well-being and outlines five conceptual approaches: preference satisfaction, basic needs, flourishing, hedonic, and evaluative. The document argues that well-being is best viewed as a dynamic process involving circumstances and psychological resources. It examines applications of well-being measurement in policy, including political acceptability, using indicators as means or ends, and applicability across the life course. Technical considerations discussed include bounded scales, set-points, and adaptation effects. The document concludes by assessing well-being indicators for policy using a SWOT analysis.
Topic: Functions & Scope of Guidance & Counselling
Student Name: Numrah
Class: M.Ed
Project Name: “Young Teachers' Professional Development (TPD)"
"Project Founder: Prof. Dr. Amjad Ali Arain
Faculty of Education, University of Sindh, Pakistan
in this chapter, I tried to give every detailing related to guidance & counseling. it includes Definitions, meaning, principles, areas, and approaches in G & D. it also states the counseling steps and process.
This document provides an overview of guidance and counselling. It defines guidance and counselling, noting they are similar but differ in some ways. Guidance is more general and comprehensive, usually precedes counselling, and stresses the theoretical aspect, while counselling focuses more on the practical relationship between counsellor and client. The document discusses misconceptions about guidance and counselling and provides examples of different types of counselling services including religious, preventative, educational, vocational, and social/ethical counselling. It also outlines ethical principles and characteristics important for counsellors.
Counseling involves a supportive relationship between a counselor and client to help the client address problems and facilitate healthy changes. The counselor provides empathy, respect and a framework for the client to explore emotions, behaviors and thinking patterns. Counseling aims to help clients understand themselves, make informed choices, and resolve issues through meaningful discussion in a non-directive way. It differs from guidance in focusing more on helping clients make changes, and from psychotherapy in viewing clients as capable of self-direction rather than mentally ill.
This document discusses counseling techniques, specifically the directive technique. It defines counseling as a professional relationship that empowers individuals to accomplish mental health and education goals. Techniques are methods used to accomplish a desired aim. The directive technique is a counseling method where the counselor plays an active role, focusing on a particular problem and providing possible solutions, making it counselor-centered. The counselor guides the client's thinking and decision making. While it is time and cost effective, the directive technique can lead to dependency and new adjustment issues for the client.
The document defines counseling as a structured, permissive relationship that allows clients to gain self-understanding to enable positive change. It discusses levels of counseling from informal to professional. Characteristics include a relationship of mutual respect focused on problem-solving, decision-making, and self-actualization. Phases include establishing rapport, assessment, goal-setting, and termination. Qualities of effective counselors are good listening skills, empathy, and maintaining confidentiality. Techniques involve establishing trust, clarification, reassurance, and advice. Counseling in nursing education aims to help students develop coping strategies and leadership skills to adjust to academic and clinical environments.
Topic: Functions & Scope of Guidance & Counselling
Student Name: Numrah
Class: M.Ed
Project Name: “Young Teachers' Professional Development (TPD)"
"Project Founder: Prof. Dr. Amjad Ali Arain
Faculty of Education, University of Sindh, Pakistan
in this chapter, I tried to give every detailing related to guidance & counseling. it includes Definitions, meaning, principles, areas, and approaches in G & D. it also states the counseling steps and process.
This document provides an overview of guidance and counselling. It defines guidance and counselling, noting they are similar but differ in some ways. Guidance is more general and comprehensive, usually precedes counselling, and stresses the theoretical aspect, while counselling focuses more on the practical relationship between counsellor and client. The document discusses misconceptions about guidance and counselling and provides examples of different types of counselling services including religious, preventative, educational, vocational, and social/ethical counselling. It also outlines ethical principles and characteristics important for counsellors.
Counseling involves a supportive relationship between a counselor and client to help the client address problems and facilitate healthy changes. The counselor provides empathy, respect and a framework for the client to explore emotions, behaviors and thinking patterns. Counseling aims to help clients understand themselves, make informed choices, and resolve issues through meaningful discussion in a non-directive way. It differs from guidance in focusing more on helping clients make changes, and from psychotherapy in viewing clients as capable of self-direction rather than mentally ill.
This document discusses counseling techniques, specifically the directive technique. It defines counseling as a professional relationship that empowers individuals to accomplish mental health and education goals. Techniques are methods used to accomplish a desired aim. The directive technique is a counseling method where the counselor plays an active role, focusing on a particular problem and providing possible solutions, making it counselor-centered. The counselor guides the client's thinking and decision making. While it is time and cost effective, the directive technique can lead to dependency and new adjustment issues for the client.
The document defines counseling as a structured, permissive relationship that allows clients to gain self-understanding to enable positive change. It discusses levels of counseling from informal to professional. Characteristics include a relationship of mutual respect focused on problem-solving, decision-making, and self-actualization. Phases include establishing rapport, assessment, goal-setting, and termination. Qualities of effective counselors are good listening skills, empathy, and maintaining confidentiality. Techniques involve establishing trust, clarification, reassurance, and advice. Counseling in nursing education aims to help students develop coping strategies and leadership skills to adjust to academic and clinical environments.
The document discusses guidance and counseling in education. It defines guidance as a process that helps individuals solve problems and pursue a path suited to their abilities and ambitions. Counseling is discussed as a method to help clients solve problems through discussion of emotional issues. The document outlines the need, principles, types, and techniques of guidance and counseling in assisting students' development.
Counseling is defined as a face-to-face problem solving relationship that facilitates meaningful understanding and voluntary change. It involves establishing objectives and behaviors to promote specific client changes through a process where the counselor provides a safe environment for the client to perceive and integrate previously denied experiences. Counseling is not advice giving, guidance, education, conversation, interrogation, confession, prayer, or ongoing therapy. The principles of counseling emphasize respecting client dignity, facilitating optimum development, being educational and sequential, respecting society and individual, and being based on cooperation rather than compulsion.
Counseling involves a dyadic process between a counselor and counselee to provide professional assistance and guidance in resolving personal or psychological problems. It functions through advice, reassurance, communication, releasing tension, clarifying thinking, and reorientation. The counseling process is based on principles of acceptance, permissiveness, respect for individuals, thinking with clients, and learning. There are different types of counseling like directive and non-directive, and counseling can take the form of different interview types like problem-focused, decision-making, or crisis sessions.
Prevention, characteristics of counsellingBimal Antony
This document discusses prevention strategies in mental health at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary prevention aims to reduce incidence and risk factors through universal, selective, and indicated measures. Secondary prevention focuses on early detection and treatment to reduce duration and severity. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce disability through prompt treatment and rehabilitation. The document outlines examples of prevention efforts at each level, from prenatal care to community mental health centers and crisis intervention.
The counseling service has a major goal of helping individuals become their best selves by optimizing their unique potentials. Developing an effective counseling service requires considering four aspects: development, components, relationships within, and evaluation. The development of counseling services must be tailored to each specific school setting based on studying the environment, philosophies, defining goals and objectives, understanding the student population, and receiving feedback. An effective counseling program implements ten functions including studying the environment, defining problems, establishing parameters, designing a model, testing the model, introducing and operating the system, and evaluating.
Guidance and counseling are both essential elements of education but have some key differences. Guidance aims to help students discover their potential and make decisions by providing information, while counseling addresses existing problems through in-depth, therapeutic interactions between counselor and client. The document outlines various definitions and purposes of guidance and counseling, emphasizing guidance as a preventative, developmental process whereas counseling is more remedial and focused on facilitating change in clients' behaviors and attitudes.
Counseling involves providing guidance and support to help individuals resolve personal problems or achieve personal growth. It is a personal process where a trained counselor helps a client through a series of direct contacts. The counselor aims to offer assistance in changing attitudes and behaviors through techniques like interviews and testing. Counseling is needed in situations like dealing with loss, addiction, career decisions, depression or anxiety. It is important because counselors are trained to help clients determine the root causes of issues and guide them to a resolution. Counselors must demonstrate qualities like empathy, integrity, and competence when working with clients.
This document discusses guidance and counseling in education. It defines guidance as a process of helping individuals discover and develop their potential through their own efforts. Counseling is defined as a purposeful relationship where a trained person helps another change attitudes and behaviors.
The key differences outlined are that guidance is more preventative and developmental by helping understand alternatives, while counseling is more remedial and in-depth by inward analysis and proposing solutions.
There are also descriptions of the qualities of a good counselor and the components, principles, types (directive, non-directive, eclectic), and scope of guidance and counseling services.
Guidance involves directing students and helping them understand alternatives to make wise choices. Counseling is a specialized part of guidance and involves an in-depth analysis to help students understand themselves and their problems on an emotional level. The purposes of guidance and counseling are to provide information to facilitate adjustment, development, and help students make efficient use of their talents and abilities to lead productive lives.
Guidance and counseling help individuals solve problems and make choices by providing direction. Guidance leads to self-development and wise planning. It involves discovering abilities and adjusting to the environment. Counseling is a talking therapy where a counselor helps a client explore issues, see things clearly, and address underlying causes of problems. It aims to solve personal or social-psychological issues causing unease through a trusting relationship. Both guidance and counseling are purposeful processes that contribute to individual development.
The document discusses counseling practices in Bangladesh, noting that counseling is a professional process aimed at facilitating problem solving and decision making. It outlines challenges to counseling in Bangladesh including a lack of professional recognition, limited resources and trained counselors. Opportunities for counseling are identified in various settings such as hospitals, universities, and for issues like drug addiction, though challenges remain around awareness, training, and government support of the profession.
The role of the professional school counselorkcounselor
Professional school counselors are certified/licensed educators with a minimum of a master's degree in school counseling. They address all students' academic, career, and personal/social needs through comprehensive school counseling programs based on the ASCA National Model framework of foundation, delivery, management, and accountability. Professional school counselors provide direct services to students, such as school guidance curriculum, individual planning, and responsive services like counseling. They also support the overall school through indirect services including professional development, collaboration, and program evaluation.
Counselling outcome, issues, trends and professional ethics dr geoffrey wangoDr Wango Geoffrey
The emphasis of counselling as a process requires that the procedure be conducted in a professional way in order to evaluate and assess the outcome of therapy. This presentation brings to life the status quo of counselling psychology practice particularly in Kenya today appreciating the milestones so far achieved, highlighting loopholes and challenges in practice and at the same time suggesting a workable chart forward that will inculcate professionalism. It presents both enlightening and enriching insights into the practice and outcome of counselling and is written to assist all those who engage in counselling psychological services including students, trainers, researchers and supervisors to investigate professional practice in an interpretative way.
The document discusses concepts and trends related to guidance and counseling. It provides definitions of guidance and counseling, noting that counseling is a specialized part of guidance. The document outlines several purposes of guidance and counseling in education and nursing contexts. It discusses characteristics of guidance and counseling, challenges faced in providing counseling services, and trends in counseling including the use of technology and focus on diversity, accountability and prevention. Strategies are proposed to improve counseling services and student performance through various academic and psychosocial interventions.
Guidance and counseling presentation by NazishNazish Jamali
The document defines guidance and counseling, and differentiates between the two terms. Guidance involves helping individuals make choices and adjustments by providing advice, while counseling deals with serious personal problems through active listening and discussion with a professional. Both aim to help solve clients' issues, but guidance focuses on educational and career matters, and counseling addresses deeper social and psychological concerns through multiple private sessions.
This document discusses guidance and counseling in schools. It defines counseling as a process that helps people sort through issues and make life decisions, especially during times of change or crisis. The main difference between guidance and counseling is that guidance provides ready-made solutions, while counseling empowers the client to gain insight and make their own decisions. There is a need for counseling services in schools to help with student development, course and career choices, checking attrition, and making up for deficiencies at home. The document discusses individual and group counseling approaches.
This document outlines ethics codes and guidelines for guidance counselors. It discusses key ethical concepts like informed consent, confidentiality, privileged communication, and dual relationships. It provides steps for making ethical decisions and minimizing risks of multiple relationships. The document also outlines general ethical principles counselors should follow in their relationships with clients, the community, colleagues, and in research/publications. Counselors who violate the ethics code outlined here may face administrative penalties.
