The document discusses the canonical shaping of the prophetic literature in the Hebrew Bible. It argues that a major literary and theological force worked to shape the present form of the prophetic texts to function as authoritative Scripture for later generations. Specifically, it discusses how prophetic oracles directed to one generation were fashioned into Sacred Scripture through a canonical process to be used by another generation. It provides examples showing how the prophetic texts were expanded, changed to a new metaphorical role, detached from their original context and subordinated to a new theological context, and had their order changed to emphasize different theological functions.
This document discusses hagiography, which are writings about saints' lives and martyrdom that were intended to educate readers on virtues and inspire emulation of saints, rather than provide strictly historical accounts. It provides definitions and terminology related to hagiography and the cult of saints. It also discusses how historians in Late Antiquity had different approaches than modern historians, prioritizing edification over chronology and impartiality. The document examines themes commonly found in saints' lives and provides perspectives on hagiography from several scholars including Peter Brown, Averil Cameron, and David Brakke.
This views the text as a window, a source of information about the author, the addressees and the world in which they lives including but is not limited to the social, ecological, cultural background that gave rise to the text. The world of the author is known to be the world behind the text. There are various ways to determine how the world of the author influences and shapes the message of the Bible. This includes different Biblical Criticism
Biblical Theology--- Between the TestamentsRobert Munson
This was the final presentation I gave for a short-course I gave on Biblical Theology (OT). The presentation is less focused on the historical changes going on the help makes sense of the differences between OT and NT Biblical Theologies.
The relationship between classical culture and christianityFarai Mushangwe
The relationship between Christianity and classical culture was both similar and contradictory. Some similarities included the respect for governance found in both, as well as the prediction of a savior figure. However, contradictions also existed, such as Christianity's monotheism versus classical polytheism, and different views on how the world was created. The status of women also differed between the two cultures. Therefore, the relationship was complex, with both intertwining commonalities but also important differences, especially as Christianity grew more prominent in Rome over time.
The document outlines a framework for theologizing in mission consisting of 11 domains: 1) The Bible 2) The Church's reflection 3) Personal experience 4) The context 5) The integrating idea 6) The Holy Spirit and prayer 7) The history of mission action 8) The history of mission theory 9) The heart of mission theology 10) Preparation for action 11) The missional action. It discusses how each domain contributes uniquely and how they integrate and inform one another in the process of understanding and carrying out God's mission.
The significance of recent Research on 1 corinthians forjosue76
This document summarizes recent research on 1 Corinthians and discusses its significance for interpreting the epistle today. It argues that contrary to expectations, research has uncovered parallels between issues faced by the Corinthian church and modern concerns like consumerism and postmodernism. While differences remain, the document examines how appreciating these resonances can aid hermeneutical appropriation of 1 Corinthians in the 21st century.
Todd Johanson has published several articles and book reviews from 2012 to 2016 on topics related to Christian-Muslim dialogue, pluralism, religious inclusivism, virtue ethics, and abortion views in Buddhism. Some of his publications include articles in the Journal of Ecumenical Studies on Karl Rahner's "Anonymous Christianity" and charity as a virtue in non-Christians, as well as book reviews analyzing works about revelation, religious pluralism, and reconciliation between Christian traditions.
The original teachings of Jesus Christ were an outcome of
Buddhism, says Holger Kersten, a German theology teacher.
Hence one of the titles of the chapters in his book, "The
Original Jesus" (sub-titled 'Buddhist sources of Christianity') is 'Jesus the Buddhist'!
This document discusses hagiography, which are writings about saints' lives and martyrdom that were intended to educate readers on virtues and inspire emulation of saints, rather than provide strictly historical accounts. It provides definitions and terminology related to hagiography and the cult of saints. It also discusses how historians in Late Antiquity had different approaches than modern historians, prioritizing edification over chronology and impartiality. The document examines themes commonly found in saints' lives and provides perspectives on hagiography from several scholars including Peter Brown, Averil Cameron, and David Brakke.
This views the text as a window, a source of information about the author, the addressees and the world in which they lives including but is not limited to the social, ecological, cultural background that gave rise to the text. The world of the author is known to be the world behind the text. There are various ways to determine how the world of the author influences and shapes the message of the Bible. This includes different Biblical Criticism
Biblical Theology--- Between the TestamentsRobert Munson
This was the final presentation I gave for a short-course I gave on Biblical Theology (OT). The presentation is less focused on the historical changes going on the help makes sense of the differences between OT and NT Biblical Theologies.
