This document discusses qualitative research methods. It covers key topics like the differences between qualitative and quantitative data, strengths and limitations of qualitative research, issues of credibility and generalization in qualitative studies, and the importance of reflexivity and triangulation in establishing trustworthiness. Sampling methods for qualitative research like purposive sampling and snowball sampling are also examined.

1. PART I – THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
PART II – EVALUATION OF QUALITATIVE METHODS INCLUDING
CONCEPTS LIKE CREDIBILITY, RESEARCHER BIAS,
GERNERALIZATION, TRIANGULATION AND REFLEXIVITY.
PART III – SAMPLING METHODS, PURPOSIVE SAMPLING AND
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
PART IV – ETHICS

3.  Qualitative research takes place in the real
world, as opposed to the laboratory, and deals
with how people give meaning to their own
experience.
 Then it is followed by an attempt to interpret
the behaviour and the meanings that people
have given to their experience.
 The objective of qualitative research is to
describe and possibly explain events and
experiences.

4. Observations
Interviews
Cases studies
These often involve face-
to-face interactions beteen
researcher and participant
The researchers need to
be flexible and sensitive
to the needs of the social
context within which the
data is obtained.
Step 1
Step 2
The data is then
analysed and interpreted.
To look for themes is
more common than trying
to confirm a hypothesis.

5. Qualitative – words and
anlysis
Qualitative – numbers-
easy to summarize and
use in statistics. Meant
for generalization beyond
the sample from which
the data is drawn.
Gathered
through direct
interaction with
participants.
Open-ended
and flexible ”rich
data”

6. When dealing with
qualitative research – it is
imperative to be able to
tolerate a degree of
uncertainty.

7. ”Researchers can only come to understand the
social world through participants’
interpretations – interpretative approach.
Reality is diverse and multifaceted. The goal is
to get a picture of this reality. To measure
means to reduce it – and therefore lose
meaning.

8.  Quantitative methods, such
as the experiment, have
been used partly in order to
maintain the appearance of
psychology as a scientific
discipline with valid
knowledge claims.
 During the 20th century there
was a shift away from seeing
quantitative methods as the
only valid way of gaining
data – but also a realization
that both methods are
needed.

9.  Purpose of research
 Characteristics of participants
 Researchers’ beliefs about the nature of
knowledge and how it can be aquired (see
next slide)

10. 1. What is the relationship between the researcher and
the researched? Can the researcher be objective. Can
the researched ever behave naturally. No? Well, then
reflexibility is needed.
2. What can be held as truth? Accurate measures (natural
sciences) or by being supported by something else
(social sciences)
3. How is knowledge gathered? Deductive (cause and
effect, generalization and prediction) vs. Inductive
(collected evidence used to reach a conclusion –
focus: to understand the process).

11. Means that the distinction between qualitative
and quantitave research is a textbook creation
and that there is no unified qualitative
paradigm.
In fact, he claims, they are not separated.

12. Quantitative methods
assume:
• That variables can be
identified (and
operationalised)
• That The relationship
between variables can
measured by statistics.
• Realibility and
objectiveness is seen
as highly important (and
possible) – therefore
controlled environments
(like labs) are preferred.
• Aim: to infer a cause-
effect relationship and
to be able to generalize
from the study.
• Eg. experiments and
correlational studies.
Qualitative methods
assume:
Exercise 1: try to fill in what qualitative research has in
common opposed to quantitative methods based on what we
have covered so far:

14.  Provide rich data – that is, in-depth descriptions
of individual experiences.
 Particularly useful for investigating complex
and sensitive issues.
 Explain phenomena – that is, go beyond mere
observation to understand what lies behind
them (eg. why do people become homeless?)
 Generate new ideas and theories to explain and
overcome problems.
 People are studied in their own environment,
which increases credibility.

15.  Can be very time-consuming and generate a
huge amount of data.
 Data analysis can be difficult because of the
amount of data and no clear strategy for
analysis.
 Interpretation of data may be subjective (but
reflexivity can help to minimize this)

16. This is often the aim of research, but not always so for qualitative
research.
Representative generalization – can the findings be applied to
populations outside the population of the study? Samples are often small
and not selected for being statistically representative so this makes
generalization difficult. However, if evidence from other studies confirms
the findings (confirmability through eg. triangulation) it is argued that
generalization is possible (Hammersley, 1992)
Inferential generalizability – same thing but with the difference that it is
the setting of the research that is to be generalized to other settings.
Transferability. Depends on the depth of the description of the context –
and this may allow for inferences to be made – but needs to be supported
or disproved by further evidence (e.g. transferability check through
triangulation)
Theoretical generalizability – if the theoretical concepts can be used to
open up new fields and develop further theory.