Guidance and counseling is the process which helps the students to know their skills, interests, personality that will help students in further career selection. ... Guidance is the process in which person able to know their ability, interest, a capacity that will help in the encounter of problems faced by them.
This document provides information on guidance and counseling. It defines key terms like guidance and counselor. It describes guidance as a process to help individuals solve problems and pursue suitable paths. Counseling involves a relationship between two people to help one resolve issues. The document outlines various principles, elements, types and phases of guidance and counseling. It emphasizes that guidance is a continuous process to assist individual development rather than direct it. Qualities of effective counselors and organizing guidance programs in educational institutions are also discussed.
This document outlines several approaches to understanding social problems from a sociological perspective. It discusses the value-conflict approach, deviant behavior approach, labeling approach, social pathology approach, social disorganization approach, and institutional approach. For each approach, it describes the key concepts, causes, consequences, and potential solutions. It also summarizes the five main contributions sociologists can make in understanding and addressing social problems, such as measuring conditions, attitudes, applying sociological imagination, identifying interventions, and evaluating policy consequences.
Urban social problems include inadequate housing, pollution, and overcrowding. Shortages in housing have led to the formation of slums - areas of substandard housing lacking basic facilities where poverty and disease are prevalent. Pollution results from industrial waste discharged into the air, water, and environment. Transportation and access to resources like water have also been challenging in cities due to large populations. Other issues include a decline in religious values, weakening family structures, rising crime, and a loss of social controls.
The document discusses guidance and counseling in education. It defines guidance as a process that helps individuals solve problems and pursue a path suited to their abilities and ambitions. Counseling is discussed as a method to help clients solve problems through discussion of emotional issues. The document outlines the need, principles, types, and techniques of guidance and counseling in assisting students' development.
Counseling is defined as a face-to-face problem solving relationship that facilitates meaningful understanding and voluntary change. It involves establishing objectives and behaviors to promote specific client changes through a process where the counselor provides a safe environment for the client to perceive and integrate previously denied experiences. Counseling is not advice giving, guidance, education, conversation, interrogation, confession, prayer, or ongoing therapy. The principles of counseling emphasize respecting client dignity, facilitating optimum development, being educational and sequential, respecting society and individual, and being based on cooperation rather than compulsion.
Counseling involves a dyadic process between a counselor and counselee to provide professional assistance and guidance in resolving personal or psychological problems. It functions through advice, reassurance, communication, releasing tension, clarifying thinking, and reorientation. The counseling process is based on principles of acceptance, permissiveness, respect for individuals, thinking with clients, and learning. There are different types of counseling like directive and non-directive, and counseling can take the form of different interview types like problem-focused, decision-making, or crisis sessions.
Prevention, characteristics of counsellingBimal Antony
This document discusses prevention strategies in mental health at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary prevention aims to reduce incidence and risk factors through universal, selective, and indicated measures. Secondary prevention focuses on early detection and treatment to reduce duration and severity. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce disability through prompt treatment and rehabilitation. The document outlines examples of prevention efforts at each level, from prenatal care to community mental health centers and crisis intervention.
The counseling service has a major goal of helping individuals become their best selves by optimizing their unique potentials. Developing an effective counseling service requires considering four aspects: development, components, relationships within, and evaluation. The development of counseling services must be tailored to each specific school setting based on studying the environment, philosophies, defining goals and objectives, understanding the student population, and receiving feedback. An effective counseling program implements ten functions including studying the environment, defining problems, establishing parameters, designing a model, testing the model, introducing and operating the system, and evaluating.
Guidance and counseling are both essential elements of education but have some key differences. Guidance aims to help students discover their potential and make decisions by providing information, while counseling addresses existing problems through in-depth, therapeutic interactions between counselor and client. The document outlines various definitions and purposes of guidance and counseling, emphasizing guidance as a preventative, developmental process whereas counseling is more remedial and focused on facilitating change in clients' behaviors and attitudes.
Counseling involves providing guidance and support to help individuals resolve personal problems or achieve personal growth. It is a personal process where a trained counselor helps a client through a series of direct contacts. The counselor aims to offer assistance in changing attitudes and behaviors through techniques like interviews and testing. Counseling is needed in situations like dealing with loss, addiction, career decisions, depression or anxiety. It is important because counselors are trained to help clients determine the root causes of issues and guide them to a resolution. Counselors must demonstrate qualities like empathy, integrity, and competence when working with clients.
This document discusses guidance and counseling in education. It defines guidance as a process of helping individuals discover and develop their potential through their own efforts. Counseling is defined as a purposeful relationship where a trained person helps another change attitudes and behaviors.
The key differences outlined are that guidance is more preventative and developmental by helping understand alternatives, while counseling is more remedial and in-depth by inward analysis and proposing solutions.
There are also descriptions of the qualities of a good counselor and the components, principles, types (directive, non-directive, eclectic), and scope of guidance and counseling services.
Guidance involves directing students and helping them understand alternatives to make wise choices. Counseling is a specialized part of guidance and involves an in-depth analysis to help students understand themselves and their problems on an emotional level. The purposes of guidance and counseling are to provide information to facilitate adjustment, development, and help students make efficient use of their talents and abilities to lead productive lives.
Guidance and counseling help individuals solve problems and make choices by providing direction. Guidance leads to self-development and wise planning. It involves discovering abilities and adjusting to the environment. Counseling is a talking therapy where a counselor helps a client explore issues, see things clearly, and address underlying causes of problems. It aims to solve personal or social-psychological issues causing unease through a trusting relationship. Both guidance and counseling are purposeful processes that contribute to individual development.
The document discusses counseling practices in Bangladesh, noting that counseling is a professional process aimed at facilitating problem solving and decision making. It outlines challenges to counseling in Bangladesh including a lack of professional recognition, limited resources and trained counselors. Opportunities for counseling are identified in various settings such as hospitals, universities, and for issues like drug addiction, though challenges remain around awareness, training, and government support of the profession.
The role of the professional school counselorkcounselor
Professional school counselors are certified/licensed educators with a minimum of a master's degree in school counseling. They address all students' academic, career, and personal/social needs through comprehensive school counseling programs based on the ASCA National Model framework of foundation, delivery, management, and accountability. Professional school counselors provide direct services to students, such as school guidance curriculum, individual planning, and responsive services like counseling. They also support the overall school through indirect services including professional development, collaboration, and program evaluation.
Counselling outcome, issues, trends and professional ethics dr geoffrey wangoDr Wango Geoffrey
The emphasis of counselling as a process requires that the procedure be conducted in a professional way in order to evaluate and assess the outcome of therapy. This presentation brings to life the status quo of counselling psychology practice particularly in Kenya today appreciating the milestones so far achieved, highlighting loopholes and challenges in practice and at the same time suggesting a workable chart forward that will inculcate professionalism. It presents both enlightening and enriching insights into the practice and outcome of counselling and is written to assist all those who engage in counselling psychological services including students, trainers, researchers and supervisors to investigate professional practice in an interpretative way.
The document discusses concepts and trends related to guidance and counseling. It provides definitions of guidance and counseling, noting that counseling is a specialized part of guidance. The document outlines several purposes of guidance and counseling in education and nursing contexts. It discusses characteristics of guidance and counseling, challenges faced in providing counseling services, and trends in counseling including the use of technology and focus on diversity, accountability and prevention. Strategies are proposed to improve counseling services and student performance through various academic and psychosocial interventions.
Guidance and counseling presentation by NazishNazish Jamali
The document defines guidance and counseling, and differentiates between the two terms. Guidance involves helping individuals make choices and adjustments by providing advice, while counseling deals with serious personal problems through active listening and discussion with a professional. Both aim to help solve clients' issues, but guidance focuses on educational and career matters, and counseling addresses deeper social and psychological concerns through multiple private sessions.
This document discusses guidance and counseling in schools. It defines counseling as a process that helps people sort through issues and make life decisions, especially during times of change or crisis. The main difference between guidance and counseling is that guidance provides ready-made solutions, while counseling empowers the client to gain insight and make their own decisions. There is a need for counseling services in schools to help with student development, course and career choices, checking attrition, and making up for deficiencies at home. The document discusses individual and group counseling approaches.
This document outlines ethics codes and guidelines for guidance counselors. It discusses key ethical concepts like informed consent, confidentiality, privileged communication, and dual relationships. It provides steps for making ethical decisions and minimizing risks of multiple relationships. The document also outlines general ethical principles counselors should follow in their relationships with clients, the community, colleagues, and in research/publications. Counselors who violate the ethics code outlined here may face administrative penalties.
Guidance and counseling is the process which helps the students to know their skills, interests, personality that will help students in further career selection. ... Guidance is the process in which person able to know their ability, interest, a capacity that will help in the encounter of problems faced by them.
This document provides information on guidance and counseling. It defines key terms like guidance and counselor. It describes guidance as a process to help individuals solve problems and pursue suitable paths. Counseling involves a relationship between two people to help one resolve issues. The document outlines various principles, elements, types and phases of guidance and counseling. It emphasizes that guidance is a continuous process to assist individual development rather than direct it. Qualities of effective counselors and organizing guidance programs in educational institutions are also discussed.
This document outlines several approaches to understanding social problems from a sociological perspective. It discusses the value-conflict approach, deviant behavior approach, labeling approach, social pathology approach, social disorganization approach, and institutional approach. For each approach, it describes the key concepts, causes, consequences, and potential solutions. It also summarizes the five main contributions sociologists can make in understanding and addressing social problems, such as measuring conditions, attitudes, applying sociological imagination, identifying interventions, and evaluating policy consequences.
Urban social problems include inadequate housing, pollution, and overcrowding. Shortages in housing have led to the formation of slums - areas of substandard housing lacking basic facilities where poverty and disease are prevalent. Pollution results from industrial waste discharged into the air, water, and environment. Transportation and access to resources like water have also been challenging in cities due to large populations. Other issues include a decline in religious values, weakening family structures, rising crime, and a loss of social controls.
This document provides an overview of different theoretical frameworks for analyzing social problems. It discusses sociological paradigms like structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. It also covers levels of analysis from the individual to global levels. Normative approaches like the human rights, basic needs, and human development frameworks are introduced. Social constructionism and critical constructionism are summarized as perspectives that view social problems as socially defined. The role of social movements in seeking to change social structures is also outlined.
Here is a 1,000 word essay assessing the relationship between sociology and social policy:
Sociology and social policy have a complex relationship. On the one hand, sociological research aims to understand society and social problems, which could potentially inform social policy. However, there are debates around whether and how sociology should influence policy. This essay will assess different perspectives on the relationship between sociology and social policy.
Those who argue sociology should directly influence social policy, like Giddens, believe sociological research has practical benefits. By uncovering facts about social issues like poverty, and providing theoretical explanations, sociology can raise awareness and influence reforms. For example, Townsend's research on poverty in the UK in the 1970
Urbanization refers to an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas. As countries industrialize, more people migrate from rural to urban areas for employment in factories. This led to the development of inner cities with dense rows of terraced housing for workers.
Urbanization can cause problems like congestion, lack of housing, and environmental issues. Many cities also have sharp inequalities in housing, health, and employment. Some try to escape these problems through counter-urbanization or moving to the edges of cities. Long-term solutions involve making cities more sustainable.
Urban problems include loss of public space as streets are increasingly used for traffic rather than social activities, environmental and health impacts from pollution, increased accidents and safety issues due to more traffic, significant land consumption devoted to transportation infrastructure, and challenges of urban freight distribution with more goods movement. Solutions proposed include improving public transportation to reduce car usage and traffic, developing ring roads and bypass routes, implementing park and ride facilities, and restricting car access to city centers.
This document discusses approaches to measuring well-being for use in policymaking. It defines well-being and outlines five main conceptual approaches: preference satisfaction, basic needs, flourishing, hedonic, and evaluative. The document examines how well-being has been discussed in recent UK policy initiatives. It also discusses issues around using subjective well-being indicators in policy, including political acceptability, leading vs lagging indicators, and applicability across the life course. Technical considerations like bounded scales, adaptation, and status effects are also reviewed. The document concludes by outlining frameworks for choosing well-being indicators for policy purposes.