The relationship between classical culture and christianityFarai Mushangwe
The relationship between Christianity and classical culture was both similar and contradictory. Some similarities included the respect for governance found in both, as well as the prediction of a savior figure. However, contradictions also existed, such as Christianity's monotheism versus classical polytheism, and different views on how the world was created. The status of women also differed between the two cultures. Therefore, the relationship was complex, with both intertwining commonalities but also important differences, especially as Christianity grew more prominent in Rome over time.
The document outlines a framework for theologizing in mission consisting of 11 domains: 1) The Bible 2) The Church's reflection 3) Personal experience 4) The context 5) The integrating idea 6) The Holy Spirit and prayer 7) The history of mission action 8) The history of mission theory 9) The heart of mission theology 10) Preparation for action 11) The missional action. It discusses how each domain contributes uniquely and how they integrate and inform one another in the process of understanding and carrying out God's mission.
The significance of recent Research on 1 corinthians forjosue76
This document summarizes recent research on 1 Corinthians and discusses its significance for interpreting the epistle today. It argues that contrary to expectations, research has uncovered parallels between issues faced by the Corinthian church and modern concerns like consumerism and postmodernism. While differences remain, the document examines how appreciating these resonances can aid hermeneutical appropriation of 1 Corinthians in the 21st century.
Todd Johanson has published several articles and book reviews from 2012 to 2016 on topics related to Christian-Muslim dialogue, pluralism, religious inclusivism, virtue ethics, and abortion views in Buddhism. Some of his publications include articles in the Journal of Ecumenical Studies on Karl Rahner's "Anonymous Christianity" and charity as a virtue in non-Christians, as well as book reviews analyzing works about revelation, religious pluralism, and reconciliation between Christian traditions.
The original teachings of Jesus Christ were an outcome of
Buddhism, says Holger Kersten, a German theology teacher.
Hence one of the titles of the chapters in his book, "The
Original Jesus" (sub-titled 'Buddhist sources of Christianity') is 'Jesus the Buddhist'!
All religious traditions have sacred texts that are considered divinely inspired and provide guidance for believers. These texts are interpreted and their meaning derived through various historical-critical methods that seek to understand the social and cultural contexts in which they were produced. However, feminist scholars argue that traditional interpretations of some texts are limited by patriarchal biases and exclusions of women's voices. The meaning of sacred texts is shaped both by the cultures that produced them and by contemporary readers' identities and positions.
GNOSTICISM and HERESY Proportional to the Teachings of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCHWilliam John Meegan
I advise those that don’t know my research to get acquainted with it otherwise much of what will be discussed in this paper will make little or no sense at all.
Throughout my life I considered myself an initiate and devoted believer in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church; though, I surpassed its rudimentary teachings some time ago I am still amazed at its incredible artistic and mystical structure and how the Church is fulfilling the mission that Christ entrusted to its care since the dawn of Christianity. Everything about the Roman Catholic Church and its mythoi (historicity) informs the soul as to the WHYS and WHEREFORES of it trials and tribulations in its quest for knowledge of the WORD OF GOD. Such research on the mythoi of Christianity explains what life is all about. In a very real sense my studies into the literature, artworks and monuments of Christianity is my personal prayer to God.
It can be said, truthfully, without prejudice that Gnosticism and Heresy collectively symbolize the myriad forms of belief systems that spring out of the psyche: i.e. ego-consciousness and the unconscious mind of individual initiates meditating on the original narratives of Christianity; because, modernity is led to believe that initially there was, at the time, no standardized religious educational system that informed the vast majority of the populace (laity) as to what the standardized Christian belief system entailed. Or let us say this is the mythoi vis-à-vis the dawn of Christianity that has been past down to posterity by those that wrote the sacred scriptures.
Personally, I beg to differ that this is what Gnosticism and Heresy is all about; however, I do believe that Gnosticism and Heresy were conceived and written by highly knowledgeable orthodox Catholics theologians. One of the most glaring truths about Gnosticism and Heresy in contrast to the Catholic Church is that the narrative structure and demeanor of the four gospels of the New Testament in contrast to the Gnostic Gospels and those of the heretics is that the literary ambiance of the New Testament has far more sophistication to its storyline and content as to what a historical document should look like. It is as if the Gnostic and Heretical writings were conceived as cat’s paws to teach the esotericism of the New Testament. I do not deny the true and valid spiritual teachings of the Gnostic and Heretical texts; however, these were only conceived as cat’s paws by the authors of the Old and New Testaments in order to fine-tune those texts as Christian historicity and to validate the reasons for them to be writing esoterically in the manner in which they were. Gnostic and Heretical texts never claim a historicity in fact they claim the extreme opposite of that mode of thought. Another very important clue that Gnosticism and Heresies were conceived by the early Christian theologians is the fact that esotericism is NEVER DISCUSSED. Now isn’t that an eye-opener.