17. Credibility Internal validity
”Trustworthyness” How believable are the research conclusions? Conclusions and interpretations are
Breadth and deapth is gathered. correct as variables are well defined and
measures well controlled.
Transferability Generalizability
The context is well described as it is unlikely that The research conclusions can be applied to
it won’t have an impact on the findings. Different samples as the research context is
controlled enough.
Dependability Reliability
Data obtained cannot be expected to be the same Repeated use of the instrument provide stable
Dependability means therefore that the researcher has measurements and researchers using them
Described all factors that might have influenced the data. Find similar results
Confirmability Objectivity
Sujectivity is not only unavoidable; it is valued. Therefore
researchers should give details of procedures and attempt As many sources of bias from opinion are
To find examples that contradict the findings. Eliminated from the research process.

18. A study is trustworthy if,
and only if, the reader of
the reseach report judge
it to be so” (Rolfe, 2006)

19. As a way to increase credibility, but also check
transferability, dependability and confirmability triangulation
is often used.
Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and
conclusions in research, brought about by the use of
multiple procedures or sources. If there is agreement
between these, there is support of the interpretation of
data.
Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain truth,
but you get closer to it – reflexivity is still necessary.

20.  Method triangulation. Comparing data that come
from the use of different methods. These could be
both quantitative and qualitative. Eg. first using a
questionaire to ask about eating habits in a school,
and then conduct focus group interviews
afterwards.
 Researcher triangulation – involves using different
people as researchers. This increased the
confirmability and credibility of conclusions. Without
this data collection and conclusions might be
affected by researcher bias.
Other triangulation thechniques include data
triangulation and theory triangulation.

21. Refers to the researcher’s need to constantly be aware of
how and why they are conducting the research, and to
recognize at what points their own beliefs and opinions
might have influenced data collection or analysis.
To undergo an interview with collegues is a way to expose
possible bias.
Examiner’s hint: to answer a
question about the value of
reflexivity in qualitative research,
you should make reference to the
different opportunities for
reflexibility provided by interviews,
case studies and observations.

22. Participant expectations – the participants’ ideas of
the researcher and the research which can affect the
trustworthiness of the data. Pleasing the experiment
(or the screw you effect).
Researcher bias – the researcher does not pay
enough attention to the participants. This leads to the
result that it is the researcher’s own beliefs that
determine the research effect.
Can be checked through interviews, credibility checks
and reflexivity.

24.  The sampling numbers are generally smaller thani n quantitative
research.
 To get random, representative samples from target population is
seldom possible (or the aim) of qualitative research. It is not
intended to be statistically representative.
 Instead, a sample is chosen because it represents important
characteristics of a population – characteristics that are the main
concern in evaluation of research.
Sampling methods
in qualitative
research differs
from those used in
quantitative
research.

25.  Purposive sampling – the participatns are
chosen on the basis of particular characteristics
that will help the researcher to explore the
research topic. Eg. specific experiences, social
roles etc. It may be important that there is a
diversity – but this is not necessary nor at times
possible. Problem – the sample might be biased
but this is thought to be lessened if the criterias
on which participants were chosen are clearly
documented.

26. The researcher simply
asks participants in the
study if they know any
other potential
participants.
+ time and cost
efficient.
+ can be used to get
hold hidden populations
- Will most probably
lead to biased samples.
- Ethics: confidentiality
concerns.
Convenience samples can also
be used.

27.  What sampling method would be
appropriate? Why?
 Could another sampling method be
considered? Why?
 What should you consider overall when
selecting your sample?

29. In large these are the same as in quantitative
research (informed consent, protection from harm,
respect for the participants’ integrity and privacy
and right to withdraw).
Special here is to be open to problems linked to
the private nature often researched, that the
researcher might get personally involved and
lose objectivity.
Specifically in case studies – anonymity issues
(case study with covert observation – no
consentform or right to withdraw – problematic).

30.  Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative
data.
 Explain strenths and limitations of a qualitative
approach to research
 Explore the extent to which findings can be
generalized from qualitative studies.
 Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative
research.
 Explain the effect of triangulation on the
credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research
 Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.