Making sense of sustainable developmentClive Bates
This document discusses how the Welsh Assembly Government can embed sustainable development as its central organizing principle. It proposes that the overall goal of sustainable development should be maximizing the well-being of Welsh citizens over the long term. To operationalize this, it argues that three conditions must be met: 1) There must be clarity around what is valued and the objective of sustainable development. It proposes defining this as maximizing long-term well-being. 2) Application of the principle must inform present-day policy and investment choices. This may require hard choices around issues like prevention, integration, and resilience. 3) Through leadership, the government can secure a mandate for this approach by building trust, acting consistently, and promoting behavior change. The
This document provides an introduction to advocacy in education and health. It discusses how policy is made, including understanding government mandates and commitments, governing philosophies, and the importance of evidence-based action. Policy development involves many stakeholders and external factors that influence decision makers. Effective advocacy requires understanding these complex dynamics and presenting well-researched arguments and data to support proposed policy changes.
This document summarizes the review of HSE funded adult day services in Ireland. It conducted a census of current services, wide consultation, research on international and Irish models, and highlighted innovations by providers. The review aims to modernize services to better meet individual needs through a nationally coordinated, person-centered approach. Current services show diversity but lack clear definitions and standards. The new vision, called "New Directions", proposes personalized support services tailored to each person's goals and delivered through mainstream community resources and partnerships. Significant changes are needed to implementation plans to realize this new approach.
This document summarizes a longer document about factors that influence human behavior and how understanding these factors can help develop effective communications strategies. It discusses three levels of factors - personal, social, and environmental - that influence behavior according to social psychology models. Personal factors include knowledge, attitudes, habits, and self-efficacy. Social factors include social norms, social support and identity. The document also provides an overview of behavioral economics principles and theories of behavior change. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how multiple factors at all levels can influence a behavior when developing communications to change behaviors.
This document summarizes a longer document about factors that influence human behavior and how understanding these factors can help develop effective communications strategies. It discusses three levels that influence behavior - personal, social, and environmental factors. Personal factors include knowledge, attitudes, habits, and beliefs. Social factors refer to interpersonal influences, and environmental factors include local and wider contextual influences. The document also provides overviews of behavioral economics principles and theories of behavior change. It emphasizes that to effectively influence behavior, communications strategies need to address factors at multiple levels rather than just focusing on one.
S t ra tegies for Ge n e rating Social Norms NewsA practic.docxjeffsrosalyn
S t ra tegies for Ge n e rating Social Norms News
A practical, easy-to-use resource for social norms
practitioners who want to generate coverage
of their projects and the social norms
approach in general.
M A I N F RA M ET H E
O C TO B E R , 2 0 0 2
List of Co n te n t s
Alan Be rkow i t z , Ph . D. - I n d e pendent Co n s u l t a n t
Ja m i e Co rn i s h , P h .D. - M on t an a S t at e U n ive r s i t y
Pat ricia Fa b i a n o, Ph . D. - We s tern Wa s h i n g ton Unive r s i ty
Michael Ha i n e s, M . S . - No rthern Illinois Unive r s i ty
Ko reen Jo h a n n e s s e n , M . S . W. - U n i ve r s i ty of Ari zo n a
H. Wesley Pe rk i n s , P h . D. - H o b a r t & W il l i am S m it h Co l l e g e s
Ri c h a rd Ri ce, M . A . - No rthern Illinois Unive r s i ty
Su p po rt for this guide has been provided by the Montana De p a rtment of Tra n s po rt a t i o n ,
the National Highway Traffic Sa fe ty Ad m i n i s t ra t i o n , and The Montana De p a rtment of Public Health and Human Se rv i ce s.
I nt r o d u c t io n . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. ..
W h at i s S o c i a l N o rm s Th e o r y? .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . ...
H ow C an S o ci a l No r m s Pr a c t it i on e rs Us e t h e Pre ss ? . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . . .. .....
H o w t o U se T his Gu i de .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .....
Key Co n cepts of Social No rms ............................................................................................
Ta l k i n g Po i nt s .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..
Wr i ti n g S oc i al N o r ms Pr ess R e l e as es . .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. ..
A Sample Press Release ...................................................................................................
Wr i ti n g S oc i a l N o rm s O p- Eds .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. ........
A Sample Op-Ed ..............................................................................................................
Ten Tips For Getting a Social No rms Pe r s pe ct i ve Into Press Cove rage ........................
Tips for Sh i fting Attitudes with a Me m ber of the Press .......
These Guidelines have been produced as part of the OECD Better Life Initiative, a pioneering project launched in 2011, with the objective to measure society’s progress across eleven domains of well-being, ranging from jobs, health and housing, through to civic engagement and the environment.
These Guidelines represent the first attempt to provide international recommendations on collecting, publishing, and analysing subjective well-being data. They provide guidance on collecting information on people's evaluations and experiences of life, as well as on collecting “eudaimonic” measures of psychological well-being. The Guidelines also outline why measures of subjective well-being are relevant for monitoring and policy making, and why national statistical agencies have a critical role to play in enhancing the usefulness of existing measures. They identify the best approaches for measuring, in a reliable and consistent way, the various dimensions of subjective well-being, and provide guidance for reporting on such measures. The Guidelines also include a number of prototype survey modules on subjective well-being that national and international agencies can use in their surveys.
This document outlines key aspects of participatory scenario development (PSD) workshops for assessing capacities and raising awareness about climate change in Tajikistan. It defines scenarios as plausible descriptions of how the future may develop based on current trends and signals. PSD workshops actively engage stakeholders in developing scenarios in order to leverage their practical knowledge, identify new challenges, and ensure diverse perspectives are incorporated. The document provides an overview of the structure and sessions of a sample PSD workshop, including preparing stakeholders to assess needs, gaps, and adaptation options within the context of different scenarios. It also discusses organizing and reporting on the workshop.
This gives an outline of how I think sustainable development should work - and the type of questions it generates for each of the main areas of policy.
This report summarizes discussions from an event focused on scaling and spreading innovations to improve cardiovascular health as part of the Million Hearts initiative. Key findings included:
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Identify Core Elements of the Innovation
Participants emphasized the importance of clearly defining the core elements of an
A model for engaging youth in evidence informed policy and program developmentDr Lendy Spires
This document provides a model for engaging youth in evidence-informed policy and program development. It describes a process for bringing together youth, researchers, and policymakers to examine research and apply the perspectives and experiences of youth. The goal is for youth to inform public policy and program recommendations. The model draws on past youth engagement projects and aims to guide single engagement events, while allowing for continuous advisory roles. It emphasizes facilitating the process and allowing participants to directly experience and produce best practices for meaningful youth engagement.
A model for engaging youth in evidence informed policy and program developmentDr Lendy Spires
This document presents a model for engaging youth in evidence-informed policy and program development. It describes establishing objectives, principles and values, considerations for collaborators, executing engagement activities, and sustaining engagement over time. The model draws on experiences engaging youth to examine research and apply their perspectives to policy recommendations. It aims to inject youth as stakeholders in governance processes, recognizing their right to participate in decisions affecting them.
A model for engaging youth in evidence informed policy and program developmentDr Lendy Spires
This document presents a model for engaging youth in evidence-informed policy and program development. It was created based on pilot youth engagement projects from the Public Health Agency of Canada as well as the experience of The Students Commission of Canada. The model involves examining research through the lens of youth experiences to make policy and program recommendations. It provides guidance for single event youth engagement activities and outlines considerations for initiating the activity, roles of collaborators, executing the activity, desired qualities, outcomes, and sustaining engagement. The goal is to meaningfully involve youth in decisions that affect them.
Assignment help for Principles of Health, visit: https://academiapapers.net/, thousands of academic assignments, essays and homeworks has been published there, So don't miss those.
Supporting young people to make change happen act knowledge oxfamaustraliaPatrick Mphaka
This document reviews theories of change for supporting young people in creating positive change. It identifies four main outcomes that interventions aim for: 1) Young people participating in political and community decision-making, 2) Being civically engaged, 3) Leading youth-led initiatives for change, and 4) Developing leadership skills. Theories posit prerequisites for these outcomes like empowerment and civic participation building self-esteem. Assumptions around safety and context are important. Evaluations find theories must account for political and social relations to effect change at different levels in varying contexts.
This document analyzes the care coordination and care management workforce needs in New York State. It conducted a survey of 49 Health Home organizations. Key findings include: 1) A diverse set of clinical, organizational and interpersonal skills are needed for these roles; 2) Ongoing training is still needed despite many skills being required; 3) Recruitment and retention challenges exist due to insufficient salaries, high caseloads and lack of skills; 4) Job titles are still evolving. Recommendations include collecting workforce data, requiring all payers to support these roles, ensuring sufficient wages and benefits, and providing ongoing training, certification programs and career ladders. Addressing the workforce challenges is critical to healthcare transformation efforts in New York
Is Mobile the Prescription for Sustained Behavior Change?HealthInnoventions
This white paper provides an overview of behavior change filtered through the lens of health and financial imperatives, systems thinking and evolving portable technologies. Health Innoventions’ authors and conference organizers (Max Wells and Michael Gallelli) suggest that a confluence of demands and growing dynamic and interactive capabilities will drive us to better science and application of behavior change and maintenance. It was prepared as a companion document to the conference Consumer-Centric Health: MODELS FOR CHANGE '11, which took place on October 12-13 in Seattle.
Similar to Quality Of Life Measure For Social Policy (20)
Asset based community development-response; renewal; resurgence Cormac Russell
The document discusses asset-based community development and creating citizen-led spaces for community building. It poses four questions about engagement and risk-taking at a workshop. It then discusses challenges like the "Humpty Dumpty effect", the importance of relationships, exchange and community. Examples are given of community development successes on Martha's Vineyard and through Judith Snow's work. The document advocates for a power sharing system with citizens in the lead and closing with small group discussion on courage required to deepen citizen leadership.
The document outlines an agenda for a workshop on moving from presence to citizenship. It discusses engaging personally and taking risks to learn. Participants will discuss dilemmas in becoming citizens and the courage needed to deepen citizen-led spaces. Small groups will talk about what citizenship requires and how to create room for others. The goal is to discuss community building and moving from bystanders to active members.
This document discusses building education around community assets and moving away from deficit thinking. It outlines six building blocks of education that utilize local resources, including gifts and skills of residents, local associations, institutions, environmental and economic assets, and cultural heritage. The document advocates listening to community members, convening residents to develop plans of action, and supporting resident initiatives rather than assuming schools are solely responsible for problem-solving. It provides examples of how schools have added various programs and responsibilities over time. The document concludes by outlining three principles for determining what issues the community can address themselves and where school/government assistance is needed.
This document outlines an approach to community development called asset-based community development. It focuses on utilizing seven community powers: enabling health; assuring security; stewarding ecology; shaping local economies; contributing to local food production; raising children; and co-creating care. The overall goal is to build communities from the inside out by empowering residents and leveraging existing community strengths and assets.
This document contains copyright information for Nurture Development and provides contact details for their UK and Irish offices, including addresses, telephone numbers, and a website URL. It establishes Nurture Development as an organization operating in both the UK and Ireland focused on power sharing and development work.
This document contains contact information for the UK and Irish offices of Nurture Development. It lists the addresses, phone numbers, website, and email for Nurture Development. The document also contains repeated copyright notices and brief mentions of counterfeit communities, conflict/conversion communities, consent/contributing communities, and beloved communities.
Edmonton Presentation, Tamarack Foundation, May 2019 Cormac Russell
This document contains contact information for the UK and Irish offices of Nurture Development. It lists the addresses, phone numbers, website, and email for Nurture Development. It also includes references to videos, presentations, and discussions related to community development work done by Nurture Development.
Nurture Development is an organization with offices in the UK and Ireland that works on development projects. It provides contact information for its UK office in Cheltenham and Irish office in Dublin. The document also contains copyright notices and mentions a 2003 European heatwave that caused 70,000 deaths, as well as concepts like power sharing, and encourages contacting Nurture Development for more information.