This study guide, the first half of a two part study on how the early Christian church selected the books that comprise the canon of the New Testament, is one of a series to help leaders of a Bible study or Sunday School class who are too busy to research and prepare as well as they would like for the task. The entire series is engaging, colorful and challenging and is ready to go even at the last moment. More are in the works. Search using keyword "lessonstogo."
This document is part of the Buddhist scripture known as the Pitaka and is believed to have been composed by organizing sayings attributed to the Buddha on various topics. It aims to clarify the teachings of early Buddhism. While the exact date of composition is unknown, it was in existence by the time of Emperor Asoka in 250 BC and quickly became popular across Buddhist schools. The selection provides approximately half of this influential religious classic, using Max Muller's translation with some modifications for readability. It presents Buddhism's core message that through sustained effort, one can overcome self and find victory, peace, and joy by following the difficult path from the miseries of transitory life.
Jewish-Christian relations and the LUNAR CALENDAR
#LUNAR-CALENDAR #Moon #Jewish #Christian
https://bittube.tv/post/5bd46642-6843-4810-ae42-f2263980e9f2
https://odysee.com/@periodic-reset-of-civilizations:c/Jewish-Christian-relations-and-the-LUNAR-CALENDAR:e
https://tube.midov.pl/w/oNkCi4eXe32eYVzJmzj4JY
https://www.bitchute.com/video/ccDldhP5EyCk/
All the platforms I Am on:
https://steemit.com/links/@resetciviliz/link-s
▶ BITCOIN
34c3XCeSyoi9DPRks867KL7GVD7tGVcxnH
▶ ETHEREUM
0xAc1FBaEBaCc83D332494B55123F5493a113cE457
▶ TEESPRING
https://periodic-reset.creator-spring.com
Nicholas Ostler 2013 Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great FaithsNicholas Ostler
The document discusses the effects of converting great faiths like Catholicism, Buddhism, and Christianity into new languages. When Catholicism was converted to Nahuatl in Mexico, the Virgin Mary took on aspects of Aztec goddesses and flowers took on new symbolic meanings. As Buddhism spread through Gandhari and Sanskrit, new scriptures were added and concepts like Mahayana emerged. When Christianity was adopted in Greek and Latin in the Roman Empire, its community shifted and some theological terms were altered, though creed changes were minor from translation alone. Overall, changing a faith's community and allowing new scriptures had the greatest impact on its content and beliefs.
The Talk of Bro. Duane Cartujano at the Word Conference 2018Duane Cartujano
This document discusses several topics related to the reliability of the Bible and its translation. It provides evidence from ancient manuscripts and scholars to show that early biblical texts like Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus are reliable. While some Bible versions like the King James contain passages not found in older manuscripts, modern translations like the NRSV are considered more accurate. The Catholic Church's role in establishing the biblical canon and its use of deuterocanonical books is also examined through early Church fathers and scholars. Overall, the document aims to demonstrate the reliability of the Bible while cautioning the need to consider textual evidence and guidance from the Church in biblical interpretation.
This introduction discusses the Book of Mormon as a religiously influential yet contested text. It has been understood and utilized in different ways by believers and critics. The book examines the Book of Mormon's origins, changing role in Mormonism over time, and shifting reception by scholars and theologians. As the most widely distributed religious book in America after the Bible, it deserves more extensive critical study of its impact on religion and culture.
The document discusses the Gospel of Judas, a text discovered in Egypt in the 1970s that provides an alternative account of Judas Iscariot's role in betraying Jesus. The Gospel of Judas portrays Judas and Jesus as enlightened beings, with Jesus instructing Judas to turn him over to the Romans to help fulfill his divine mission. While some scholars argue it is authentic based on carbon dating and language, others question its validity. The document analyzes the text through theoretical frameworks like intertextuality and codes to understand how it provides an oppositional meaning to the traditional depiction of Judas in the canonical gospels.