Cormac Russell's social interpretation of pascal's law (hydrauilic effect) ...Cormac Russell
This document contains contact information for Nurture Development's UK and Irish offices, including addresses, phone numbers, and email. It also mentions a heatwave in Europe in 2003 that caused 70,000 heat-related deaths and contains brief references to power sharing systems and locations like Emalia Romagna and Kulin, WA. The document is copyrighted to Nurture Development in 2015.
Service design in government, conference, edinburgh, 2019Cormac Russell
"Shifting the focus from quality of services to quality of life": An Asset-Based Community Development perspective on the challenges in service Design in Local Government. Cormac Russell, ABCD Institute
Understanding integrated community care, september 2018Cormac Russell
This document provides contact information for Nurture Development and lists their learning sites in the UK and internationally. It discusses asset-based community development and moving from deficit-based approaches to recognizing community strengths. Images show community members sharing gifts and talents at a neighborhood festival. The document advocates an approach of "done with" rather than "done to" or "done for" by empowering communities to build on their own assets.
This document contains contact information for the offices of Nurture Development in the UK and Ireland. It also includes brief passages about power sharing, a festival day event in Thornton Heath, the Seattle neighborhood matching fund approach, and six building blocks of community building including local gifts and assets. The document emphasizes moving beyond traditional forms of helping to community building.
Singapore Tour, July, 2018 : Health Beyond HealthcareCormac Russell
This document provides contact information for Nurture Development, an organization that promotes community building. It lists the UK and Irish office addresses and phone numbers. It also lists 12 UK learning sites and notes presence in East Africa, South Africa, and other countries. The document advocates an asset-based community development (ABCD) approach and includes quotes and photos from community building efforts in the UK that identify and connect local assets/gifts. It discusses moving from deficit-based to asset-based perspectives in areas like education, social work, and healthcare.
This document contains information about Nurture Development, including their contact information for UK and Irish offices. It also contains summaries of different approaches and principles for community development, including using the gifts and assets of local residents, growing social movements, identifying community needs and strengths, and moving from a helping to a community building approach. The document emphasizes making connections rather than conversions, discovery over delivery, and focusing on community strengths rather than weaknesses. It encourages working with and by communities rather than just for or to them.
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This document contains information about Nurture Development, including their offices in the UK and Ireland. It discusses the Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) approach, moving from deficit thinking to focusing on community strengths and assets. It outlines the six building blocks of ABCD and different levels of helping communities from relief to community building. Contact information is provided at the end.
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Essential Tools for Modern PR Business .pptxPragencyuk
Discover the essential tools and strategies for modern PR business success. Learn how to craft compelling news releases, leverage press release sites and news wires, stay updated with PR news, and integrate effective PR practices to enhance your brand's visibility and credibility. Elevate your PR efforts with our comprehensive guide.
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An astonishing, first-of-its-kind, report by the NYT assessing damage in Ukraine. Even if the war ends tomorrow, in many places there will be nothing to go back to.
2. Contents
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................ 1
Range and scope of this report ..................................................................................................... 4
Background ................................................................................................................................. 4
Aims and objectives .................................................................................................................... 4
Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Well-being in current policy and discourse ................................................................................. 6
Definitions and theoretical approaches........................................................................................ 8
Defining ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Conceptualising........................................................................................................................... 9
Preference satisfaction............................................................................................................ 9
Basic needs............................................................................................................................. 9
Flourishing............................................................................................................................... 9
Hedonic ................................................................................................................................... 9
Evaluative.............................................................................................................................. 10
Well-being as a dynamic process ............................................................................................. 10
A new model ......................................................................................................................... 10
Indicators............................................................................................................................... 11
Using well-being measures in policy .......................................................................................... 13
Are subjective well-being indicators politically acceptable? ...................................................... 13
Means and ends/leads and lags ............................................................................................... 15
Contextual and performance indicators .................................................................................... 16
Applicability of different approaches to well-being across the life course ................................. 17
Technical considerations............................................................................................................. 18
Boundedness ............................................................................................................................ 18
Set-points and adaptation ......................................................................................................... 19
Status effects ............................................................................................................................ 21
A SWOT analysis of well-being indicators in policy.................................................................. 23
Choosing indicators for policy .................................................................................................... 25
Universal approach ................................................................................................................... 26
Domain approach...................................................................................................................... 27
Targeted.................................................................................................................................... 27
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 29
Endnotes........................................................................................................................................ 30
2
3. Executive summary
Introduction
This report was written by Sam Thompson and Nic Marks of the centre for
well-being at nef (the new economics foundation). It was commissioned by
the Foresight Project on Mental Capital and Well-being.
We consider approaches to measuring well-being from the perspective of
their utility for policy-making We focus on subjective indicators and consider
a number of relevant issues, including: philosophical debate around the role
of government in promoting well-being; using well-being indicators as
leading or lagging indicators; different approaches to well-being across the
life course; and technical limitations of subjective indicators. Our report
concludes with a summary of recent exploratory work on well-being for
local government.
Well-being in current policy
Under a reasonably broad definition, well-being has been the subject of
considerable recent discussion in policy circles. Examples include:
The Local Government Act (2000) requiring each local authority to
prepare a Community Strategy, outlining how it would promote
economic, social and environmental well-being.
Every Child Matters – a national framework for coordinating and
orienting the provision of children’s services.
Opportunity Age – a national strategy for improving older people’s
well-being.
Securing the Future – the UK’s sustainable development strategy
that has led to several research reviews on the concept of well-
being and its relation to sustainability.
Dolan et al. reviewed a range of theoretical approaches to well-being drawn
from different disciplines and outlined a taxonomy of well-being models in
terms of their underlying conceptual approach: 1) preference satisfaction;
2) basic needs; 3) flourishing; 4) hedonic; and 5) evaluative. 1 Whilst it is
tempting to see these different approaches as competing with one another,
we argue that it is more helpful for policy-makers to view well-being itself as
1
4. a dynamic process, in which a person’s external circumstances interact
with their psychological resources to satisfy – to a greater or lesser extent –
their psychological needs and to give rise to positive feelings of happiness
and satisfaction.
Applications of well-being measurement in policy
Political acceptability of well-being measures. According to some
traditions of thought – i.e. the liberal tradition – the ‘happiness’ of
individuals is not the business of state and, hence, government
should not be concerned with measuring well-being. Contemporary
worries about ‘paternalism’, the ‘nanny state’ and a ‘big brother
society’ can be seen as manifestations of this debate. Citizens of
the UK, however, expect government to promote their interests; for
instance, there is consistent support for the welfare state, the NHS
and for government interventions to protect the environment and to
relieve poverty. Hence, it is argued that using well-being indicators
in policy is consistent with these expectations.
Means and ends/leads and lags. For any given outcome, it is
usually possible to distinguish between the means through which
the outcome is achieved, and the actual end result. It is intuitive to
think of well-being only as an end or outcome of policy, but in some
contexts is may be appropriate to think of it as a means or a driver
of other desirable/policy-relevant outcomes.
Applicability of different approaches across the life course. Most
theoretical models of well-being are intended to apply generally to
people of all ages. As there is no one ‘correct’ model of well-being,
however, the question arises as to whether different elements of
well-being are differentially more or less important at different
stages of life. To date, there is little evidence to guide decisions
about which kind of model is appropriate for which age group.
Technical considerations
Boundedness. Most subjective well-being indicators require people
to evaluate some aspect of their experience on a scale with an
upper and a lower limit. By definition, such scales impose a
minimum and maximum value on whatever dimension is being
evaluated. This can be a problem for tracking changes over time.
For many policy purposes, however, it does not pose a significant
limitation on the use of subjective indicators.
Set-points and adaptation. Psychologists have suggested that
individuals have a ‘set-point’ for subjective well-being to which they
will tend to default, even as their life circumstances may vary and
temporarily push their well-being up or down. ‘Adaptation’ to
changes in circumstances is not always total, but the effect is
powerful enough that caution must be exercised when considering
changes in well-being over time.
2
5. Status effects. A person’s relative status – inferred through socio-
economic variables such as income – can have a notable impact on
his/her subjective well-being. Currently, not enough is known about
whom people compare themselves with as to enable status effects
to be easily controlled for.
SWOT analysis
nef hosted a workshop with policy-makers from across government. The
core of this workshop was a SWOT –Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, Threats – analysis of issues surrounding the use of well-
being indicators in policy. In the negative side, an important issue was
clarity, in relation both to the distinction between well-being and happiness,
and also to measurement and communication. On the positive side, it was
noted that well-being is an explicit part of policy discourse across a number
of different areas, and also that it is a good fit with several emerging
agendas that are not currently using the language of well-being.
Choosing indicators for policy
Despite considerable and rapidly growing interest, indicators of subjective
well-being have not been widely used in policy. Recent work by nef has
begun to develop a framework to help local authorities approach the issue
of choosing an appropriate well-being indicator. It outlines three broad
approaches to well-being measurement that are of relevance to policy-
makers:
1. Universal. Headline information about general well-being at a
population level that can be used as a basis for more detailed
exploration.
2. Domain. Information about understanding how people feel in
relation to different aspects or dimensions of their lives; for example,
health, community safety, economic circumstances.
3. Targeted. Rich information about the psychological well-being of
people identified as vulnerable or in need of specialised services.
3
6. Range and scope of this report
Background
This report was written by Sam Thompson and Nic Marks of the centre for
well-being at nef (the new economics foundation) and was commissioned
by the Foresight Project on Mental Capital and Well-being. It forms part of
the second phase of the project, in which Foresight is developing and
analysing policy options to address key issues that will impact on UK
society in the next 10–20 years.
Aims and objectives
We consider approaches to measuring well-being from the perspective of
their utility for policy-making. Our aim is to highlight how various different
conceptions of well-being that have been proposed in the research
literature can be useful at different points in the policy process.
We focus mainly on subjective indicators: that is, indicators in which
individuals are asked to self-report on their own feelings and experiences.
As such, we raise some philosophical issues relating to the limits of
governments’ rights to ask for, hold, and act upon information on
individuals’ subjective well-being. We consider a number of other relevant
issues, including: using well-being indicators as leading or lagging
indicators; performance vs contextual usage; applicability of different
approaches to well-being across the life course; and technical
characteristics of subjective indicators that need to be borne in mind for
effective use. Our report concludes with a summary of ongoing recent work
to develop a framework for applying well-being measurement in the context
of local government policy.
Scope
The literature pertaining to well-being and quality of life is extremely
extensive and wide-ranging. In this report, we do not attempt to provide a
comprehensive overview of the different theoretical models that have been
proposed, nor do we strive to cover the full range of indicators that have
been developed. However, we do give illustrative examples of the kinds of
frameworks and indicators that might be appropriate for different policy
purposes, along with some discussion of the practicalities of data collection
4
7. and analysis. We have included an accompanying spreadsheet which
reviews a number of specific indicators according to their important
characteristics.
5
8. Well-being in current policy and discourse
Under a reasonably broad definition, well-being has been the subject of
considerable recent discussion in policy circles. For instance:
Economist and Labour Peer Richard Layard’s book Happiness 2
received extensive publicity, as did his subsequent proposal to increase
national well-being and decrease incapacity benefits claims through the
enhanced provision of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. 3
Conservative party leader David Cameron suggested that the
Government should measure – and explicitly aim to increase – ‘gross
national well-being’ alongside economic growth. 4 Subsequently, the
party’s Quality of Life Policy Group recommended that the Government
should develop measures of well-being that ‘… relate subjective reports
of well-being (such as life satisfaction) to objective measures of agreed
indicators such as community cohesion, crime, and divorce rates’. 5
Research reports from organisations including the Prime Minister’s
Strategy Unit 6 and think-tanks such as nef 7,8 the Institute of Economic
Affairs, 9 and the US-based Cato Institute 10 have explored the current
state of knowledge about well-being and its implications for policy.
The term ‘well-being’ has also featured prominently in recent policy
initiatives across a number of departments.