This document discusses different approaches to interpreting the New Testament and searching for the historical Jesus. It outlines two main approaches: an objective rational approach and a subjective experiential approach. It then discusses the rise of historical criticism during the Enlightenment which sought to interpret the Bible apart from the church using human reason. This led scholars to doubt the supernatural aspects of the gospels and view Jesus as just a man. The document also discusses the "Quest for the Historical Jesus" which attempted to separate the real Jesus from the legends in the gospels but ultimately failed to reach a consensus. It concludes that searching for Jesus without faith leads only to confusion and that the Jesus of history and Christ of faith are one.
The document discusses the Gutenberg Bible of the New York Public Library, which was bought by James Lenox in 1847. It was the first Gutenberg Bible to come to the United States, and according to national folklore, the officers at the New York Customs House removed their hats upon seeing it due to its importance.
This document discusses how the discovery of Gobekli Tepe, the world's oldest temple site in Turkey, revolutionized understandings of how civilization began. Gobekli Tepe was built around 9,000 BCE by hunter-gatherers, thousands of years before the development of agriculture, pottery, or writing. It showed that the development of religion and myth preceded farming and led to the domestication of plants and animals. The myths depicted at Gobekli Tepe portrayed humans as having dominance over animals and nature, prompting people to begin managing the environment and domesticating species, which allowed for permanent settlements and the emergence of civilization. The construction of temples like Gobekli Tepe helped unite groups around
This document discusses different models of contextual theology. It presents an anthropological/translation model that considers whether theology should start with Christian or Filipino identity. It also presents a praxis model that involves cycles of action and reflection. Finally, it presents several tradition/culture models that approach theology through concepts like tradition, culture, nature, spiritual beings, and social issues and how they relate to the gospel and social change.
St.Francis.Heytyrop.Penult.Version.4__Scott Thomas
1) The document discusses St. Francis of Assisi's meeting with Sultan Malek el-Kamel in 1213 during the Fifth Crusade and how this encounter has been portrayed and interpreted over time.
2) It questions whether Francis was on a mission of peace or supported the Crusades, as accounts of the meeting are limited and contradictory.
3) The document argues that critical theory and social constructivism perspectives from international relations can provide a framework for understanding how the encounter has been constructed and interpreted differently over hundreds of years.
This document provides the course description, objectives, requirements and schedule for HT 501: Early Christian History taught by Steven J. Beardsley in June 2013. The course is an introduction to the establishment and development of Christianity from its origins to 451CE, paying attention to trends, personalities and events. Primary sources and secondary texts will be used. Requirements include online discussion, two papers on primary sources, a timeline chart and a take-home final exam. The course will meet Monday through Wednesday for lectures and discussion.
The document discusses theological interpretation of Scripture and biblical theology. It defines theological interpretation as readings of biblical texts that consciously consider the theological nature of the texts and how theology influences the interpreter. Biblical theology seeks to understand what the biblical authors believed and taught based on the context of their times. It considers the Bible as the inspired word of God. Theological interpretation of Scripture locates itself within the church community and revolves around the affirmations that the Bible is Scripture and the church is one. It focuses on understanding the theological vision of Scripture and engaging with it faithfully, rather than spanning historical distances. Historical questions are still important but aim to allow the text its own voice rather than discover meaning. Theological interpretation is concerned with facilitating
An Exploration Of Christian Theology - By Don ThorsenStephen Faucher
This summary provides the essential information from the document in 3 sentences:
The document reviews several books related to theology and religious studies. It summarizes the key topics and perspectives discussed in each book, such as discussions of feminist theology, idolatry in religious traditions, Jewish evangelism, and the relationship between spiritual formation and the doctrine of biblical inerrancy among younger evangelicals. The reviews provide assessments of the value and audience for each book.
All religious traditions have sacred texts that are considered divinely inspired and provide guidance for believers. These texts are interpreted and their meaning derived through various historical-critical methods that seek to understand the social and cultural contexts in which they were produced. However, feminist scholars argue that traditional interpretations of some texts are limited by patriarchal biases and exclusions of women's voices. The meaning of sacred texts is shaped both by the cultures that produced them and by contemporary readers' identities and positions.
GNOSTICISM and HERESY Proportional to the Teachings of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCHWilliam John Meegan
I advise those that don’t know my research to get acquainted with it otherwise much of what will be discussed in this paper will make little or no sense at all.
Throughout my life I considered myself an initiate and devoted believer in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church; though, I surpassed its rudimentary teachings some time ago I am still amazed at its incredible artistic and mystical structure and how the Church is fulfilling the mission that Christ entrusted to its care since the dawn of Christianity. Everything about the Roman Catholic Church and its mythoi (historicity) informs the soul as to the WHYS and WHEREFORES of it trials and tribulations in its quest for knowledge of the WORD OF GOD. Such research on the mythoi of Christianity explains what life is all about. In a very real sense my studies into the literature, artworks and monuments of Christianity is my personal prayer to God.
It can be said, truthfully, without prejudice that Gnosticism and Heresy collectively symbolize the myriad forms of belief systems that spring out of the psyche: i.e. ego-consciousness and the unconscious mind of individual initiates meditating on the original narratives of Christianity; because, modernity is led to believe that initially there was, at the time, no standardized religious educational system that informed the vast majority of the populace (laity) as to what the standardized Christian belief system entailed. Or let us say this is the mythoi vis-à-vis the dawn of Christianity that has been past down to posterity by those that wrote the sacred scriptures.
Personally, I beg to differ that this is what Gnosticism and Heresy is all about; however, I do believe that Gnosticism and Heresy were conceived and written by highly knowledgeable orthodox Catholics theologians. One of the most glaring truths about Gnosticism and Heresy in contrast to the Catholic Church is that the narrative structure and demeanor of the four gospels of the New Testament in contrast to the Gnostic Gospels and those of the heretics is that the literary ambiance of the New Testament has far more sophistication to its storyline and content as to what a historical document should look like. It is as if the Gnostic and Heretical writings were conceived as cat’s paws to teach the esotericism of the New Testament. I do not deny the true and valid spiritual teachings of the Gnostic and Heretical texts; however, these were only conceived as cat’s paws by the authors of the Old and New Testaments in order to fine-tune those texts as Christian historicity and to validate the reasons for them to be writing esoterically in the manner in which they were. Gnostic and Heretical texts never claim a historicity in fact they claim the extreme opposite of that mode of thought. Another very important clue that Gnosticism and Heresies were conceived by the early Christian theologians is the fact that esotericism is NEVER DISCUSSED. Now isn’t that an eye-opener.
This study guide, the first half of a two part study on how the early Christian church selected the books that comprise the canon of the New Testament, is one of a series to help leaders of a Bible study or Sunday School class who are too busy to research and prepare as well as they would like for the task. The entire series is engaging, colorful and challenging and is ready to go even at the last moment. More are in the works. Search using keyword "lessonstogo."
This document is part of the Buddhist scripture known as the Pitaka and is believed to have been composed by organizing sayings attributed to the Buddha on various topics. It aims to clarify the teachings of early Buddhism. While the exact date of composition is unknown, it was in existence by the time of Emperor Asoka in 250 BC and quickly became popular across Buddhist schools. The selection provides approximately half of this influential religious classic, using Max Muller's translation with some modifications for readability. It presents Buddhism's core message that through sustained effort, one can overcome self and find victory, peace, and joy by following the difficult path from the miseries of transitory life.
Jewish-Christian relations and the LUNAR CALENDAR
#LUNAR-CALENDAR #Moon #Jewish #Christian
https://bittube.tv/post/5bd46642-6843-4810-ae42-f2263980e9f2
https://odysee.com/@periodic-reset-of-civilizations:c/Jewish-Christian-relations-and-the-LUNAR-CALENDAR:e
https://tube.midov.pl/w/oNkCi4eXe32eYVzJmzj4JY
https://www.bitchute.com/video/ccDldhP5EyCk/
All the platforms I Am on:
https://steemit.com/links/@resetciviliz/link-s
▶ BITCOIN
34c3XCeSyoi9DPRks867KL7GVD7tGVcxnH
▶ ETHEREUM
0xAc1FBaEBaCc83D332494B55123F5493a113cE457
▶ TEESPRING
https://periodic-reset.creator-spring.com
Nicholas Ostler 2013 Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great FaithsNicholas Ostler
The document discusses the effects of converting great faiths like Catholicism, Buddhism, and Christianity into new languages. When Catholicism was converted to Nahuatl in Mexico, the Virgin Mary took on aspects of Aztec goddesses and flowers took on new symbolic meanings. As Buddhism spread through Gandhari and Sanskrit, new scriptures were added and concepts like Mahayana emerged. When Christianity was adopted in Greek and Latin in the Roman Empire, its community shifted and some theological terms were altered, though creed changes were minor from translation alone. Overall, changing a faith's community and allowing new scriptures had the greatest impact on its content and beliefs.