The Local Government Act 2000 marked the introduction of the term
‘well-being’ to local government, along with a requirement for each
local authority in England and Wales to prepare a Community
Strategy, outlining how it would use its power to achieve better
economic, social and environmental outcomes. More recently, the
local government white paper Strong and Prosperous Communities
outlines a move towards outcome measurement and citizen-focused
services, with a particular focus on the place-shaping role of local
government. 11 Accompanying this is the introduction of a new
performance framework for local government, Comprehensive Area
Assessment (CAA), and a new National Indicator Set from which
targets will be agreed for each Local Area Agreement (LAA). Some
indicators of subjective well-being are already included within the
indicator set and the Audit Commission has recently funded work
6
9. that may lead to the development of a further set of policy-relevant
well-being indicators that can supplement and expand on the
existing indicators. 12, 13
Every Child Matters (ECM) is a national framework for coordinating
and orienting the provision of children’s services. Based on the
Green Paper of the same name, the ECM framework emphasises
the need to place the well-being of children at the heart of service
delivery, focusing on the needs of each child as a whole person. 14
In particular, it aims to focus on aspects of well-being that are
important to children themselves, not just to the professionals who
are involved in children’s services.
Alongside work taking place in a health and social care context, the
Department of Work and Pensions has been leading the
development of a national strategy for an ageing society,
Opportunity Age. 15 This has involved exploring the concept of well-
being in relation to older people and aims to promote the role of
older people as full participants in society.
Well-being in a health policy context is framed by the Department of
Health’s White Paper, Choosing health: making healthy choices
easier launched in 2004, and the Our health, our care, our say
White Paper. Within the field of mental health and well-being, the
National Service Framework of 1999 and the more recent
Commissioning Framework for Health and Well-being acknowledge
that services to promote positive physical and mental health need to
be commissioned and delivered alongside those to alleviate the
symptoms of illness.
As part of a commitment made in the 2005 sustainable development
strategy Securing the Future, the Whitehall Well-being Working
Group (W3G) has explored issues relating to well-being in a policy
context. Three reports have since been published by Defra: one is a
review of selected well-being indicators with consideration for their
application to policy making; 16 the other two are complementary
reviews of research relating well-being to sustainable development.
17,18
7
10. Definitions and theoretical approaches
Defining
A cursory glance at the range of policy initiatives referencing well-being
illustrates what has often been regarded as a difficulty with the concept:
namely, its very broad application. In the context of health discourse, for
instance, well-being is often used as an umbrella term covering a range of
positive health behaviours, 19 and is thus understood primarily as a state of
good physical health that can be improved by engaging in particular
behaviours. Those working in economic and social policy, meanwhile, have
tended to use the term more or less interchangeably with ‘utility’ or
‘welfare’. 20 Typically, in this usage, a person’s well-being is synonymous
with the extent to which they have access to various ‘goods’ – most
obviously (although not limited to) economic resources, healthcare, family
and community support, political freedom and so on.
More recently, some psychologists and social scientists have co-opted the
term to refer exclusively to subjective aspects of life. Strongly influenced by
the so-called ‘positive psychology movement’ within academic psychology,
the new ‘science of well-being’ aims to determine the factors that cause a
person to feel happy, satisfied, content and fulfilled with their life and
aspects of it. 21 (In this view, external factors including physical health and
material circumstances may play a role in determining whether a state of
well-being will emerge, but they are not equivalent to it. Indeed, part of the
research agenda has been concerned with attempting to identify just how
much of the variability in subjective well-being can be attributed to external
circumstances relative to factors such as personality, behaviour, attitudes
and aspects of the early environment including genetic factors. 22 )
A strong sense of this diffusion of definitions can be gleaned from the UK
Government’s ‘shared understanding’ of well-being. This was developed as
part of the W3G work in fulfilment of the commitment to explore well-being
in the UK’s Sustainable Development strategy, and was published in the
2007 sustainable development indicator set. Well-being is
8
11. ‘a positive physical, social and mental state; it is not just the
absence of pain, discomfort and incapacity. It requires that basic
needs are met, that individuals have a sense of purpose, that
they feel able to achieve important personal goals and participate
in society. It is enhanced by conditions that include supportive
personal relationships, strong and inclusive communities, good
health, financial and personal security, rewarding employment,
and a healthy and attractive environment.’ 23
Conceptualising
As part of the work commissioned by W3G, Dolan et al. reviewed a range
of theoretical approaches to well-being drawn from different disciplines. 24
They propose a helpful taxonomy of well-being models in terms of their
underlying conceptual approach, with five categories: 1) preference
satisfaction; 2) basic needs; 25 3) flourishing; 4) hedonic; and 5) evaluative.
Preference satisfaction
In this view, the more that people are able to satisfy their individual wants
and desires (preferences), the more their well-being will be increased. All
else being equal, satisfaction of preferences is best achieved when people
have the freedom to act as they wish, coupled with the resources that
enable them to do so. This is the approach to well-being assumed by
orthodox economic theory and which justifies the frequent use of
income/GDP as a catch-all proxy for well-being at the individual or national
level.
Basic needs
Basic needs accounts are those that posit, a priori, some set of underlying
conditions – for example, health, income, education, freedom, and so on –
which are assumed to be necessary prerequisites for human well-being.
Such accounts do not purport to measure well-being directly, but take it be
emergent so long as the specified conditions are in place. Needs theories
are very often couched in terms of needs that can be measured objectively.
Some, however, also incorporate psychological needs that require either
subjective measures or the use of proxies.
Flourishing
Flourishing accounts emphasise ways of living – literally ‘living well’” or
living the ‘good life’ – in which people are able to reach their full potential.
Different approaches identify well-being with characteristics of life such as,
for instance, engagement, meaning, virtue, and authenticity. Flourishing
accounts also often emphasise how the individual relates to things (e.g.
people, tasks) in the world.
Hedonic
These approaches identify well-being with a positive affect balance – that
is, a relatively positive ratio of pleasant to unpleasant emotions, moods and
9
12. feelings. Hedonic approaches rely on subjective reports from individuals
regarding the frequency and intensity of their felt emotions over a recent
time period (usually somewhere between the last day and the last four
weeks). It is important to emphasise that hedonic accounts do not typically
claim that well-being would be highest if all negative affect were eliminated,
only that there is an optimal balance.
Evaluative
Finally, evaluative accounts are those that identify well-being with
individuals’ subjective appraisals of aspects of their life and how it is going.
This might be as simple as a single question regarding satisfaction with life
overall, or multiple questions about different aspects of their lives. The
essential distinguishing feature of evaluative accounts, however, is that
they attempt to capture ‘judgements about feelings’” rather than feelings
themselves. 26
Well-being as a dynamic process
A new model
The preference satisfaction model of well-being is, in a sense, not a model
at all; it effectively relegates well-being to equivalence with the economic
concept of utility, defined in terms of whatever people choose to do given
the resources and constraints available to them and proxied for with
economic measures. This is hardly helpful from the point of view of
advancing a better understanding of quality of life, since there is ample
evidence that: 1) what people choose is not a reliable predictor of what
makes them happy; 27 2) choice per se is not always positive; 28 and 3)
economic indicators are only weak proxies for experienced well-being. 29
As for the other approaches to conceptualising and measuring well-being
outlined by Dolan et al., 30 it is tempting to see them as being in competition
with one another. It may, however, be more helpful to think of well-being
itself not as a static construct but rather as a dynamic process. The various
approaches can thus be seen as describing different aspects or stages of
the process.
Figure 1 represents a combined model that attempts to describe this
process. In this model, the different domains of an individual’s life constitute
the external conditions, which together provide a variety of challenges and
opportunities. Psychological resources, meanwhile, are the relatively stable
and invariant features of an individual’s mental capacity – their personality,
in the broad sense – that influence how they respond to and interact with
the external world. Together, external conditions of life and psychological
resources either support or detract from the fulfilment of needs – which are
assumed to be general and non-domain specific – and thus lead to good
functioning. A relatively positive affect balance and positive evaluations
about life overall and/or specific aspects of life will be some of the
outcomes of good functioning and need fulfilment.
10
13. To give a more concrete example, much research suggests that feeling
close to, and valued by, other people is a fundamental human need and a
defining characteristic of people who demonstrably function well in the
world 31 The need for relatedness to others can be supported through
various external conditions of a person’s life: at work, through the respect
and friendship of colleagues; at home, through the love and support of
close family; and so on. Additionally, however, across all of these domains
of life, a person who has the psychological resources of self-confidence
and optimism may be more likely to make friends and to form relationships.
Thus, the extent to which the need for relatedness to others is satisfied is
likely to be a function of both external conditions and internal psychological
resources. So long as the individual has a sufficient sense of relatedness,
this will lead to more positive day-to-day feelings and to a general sense of
satisfaction with how life is progressing.
There are theoretical reasons to posit numerous feedback loops at different
levels of the process. For simplicity, however, Figure 1 shows just two
which we regard as especially critical. The work of Fredrickson
demonstrates that the experience of positive emotions actively broadens a
person’s capacity to adopt new patterns of thinking, and that over time this
can lead to the enhancement of psychological resources. 32,33 Secondly,
there is evidence that people who function well in the world are better able
to shape and improve their external circumstances than are those who do
not. Autonomy, for instance, is known to be an important determinant of
health behaviours 34, 35 and educational achievement. 36
Indicators
The attached spreadsheet contains summary reviews of a range of
established well-being indicators. This is not intended to be comprehensive
but rather illustrative of the kinds of indicators that exist. The column
headed ‘Category’ attempts to categorise each indicator according to the
schema in Figure 1.
11
14. Figure 1: A dynamic model of psychological well-being
12
15. Using well-being measures in policy
In this section, we consider a range of important issues that will guide how
models and indicators of well-being can be used to inform, shape and drive
policy.
Are subjective well-being indicators politically acceptable?
Subjective well-being measures all rely on reports from individuals about
aspects of their ‘inner lives’ – their thoughts and feelings, emotions and
motivations. Often, they are concerned with aspects of people’s lives that
do not bear explicit relation to central or local government functions. To
date, where subjective indicators have gained widespread acceptance it
has been in relation to people’s views about aspects of service provision
(e.g. ‘Please rate your satisfaction with your access to healthcare’) or else
their feelings about aspects of society – crime, for instance – over which
policy-makers might expect to have some direct influence. These kinds of
questions, whilst still concerned with subjective opinions and feelings, are
essentially outward-facing. It is easy to develop a theory of change about
how, for instance, the presence of more police officers on the streets would
lead to reduced subjective fear of crime. 37 By contrast, questions about
happiness, satisfaction, personal growth and flourishing are inward-facing.
There is evidence that these factors both influence and are influenced by
how people behave in their day-to-day lives, including how they interact
with government- and state-provided services. Nonetheless, it is harder to
put forward a compelling hypothesis about how a policy intervention will
improve subjective happiness than about how it will reduce subjective fear
of crime.
The issue of well-being measurement in policy also cuts to the heart of an
old but very much current debate about the proper role of the state. A long
and influential line of reasoning in political theory, often described as
Classical Liberalism, argues (broadly) that the state has no legitimate role
in the affairs and choices of individuals beyond protecting their rights to
private property and ensuring that they do not harm others by their actions.
If people make decisions that worsen their own well-being and lead to less
happiness, so be it; this is no business of the state. Liberty, not well-being,
should be the fundamental goal of policy. A classic statement of this view is
given by the father of the liberal tradition, JS Mill, who argued that a citizen:
13
16. ‘cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be
better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because,
in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right’. 38
However, even Mill acknowledged that:
‘the admitted functions of government embrace a much wider field
than can easily be included within the ring-fence of any restrictive
definition’. 39
Indeed, the purpose of government has increasingly been seen to lie in
pursuing the interests of citizens where it can. Only the narrowest
conception of ‘interest’ would limit this role to protection of property rights
and prevention of harm; why, for instance, would governments take steps
to pursue economic growth if their role were solely protective? A ‘social
contract’ view of government would argue that the individual voluntarily
cedes some of his/her individual liberty to the state by his/her agreement to
abide by law and political authority. In fulfilment of its part of the social
contract, the state both protects the rights of individuals and acts in his/her
interests.
If these debates seem somewhat abstruse or arcane, contemporary worries
about ‘paternalism’, the ‘nanny state’ and a ‘big brother society’ indicate
that they still rumble on today. Although not representative, a glance at
some of the press and media coverage of recent government interest
measuring subjective well-being demonstrates the depth of feeling in some
quarters. Sunday Times columnist Minette Marrin commented:
‘The ‘national happiness audit’ would enable us to form and judge
social policies …. This is without a doubt the scariest idea I have
read for many years.’ 40
Alexander Waugh, writing in The Daily Telegraph suggests that:
‘.. if any of these foppish utilitarian suggestions were put into
practice, nothing short of national manic-depression would ensue.’ 41
On the other hand, citizens of the UK (and other Western societies) expect
that government will positively promote their interests. There is consistent
and popular support for the welfare state, the NHS, government
interventions to protect the environment and to relieve poverty and a host of
other interventions that are manifestly based on a conception of interest
that is concordant with well-being as understood in this report. Many
people, for instance, argue that government has a proper role in resolving
collective action problems, 42 by binding individuals and institutions into
cooperative behaviours through legislation on planning, competition,
pollution and more. Such moves rely on a conception of interest far broader
than that of the classical liberal view, yet are not widely contested. 43
Moreover, even in sheer practical terms, the ‘big brother state’ concerns
are somewhat misplaced. No government could possibly collect and
maintain information about the psychological well-being of every person in
14
17. the country; gathering indicative data from small, statistically representative
and (if good ethical practice is followed) anonymous samples is the only
realistic option.
In summary, it seems important for policy-makers to take seriously the
concerns of the liberal tradition in the UK and not take as a given the
popular acceptability of subjective well-being indicators. It also seems
reasonable, however, to argue that using well-being indicators in policy is
not a radical departure from current understandings of the role of the state,
but rather a promising development that may enable it to perform its
currently accepted role – promoting the interest of citizens – more
effectively.
Means and ends/leads and lags
For any given outcome, it is usually possible to distinguish between the
means through which the outcome is achieved, and the actual end result. 44
Using a familiar example, if increasing the number of people who survive
cancer is identified as a desirable end, reducing the time that people have
to wait for appointments with oncologists might be regarded as one (of
many) means toward that end.
In terms of the indicators that can be used to capture means and ends, a
distinction is often drawn between ‘lead’ and ‘lag’ indicators. 45 Leading
indicators function as drivers – that is, it is assumed that improving
performance on a leading indicator will give rise to better outcomes.
Lagging indicators, meanwhile, reflect the consequences of actions
previously taken. To use the same example, average length of waiting time
could be regarded as a lead indicator for the means identified (that is,
reducing waiting time), whereas the percentage of people diagnosed with
cancer who are still alive after five years might be an appropriate lag
indicator for the identified end (that is, increasing the number of people who
survive cancer). The underlying logic here is not that absolute waiting time
is an important end in itself, but that striving to reduce it will involve making
efficiency gains elsewhere, with the result that most people are seen by a
specialist more quickly, increasing their probability of recovery. 46
The means/ends and lead/lag distinctions invite the question: is well-being
itself better thought of as a means or an end? And, in practical terms, are
subjective well-being indicators of the kind discussed above and outlined in
the attached spreadsheet better suited as leads or lags? Enhancing well-
being is most often presented as an end in itself; Veenhoven, for instance,
describes well-being (operationalised in terms of a long and happy life) as
the ‘ultimate end’. 47 Research suggests, however, that only a relatively
small proportion of variability in subjective well-being is attributable to
material and environmental circumstances – perhaps as little as 10 per
cent, 48 with around 50 per cent due to trait factors (e.g. personality, genes,
early environment) and the remaining 40 per cent due to ‘intentional
activities’ (including behavioural choices, cognitive style and motivation). If
these proportions are even roughly correct, and given the kinds of levers
15
18. policy-makers have at their disposal, thinking of subjective well-being only
as a policy outcome could be akin to making a rod for one’s own back.
Most policies are geared towards improving the material situations in which
people find themselves (i.e. economic policy, social welfare, healthcare)
with relatively few attempting to influence how people actually spend their
time and the choices they make (cf discussion of liberalism, above). If
material circumstances account for only around 10 per cent of variation in
subjective well-being, it may be that the impact of many policy decisions on
well-being is likely to be vanishingly small.
Some evidence, however, suggests that targeting specific aspects of
positive well-being (e.g. autonomy, affect balance) might be an effective
way to drive desirable behaviour changes. For instance, a sense of
individual autonomy – broadly, the extent to which people feel able to make
their own decisions – has been put forward as a core requirement of well-
being in at least two different theoretical models. 49,50 In a classic study by
Langer and Rodin, 51 a simple intervention designed to increase feelings of
autonomy in older people led to dramatic differences health outcomes. 52
Were this approach to be adopted in wider healthcare policy, it would seem
appropriate to think of subjective well-being as the means through which
better health outcomes are achieved. A subjective measure of autonomy
would thus be an appropriate leading indicator.
In the final analysis, well-being – like physical health – is probably best
thought of as a desirable end in itself and as a means for achieving other
desirable outcomes. Exactly how and where well-being indicators are used
is likely to be specific to the aims of the policy being considered.
Contextual and performance indicators
Another commonly used distinction is that between indicators that are used
to gauge the performance of a particular policy, and those that provide
contextual information that informs strategic policy decisions. When an
indicator is used as a performance measure, targets may be identified and
the efficacy of a given intervention judged explicitly in terms of whether or
not they have been reached. When an indicator is used contextually, no
explicit targets are set and policy decisions are not oriented specifically
towards showing movement on the indicator – rather, the information might
be used to help understand and explain the reasons why a given
intervention or policy achieves, or fails to achieve, its intended outcome.
For instance, to return to the example used above, if the number of people
who survive cancer were identified as a key performance indicator, a
measure of public attitudes towards cancer amongst different age groups
might serve as a useful contextual indicator that could help to understand
variation in survival rates.
Establishing a target does not necessarily mean aiming to show a change –
it may be that the most appropriate target is to maintain consistent
performance on one indicator whilst showing changes on others. For
instance, the UK Sustainable Development indicator set now includes
16
19. subjective life satisfaction as a headline indicator of well-being. 53 Currently,
no target has been identified for the indicator and its function is purely
contextual. One possibility is, however, that it could be used to ensure that
policies aimed at achieving other sustainability targets (e.g. measures to
reduce carbon emissions) do not cause aggregate well-being to decrease.
Moreover, contextual information on well-being can be used diagnostically.
For example, NHS Dumfries and Galloway recently worked with nef to
operationalise Max Neef’s human needs model in the form of a survey
tool. 54 Their intention was to use this tool to identify parts of the community
where certain needs are not being met adequately, so as to better target
subsequent service provision.
Applicability of different approaches to well-being across the life
course
Most theoretical models of well-being are intended to apply generally to
people of all ages (perhaps excepting young children). However, to the
extent that there is no one ‘correct’ model of well-being and, as we have
argued above, the various approaches describe different parts of a dynamic
process, the question arises as to whether different elements of well-being
are differentially more or less important at different stages of life. For
example, it may be that building psychological resources, such as optimism
and self-esteem, is especially critical for younger people beginning to make
their own way in the world, whereas good functioning in terms of social
relationships and a sense of community belonging are relatively more
important for older people. 55
Given the range of different approaches that have been taken with regard
to conceptualising and measuring well-being, it seems important to use the
right one with the right people. However, although there is some evidence
that overall satisfaction with life varies systematically over the life
course, 56, 57 and that the structural relationships between different elements
of subjective well-being might vary between groups, 58 at present there is
little evidence that might guide decisions about which kind of model is
appropriate for which age group. For instance, the CASP-19 instrument
was devised explicitly to measure older people’s quality of life. 59 However,
it is not altogether clear why the psychological needs model on which it is
based – or, indeed, the instrument itself – would not be equally applicable
to people of younger age.
A more prosaic, but no less important issue is ensuring that the wording
and language of an indicator is applicable to people of different ages.
Clearly, for instance, measurement instruments intended for adults may not
always be readily understood by children.
17
20. Technical considerations
In this section, we discuss three important technical considerations. These
are likely to impact on how subjective well-being indicators are used in
practice.
Boundedness
Most subjective indicators of well-being use bounded scales – that is, they
require people to rate or evaluate some aspect of their experience on a
scale with an upper and a lower limit, for example 0 to 10, or 1 to 7. By
definition, these scales impose a minimum and maximum value on
whatever dimension is being evaluated. A bounded happiness scale
implicitly assumes that people have a ‘maximum’ level of possible
happiness and, moreover, that they have a good enough idea of what that
level would feel like as to enable them to rate their current happiness
relative to it. 60
This raises two issues, conceptual and practical. Conceptually, the question
is whether subjective well-being itself is, in fact, bounded or unbounded.
There are some good psychological reasons for suspecting that most
people’s well-being is bounded, although some would argue that these
bounds are themselves malleable, given sufficiently drastic changes in
external circumstances. 61 Empirically, however, the true boundedness or
otherwise of subjective well-being is effectively untestable, because an a
priori assumption one way or the other must be made in order for
measurement to be achieved in the first place.
But if subjective well-being truly is unbounded, the practical problem of
ceiling effects becomes important if the indicator is to be used as a
measure of performance. For instance, authors such as Johns and
Ormerod 62 and Wilkinson 63 have criticised the tendency of some writers on
well-being to make longitudinal comparisons between bounded subjective
scales and (notionally) unbounded scales, such as GDP or personal
income. They argue that because bounded scales limit the amount of
possible increase by definition, merely showing a disjunct between, say, the
proportional rate of growth in GDP and that of aggregate subjective life
satisfaction within a country (as was first done, famously, by Easterlin 64 and
numerous others since) is not tantamount to demonstrating that well-being
has failed to increased with economic growth. In other words, the functional
18
21. shape of the relationship could be wholly, or very largely, the artefact of a
ceiling effect attributable to the scale boundary. This, they argue, renders
such indicators of little use as performance targets.
In practice, however, this may be less of a problem than such
commentators claim. First, there is evidence that (albeit outward-facing)
subjective indicators based on bounded scales, such as social trust and
fear of crime, have shown robust trends over time. In principle, there seems
to be no reasons why inward-facing indicators should be different.
Secondly, despite the criticism that has been levelled, there is little
evidence from current surveys that a ‘hard’ ceiling effect (whereby a large
proportion of respondents give ratings at the top of the scale) is actually a
problem for subjective well-being indicators. In the UK, for instance, the
mean score on an overall subjective life satisfaction 0–10 scale is around 7,
apparently leaving plenty of room for improvement. 65 Thirdly, whilst there is
a case for looking at long-term trends in well-being, the reality is that most
well-being indicators will be used to provide information about relative
differences between groups within a country, region or community. Here,
bounded scales are not tracked against non-bounded variables but
compared only against themselves. Evidence to-date shows that even
relatively simple well-being measures, such as single-item subjective life
satisfaction can provide useful information when used in this way. For
instance, cross-sectional data from Defra’s recent survey shows that
people nearer the bottom of the socio-economic spectrum are less satisfied
than those at the top.
A final reason for optimism about bounded scales is that, even if ceiling
effects do occur, the point at which they occur is interesting in itself. For
example, looking at a cross-section of people within a country, the
relationship between income and satisfaction is not usually found to be
linear, but instead to be more or less logarithmic. 66 This may or may not
suggest real diminishing returns of subjective well-being to income,
depending on the extent to which ceiling effects are believed to be present.
From a policy perspective, however, the two most interesting questions are:
at what point on the income spectrum do apparent diminishing
returns/ceiling effects start to kick-in? And then, why that point and not
some higher (or lower) income level? As long as these are the questions
being posed, the boundedness or otherwise of the scale is relatively
unimportant. Even using the very strong assumption that the functional
shape of the relationship is wholly the artefact of a methodological ceiling
effect, and that subjective well-being truly is unbounded, this does not
account for the position along the income spectrum at which the observed
change occurs.
Set-points and adaptation
People adapt to changes in their circumstances. For example, when you
buy a new plasma-screen television, you may feel extremely happy for a
while; however, the novelty soon wears off as you become accustomed to
19
22. watching it. In a relatively short period of time, the positive well-being
benefit gleaned from the television become negligible and you do not feel
any happier overall than you did beforehand.
This process has been dubbed ‘adaptation’” and has been posited as one
of the reasons why subjective well-being does not appear to rise
consistently with income. 67 Longitudinal studies using panel data (i.e.
where the same person is asked the same questions at intervals over
several years) show that people’s subjective well-being does move up and
down over time, in response to positive and negative life events. Being
made unemployed, for example, is demonstrably bad for subjective life
satisfaction. 68 These same studies, however, also show that people are
surprisingly resilient to shocks. Most people tend to imagine that a positive
event, such as winning the lottery or, a negative event, such as becoming
disabled through injury, would have a permanent impact on their well-being,
for good or ill. In fact, it turns out that people who have had these
experiences adapt to a very considerable extent, such that – after a period
of time – their feelings day-to-day and overall return close to the level at
which they had previously been. 69 At one time, psychologists believed that
this process of adaptation was more or less complete, such that people
would ultimately adapt to any change in circumstances. Recent research –
including reanalysis of old data – suggests that adaptation may in fact be
less complete than originally thought, and may depend on the nature and
magnitude of the external change. 70
Nevertheless, the observation that adaptation is a powerful and automatic
process has led some theorists to suggest that each person has a
subjective well-being ‘set-point’ – that is, a level of subjective well-being to
which they will default, even as their life circumstances may vary and
temporarily push their well-being up or down. 71 Adaptation is thus posited
as the psychological mechanism through which people return to their set-
point.
The term ‘set-point’ is slightly misleading in that it implies absolute
fixedness. In fact, recent empirical studies have demonstrated apparently
robust changes to people’s set-points, sometimes after significant life
changes 72 and sometimes through deliberate interventions. 73,74 However,
even if set-points are not absolute and adaptation is not complete in all
cases, both are clearly present to some degree and both thus present
problems for measuring well-being in policy contexts, especially when the
aim is to quantify the improvements made to someone’s well-being over a
period of time.
Perhaps more interesting broadly for policy is the question of at what stage
in development the set-point becomes relatively ‘set’. Psychological
theories of personality development differ markedly in their approach to this
issue. To the extent that personality is assumed to be at least partially a
function of nurture, however, it seems reasonable to hypothesise that the
position of a person’s well-being set-point is influenced by their experiences
20
23. during the developmental stages. For instance, it might be that policy effort
should be targeted at enabling young children to develop psychological
resources, such as optimism and confidence that will lead to their
establishing a higher well-being set-point.
Status effects
If people assess their own well-being against a fixed, internal and absolute
scale, the effects of adaptation and returning to a set-point – whilst
interesting in terms of what they reveal about human nature – can
confidently be taken at face value. If, however, people’s subjective feelings
or well-being, and thus their ratings of it on subjective instruments, depend
on relative comparisons with others – that is, their status – then this
becomes more problematic. Needless to say, people can and do compare
themselves to others in multiple different ways.
To illustrate, let us consider the best-researched (and, in Western society,
perhaps pre-eminent) dimension of status comparison: income. As well as
providing for better material circumstances, incomes carry symbolic value
whereby higher incomes represent higher social status. If people assess
their own subjective well-being partially in terms of status, we might expect
them (albeit perhaps unconsciously) to factor-in their relative position on
the income spectrum.
Empirical evidence bears-out this hypothesis. Easterlin 75 showed that
relative income has a bigger impact than absolute income on levels of
reported life-satisfaction, a result that has been consistently found
since. 76,77 Recently, there has been some convergence on the idea that
the relatively weak, but nonetheless clear relationship between subjective
life satisfaction and income within a country is predominantly a function of
status effects. A recent review concludes that:
‘The broad consensus in the literature is that the [Easterlin]
paradox 78 points to the importance of relative considerations in the
utility function, where higher income brings both consumption and
status benefits to an individual. These individual benefits can
explain the positive slope found in much of the empirical literature.
However, since status is a zero-sum game, only the consumption
benefit of income remains at the aggregate level. Since the
consumption benefit approaches zero as income rises, happiness
profiles over time in developed countries are flat.’ 79
In other words, how people feel about their lives is partially a function of
how they see themselves doing relative to others. It is important to
emphasise here that because status competitions are generally ‘zero sum
games’, gain for one is usually achieved directly at another’s expense. It is
possible that, in practice, they are sometimes “negative sum”, since upward
comparisons are more common and more salient than downward
comparisons. 80
21
24. As a measurement issue, the existence of status effects points to gaps in
our current knowledge – put simply, we know that people compare
themselves with others when making certain kinds of self-evaluation, but
we do not have a good understanding of exactly whom they compare
themselves with, nor of the extent to which these comparisons are made
consciously or unconsciously. In terms of policy more broadly, status
effects have been used to argue for progressive policies oriented toward
increasing social equity. 81 Another avenue might be policies that explicitly
try to encourage a multiplicity of different status comparison dimensions
and thus deemphasise economic success as the main dimension.
22
25. A SWOT analysis of well-being indicators in
policy
On 4 March 2008, nef hosted a workshop with policy-makers from across
government. The core of this workshop was a SWOT – Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats – analysis of issues surrounding the
use of well-being indicators in policy. Table 1 gives a summary of outcomes
from this process.
As can be seen from Table 1, an important theme on the negative side is
the issue of clarity, in relation both to concepts of well-being and the
distinction between well-being and happiness, and also to measurement
and communication. On the positive side, it was noted by many workshop
participants that well-being is an explicit part of policy discourse across a
number of different areas, and also that it is a good fit with several
emerging agendas that are not currently using the language of well-being.
23
26. Table1: Summary of outcomes from a SWOT analysis conducted at the policy workshop.
Prospects Limits
Strengths Weaknesses
• Lack of clear definition – e.g. differentiation between
well-being and happiness
• Positive, holistic and integrative
Internal Origin:
• Measurement not fully developed (or lacks consensus)
approach
• Knowledge base – and links to other positive outcomes
• Strong and growing evidence base
– are not widely understood in the public domain
• A developing body of scientific theory
• Lack of integration with objective indicators and
• Provides insights for the policy making
qualitative measures/enquiries
process
• Relies on good communication/interpretation in the
• Well-being focus is intuitively
policy context
persuasive
• Does it provide policy relevant information – such as
‘how’ and ‘when’ to intervene?
Opportunities Threats
• Already on the policy agenda to some • Confusion/conflation with Happiness
extent • Scepticism from Media (other side of interest)
• Embedded in legal frameworks – Local • Inertia to change – many don’t believe well-being can
External Origin:
Government Act ‘Power of well-being’ be enhanced
• Topical – appetite from Media • Businesses (and perhaps some government sectors)
• Links to current shift from cure to may feel they will lose money/resources
prevention (e.g. ‘well notes’ from GPs) • Can be seen as not the role of Government – too ‘soft’
• Links to current agenda towards (note masculine language cf ‘hard’)
making policy more responsive to local • Can be seen as a “Nanny State” agenda
people • Attention switches to the next trendy issue
• Organisations (including business) are • Indicators may not be easily understood by public so no
already interested in related topics engagement
such as CSR, staff recruitment and
retention
24
27. Choosing indicators for policy
As already mentioned, the concept of well-being is increasingly being discussed in policy
circles. At the present time, however, this discussion has not led to widespread application of
well-being indicators in practical policy contexts. As such, there is little in the way of concrete
evidence to draw on regarding how indicators should be selected and used.
An ongoing programme of work by nef, in collaboration with the Audit Commission, has
begun to explore how local authorities might approach the issue of choosing an appropriate
well-being indicator. The first report provided a tripartite schema for thinking-through this
issue, developed collaboratively with a small group of local authorities – this is given in
Figure 2. 82
Figure 2: A tripartite schema for measuring well-being at the local level.
The three “approaches” described in the schema are framed in terms of the
kind of use to which a local authority might want to put a subjective well-
being indicator, and are intentionally broad. Needless to say, deciding
25
28. exactly how and when to use a well-being indicator is a complex issue and
will depend on the rationale for collecting information, the feasibility of data
collection, the potential for decisions and actions to be taken as a result of
the findings and other issues besides.
For each of the three approaches, a number of suitable indicators are
suggested from those reviewed in the accompanying spreadsheet
(numbers in brackets refer to each indicator’s position in the spreadsheet).
It should be borne in mind, however, that the mapping of policy purpose
and actual indicator chosen is not one-to-one; in other words, some
indicators may well be suitable for more than one kind of policy application.
Note that, by necessity, the following is an extremely condensed summary
of nef’s work for the Audit Commission – interested readers are referred to
the full report. 83
Universal approach
A universal approach to well-being measurement provides headline data at
a population level. Such information could be used as a basis from which
more detailed exploration and analysis can take place.
Universal measurement is likely to be conducted via large representative
surveys across multiple geographical areas and socio-cultural
demographics. Suitable indicators will thus be those that are able to give a
broad picture of experienced well-being in general, using relatively few
items: for instance, Life Satisfaction [row 4], the Satisfaction with Life Scale
[row 11] or the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale [row 10].
Some practical ways in which universal well-being measurement could be
used might include:
A main performance indicator, providing a direct measure of
progress in relation to the overarching aims in the Sustainable
Community Strategy or Local Area Agreement (e.g. ‘to improve the
well-being of the population’).
Contextually, to assess differences in between population groups
and/or geographical neighbourhoods within a local authority area,
as a basis to further exploration and targeted action.
A dependent variable to help identify the key determinants or
predictors of people’s well-being at a local level (e.g. good physical
health, being economically active, level of income, residents’ feeling
a sense of belonging where they live, quality of open spaces, etc).
26
29. Domain approach
A domain approach to well-being measurement is concerned with
understanding how people feel in relation to different aspects or dimensions
of their lives; for example, health, community safety, economic
circumstances and so on. Often, these life domains correspond to specific
areas of policy – hence, the Domain approach is likely to be of most
immediate interest to policy-makers, since it enables a clear theory of
change to be hypothesised between policy action and measured well-being
outcome.
Well-being indicators suitable for Domain measurement will either be those
that can provide a picture of people’s experience of, or that are likely to
show sensitivity to changes to, particular aspects of their lives – for
instance, the Index of Individual Living Conditions [row 16] or the Personal
Well-being Index [row 13].
Some practical ways in which domain well-being measurement could be
used include:
An outcome indicator relating to particular thematic objectives in the
Sustainable Community Strategy and/or Local Area Agreement
blocks.
A diagnostic tool that helps drill-down to provide more detailed
understanding of a population’s well-being in relation to particular
domains identified as a local priority (e.g. social support and
engagement), as a basis for future service planning and delivery.
A contextual indicator assessing how different population groups
and/or geographical neighbourhoods experience different aspects of
their life, and so to provide an evidence base for how activities and
services.
A lead indicator to drive improvements in particular services (e.g.
using subjective satisfaction with health as a driver of improvements
in healthcare service provision).
Targeted
A targeted approach is likely to be useful for Local Authorities wishing to
develop a richer understanding of the psychological well-being of people
identified as vulnerable or in need of specialised services, for instance:
Specific population groups, for example, older people over 75 years.
Targeted neighbourhoods, for example, most deprived Super
Output Areas.
Service users, for example, looked-after children.
A Targeted approach would require the use of longer, more complex
measurement instruments covering aspects of psychological functioning
27
30. such as, for example, autonomy, resilience, self-esteem and feelings of
competency. Suitable indicators might include the Psychological Well-being
Scale [row 5], the Psychological Needs Scale [row 7] or the CASP-19 [row
14].
Some practical ways in which targeted well-being measurement could be
used include:
Better understanding local needs, particularly for vulnerable groups
or specific service users, to help inform the design and delivery of
local services and interventions.
Reviewing performance and informing local action in relation to
‘closing the gap’, where efforts to improve psychological feelings
and functioning (around building self-esteem, confidence,
aspirations, autonomy and so on) are likely to be required as a
precursor to reducing inequalities.
A performance indicator assessing the well-being impact of specific
initiatives or services being delivered at a local level, through
tracking progress and capturing ‘distance travelled’.
Assessing and highlighting the importance for local authorities and
their partners to target resources towards enabling/protective
factors, and so encouraging a shift towards more preventative
approaches to service delivery.
28
31. Conclusions
In this report, we have provided both an overview of the most common
approaches to conceptualising and subjective well-being, and a new
dynamic framework for understanding how they relate to one another. We
have also discussed a number of important issues that arise when using
subjective well-being indicators in a policy context, including both
philosophical and technical considerations. Finally, we have summarised
recent and ongoing research that is attempting to systematise subjective
well-being measurement in a way that is of practical utility for policy-makers
at the local authority level.
The science of well-being is a young and rapidly evolving discipline. In our
view, however, this should not prevent policy-makers from making use of
the latest findings and measurement approaches to better understand the
impact of their decisions on people’s lived experience.
29
32. Endnotes
1
Dolan P, Peasgood T, White M (2006a) Review of research on the influences on personal well-being
and application to policy making (London: Defra).
2
Layard R (2005) Happiness: Lessons from a new science (London: Allen Lane).
3
Centre for Economic Performance (2006) The Depression Report: a new deal for depression and
anxiety disorders (London: LSE).
4
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5003314.stm
5
Conservative Party (2007) Blueprint for a Green Economy: Submission to the Shadow Cabinet from
the Quality of Life Policy Group (London: Conservative Party).
6
Donovan N, Halpern N (2002) Life Satisfaction: the state of knowledge and its implications for
government (London: No. 10 Strategy Unit).
7
Marks N (2004) The power and potential of well-being Indicators: measuring young people’s well-being
in Nottingham (London: nef).
8
Shah H, Marks N (2004) A well-being manifesto for a flourishing society (London: nef).
9
Johns H, Ormerod P (2007) Happiness, economics and public policy (London: Institute of Economic
Affairs).
10
Wilkinson W (2007) In pursuit of happiness research: is it reliable? What does it imply for policy?
(Washington, DC: Cato Institute).
11
DCLG (2006) Strong and prosperous communities (London: HMSO).
12
This was part of the Local Well-being Project, a partnership between the Young Foundation, the
Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Economics (LSE) and the Improvement
and Development Agency (IDeA), working in collaboration with Hertfordshire County Council,
Manchester City Council, and South Tyneside Metropolitan Borough Council.
13
Steuer N, Marks N, Thompson S (2007) Measuring well-being at the local level: a report for the Audit
Commission (London: nef).
14
DfES (2003) Every Child Matters (London: HSMO).
15
DWP (2005) Opportunity Age: Meeting the challenges of ageing in the 21st century (London: HMSO).
16
Dolan et al. (2006a) op. cit.
17
Dolan P, Peasgood T, Dixon A, Knight M, Phillips D, Tsuchiya A, White A (2006b) Research on the
relationship between well-being and sustainable development (London: Defra).
18
Marks N, Thompson S, Eckersley R, Jackson T, Kasser T (2006) Sustainable development and well-
being: relationships, challenges and policy implications (London: Defra).
19
For instance, on the UK government’s Directgov website, information about taking exercise, stopping
smoking, losing weight, cutting down on drinking, eating fruit and vegetables, and having safe sex is
all grouped under the general banner of ‘Health and Wellbeing’, along with information on access to
health services. http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/HealthAndWellBeing/index.htm.
20
Baldock J (2007) ‘Social policy, social welfare, and the welfare state’ In Baldock J, Manning N,
rd
Vickerstaff S (eds) Social Policy (3 ed) (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
21
Huppert F A, Keverne B, Baylis N (eds) (2005) The science of well-being (Oxford: Oxford University
Press).
30
33. 22
Lyubomirsky S, Sheldon KM, Schkade D (2005) ‘Pursuing happiness: the architecture of sustainable
change’ Review of General Psychology 9:111–131.
23
Defra (2007) Sustainable development indicators in your pocket 2007 (London: HMSO).
24
Dolan et al. (2006a) op cit.
25
Note that Dolan et al. (2006a) call this category ‘Objective lists’, although they also use the term ‘basic
needs’ interchangeably.
26
Nettle D (2005) Happiness: the science behind your smile (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
27
Wilson TD, Gilbert D T (2005) ‘Affective forecasting: knowing what to want’ Current Directions in
Psychological Science 14:131–134.
28
Schwarz B, Ward A, Monterosso J, Lyubomirsky S, White K, Lehman DR (2005) ‘Maximizing versus
satisficing: happiness is a matter of choice’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83:1178–
1197.
29
Easterlin RA (1974) ‘Does economic growth improve the human lot?’ In David P A, Reder M W (eds),
Nations and households in economic growth: essays in honor of Moses Abramovitz (New York:
Academic Press, Inc).
30
Dolan et al. (2006a) op cit.
31
Diener E, Seligman MEP (2002) ‘Very happy people’ Psychological Science 13:81–84.
32
Fredrickson BL (2001) ‘The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build
theory of positive emotions’ American Psychologist 56:218–226.
33
Fredrickson BL, Joiner T (2002) ‘Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-
being’ Psychological Science 13:172–175.
34
Williams GC, McGregor HA Sharp D, Levesque C, Kouides RW, Ryan RM, Deci EL (2006) ‘Testing a
self-determination theory intervention for motivating tobacco cessation: supporting autonomy and
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35
Zeldman A, Ryan RM, Fiscella K (2004) ‘Client motivation, autonomy support and entity beliefs: their
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36
Grolnick WS, Ryan RM (1987) ‘Autonomy in children's learning: an experimental and individual
difference investigation’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:890–898.
37
This may not be true in practice, of course, but the point is that the causal argument is easy and
intuitive to make.
38
Mill JS (1859) On Liberty (Boston: Tickner and Fields).
39
Mill JS (1848) Principles of political economy - with some of their applications to social philosophy
(London: JW Parker).
40
Marrin M (2006) ‘The dangerous business of happiness’ The Sunday Times, 18 June.
41
Waugh A (2005) ‘Enter the happiness police’ The Daily Telegraph, 13 March.
42
Collective action problems are those situations where the net result of individuals pursuing their
rational self-interest is a sub-optimal outcome for everyone.
43
Recently, attempts have been made to find a middle ground position. In so-called ‘soft’ or ‘libertarian’
paternalism, the state or other institutions influence individual’s decisions through the manipulation of
default options, but without placing constraints on their choices (Thaler RH, Sunstein CR (2003)
‘Libertarian paternalism’ American Economic Review 93:175–179).Even this has come under criticism
from those in the classical liberal tradition who see any form of paternalism as inherently unwelcome
(Glaeser E L (2005) ‘Paternalism and psychology’ University of Chicago Law Review 73, pp. 133-
150).
44
Essentially the same distinction is sometimes couched in terms of ‘process’ versus ‘outcome’
indicators.
45
This language is drawn from the Balanced Scorecard approach to corporate strategy: Kaplan R S and
Norton D P (1992) ‘The balanced scorecard: measures that drive performance’ Harvard Business
Review Jan/Feb: 71–80.
46
The well-known problem of ‘perverse incentives’ is often the result of poorly chosen lead indicators. In
the case of waiting lists, for instance, some NHS trusts found it easier to meet their waiting list targets
by using ‘hidden’ waiting lists than by making real service improvements. For a recent discussion of
this problem in the context of public services more widely, see Ryan-Collins J, Sanfilippo L, Spratt S
(2007) Unintended consequences: how the efficiency agenda erodes local public services and a new
public benefit model to restore them (London: nef).
47
Veenhoven R (1996) ‘Happy Life-expectancy: a comprehensive measure of quality-of-life in nations’
Social Indicators Research 39:1–58.
31
34. 48
Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) op. cit.
49
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being’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57:1069–1081.
50
Deci EL, Ryan RM (2000) ‘The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-
determination of behavior’ Psychological Inquiry 11:227–268.
51
Langer EJ, Rodin J (1976) ‘The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A
field experiment in an institutional setting’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34:191–98.
52
Residents who lived on two different floors of a nursing home for the elderly were all given a potted
houseplant for their room. On one floor the residents were asked to care for it themselves, whilst on
the other the staff took responsibility for feeding and watering the plant.
53
Currently it has ‘provisional’ status within the set, although the expectation is that this will be lifted in
2008.
54
Max Neef MA (1991) Human scale development: conception, application and further reflections (New
York: The Apex Press).
55
Schaie KW, Carstensen LL (eds) (2006) Social structures, aging and self-regulation in the ederly
(New York: Springer Publishing Company).
56
Easterlin RA (2006) ‘Life cycle happiness and its sources: Intersections of psychology, economics,
and demography’ Journal of Economic Psychology 27:463–482.
57
Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ (2008) ‘Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle?’ Social Science &
Medicine 66:1733–1749.
58
Lawton MP, Kleban MH, Dean J, Rajagopal D, Parmelee PA (1992) ‘The factorial generality of brief
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59
Hyde M, Wiggins RD, Higgs P, Blane DB (2003) ‘A measure of quality of life in early old age: the
theory, development and properties of a needs satisfaction model (CASP-19)’ Aging Mental Health
7:186–194.
60
‘Happiness’ is used as an example here. The same problem applies to any construct measured using
a bounded scale. It is worth noting that many commonly used objective indicators are also, in a sense,
bounded – the rate of unemployment, for instance, has an upper bound (i.e. full employment).
61
Haybron DM (2007) ‘Do we know how happy we are? On some limits of affective introspection and
recall’ Noûs 41:394–428.
62
Johns and Ormerod (2007) op cit.
63
Wilkinson (2007) op cit.
64
Easterlin (1974) op cit.
65
In response, it could be objected that a de facto ceiling might operate if people feel constrained from
using the extremes of the scale. For instance, there could exist a tacit cultural norm whereby giving a
response of 10 is regarded as boastful – in practice, this would lower the upper-bound of the scale for
the majority of respondents, but would not remove the possibility of a ceiling effect.
66
Layard R, Mayraz G, Nickell S (in press) ‘The marginal utility of income’ Journal of Public Economics.
67
Helson H (1964) Adaptation Level Theory: an experimental and systematic approach to behavior
(New York: Harper & Row).
68
Clark AE, Oswald AJ (1994) ‘Unhappiness and unemployment’ The Economic Journal 104:648–659.
69
Brickman P, Coates D, Janoff-Bulman R (1978) ‘Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness
relative?’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36:917–927.
70
Lucas RE, Clark AE, Georgellis Y, Diener E (2003) ‘Reexamining adaptation and the set point model
of happiness: Reactions to changes in marital status’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
84:527–539.
71
Lykken D, Tellegen A (1996) ‘Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon’ Psychological Science 7:186–
189.
72
Lucas RE, Clark AE, Georgellis Y, Diener E (2004) ‘Unemployment alters the set-point for life
satisfaction’ Psychological Science 15:8–13.
73
Sheldon KM, Lyubomirsky S (2006a) ‘How to increase and sustain positive emotion: The effects of
expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves’ Journal of Positive Psychology 1:73–82.
74
Sheldon KM, Lyubomirsky S (2006b) ‘Achieving sustainable gains in happiness: Change your actions,
not your circumstances’ Journal of Happiness Studies 7:55–86.
75
Easterlin (1974) op cit.
32
35. 76
Diener and Seligman (2002) op cit.
77
Layard (2005) op cit.
78
The so-called Easterlin Paradox is the finding that aggregate subjective well-being does not increase
over time with economic growth, yet there is a clear (albeit fairly small) positive relationship between
income and well-being at the cross-section
79
Clark A, Frijters P, Shields M (in press) ‘Relative income, happiness and utility: An explanation for the
Easterlin Paradox and other puzzles’ Journal of Economic Literature.
80
Layard (2005) op. cit.
81
Ibid.
82
Steuer et al, (2007) op cit.
83
Ibid.
33