The Talk of Bro. Duane Cartujano at the Word Conference 2018Duane Cartujano
This document discusses several topics related to the reliability of the Bible and its translation. It provides evidence from ancient manuscripts and scholars to show that early biblical texts like Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus are reliable. While some Bible versions like the King James contain passages not found in older manuscripts, modern translations like the NRSV are considered more accurate. The Catholic Church's role in establishing the biblical canon and its use of deuterocanonical books is also examined through early Church fathers and scholars. Overall, the document aims to demonstrate the reliability of the Bible while cautioning the need to consider textual evidence and guidance from the Church in biblical interpretation.
This introduction discusses the Book of Mormon as a religiously influential yet contested text. It has been understood and utilized in different ways by believers and critics. The book examines the Book of Mormon's origins, changing role in Mormonism over time, and shifting reception by scholars and theologians. As the most widely distributed religious book in America after the Bible, it deserves more extensive critical study of its impact on religion and culture.
The document discusses the Gospel of Judas, a text discovered in Egypt in the 1970s that provides an alternative account of Judas Iscariot's role in betraying Jesus. The Gospel of Judas portrays Judas and Jesus as enlightened beings, with Jesus instructing Judas to turn him over to the Romans to help fulfill his divine mission. While some scholars argue it is authentic based on carbon dating and language, others question its validity. The document analyzes the text through theoretical frameworks like intertextuality and codes to understand how it provides an oppositional meaning to the traditional depiction of Judas in the canonical gospels.
This document discusses different approaches to interpreting the New Testament and searching for the historical Jesus. It outlines two main approaches: an objective rational approach and a subjective experiential approach. It then discusses the rise of historical criticism during the Enlightenment which sought to interpret the Bible apart from the church using human reason. This led scholars to doubt the supernatural aspects of the gospels and view Jesus as just a man. The document also discusses the "Quest for the Historical Jesus" which attempted to separate the real Jesus from the legends in the gospels but ultimately failed to reach a consensus. It concludes that searching for Jesus without faith leads only to confusion and that the Jesus of history and Christ of faith are one.
The document discusses the Gutenberg Bible of the New York Public Library, which was bought by James Lenox in 1847. It was the first Gutenberg Bible to come to the United States, and according to national folklore, the officers at the New York Customs House removed their hats upon seeing it due to its importance.
This document discusses how the discovery of Gobekli Tepe, the world's oldest temple site in Turkey, revolutionized understandings of how civilization began. Gobekli Tepe was built around 9,000 BCE by hunter-gatherers, thousands of years before the development of agriculture, pottery, or writing. It showed that the development of religion and myth preceded farming and led to the domestication of plants and animals. The myths depicted at Gobekli Tepe portrayed humans as having dominance over animals and nature, prompting people to begin managing the environment and domesticating species, which allowed for permanent settlements and the emergence of civilization. The construction of temples like Gobekli Tepe helped unite groups around
This document discusses different models of contextual theology. It presents an anthropological/translation model that considers whether theology should start with Christian or Filipino identity. It also presents a praxis model that involves cycles of action and reflection. Finally, it presents several tradition/culture models that approach theology through concepts like tradition, culture, nature, spiritual beings, and social issues and how they relate to the gospel and social change.
St.Francis.Heytyrop.Penult.Version.4__Scott Thomas
1) The document discusses St. Francis of Assisi's meeting with Sultan Malek el-Kamel in 1213 during the Fifth Crusade and how this encounter has been portrayed and interpreted over time.
2) It questions whether Francis was on a mission of peace or supported the Crusades, as accounts of the meeting are limited and contradictory.
3) The document argues that critical theory and social constructivism perspectives from international relations can provide a framework for understanding how the encounter has been constructed and interpreted differently over hundreds of years.
This document provides the course description, objectives, requirements and schedule for HT 501: Early Christian History taught by Steven J. Beardsley in June 2013. The course is an introduction to the establishment and development of Christianity from its origins to 451CE, paying attention to trends, personalities and events. Primary sources and secondary texts will be used. Requirements include online discussion, two papers on primary sources, a timeline chart and a take-home final exam. The course will meet Monday through Wednesday for lectures and discussion.
The document discusses theological interpretation of Scripture and biblical theology. It defines theological interpretation as readings of biblical texts that consciously consider the theological nature of the texts and how theology influences the interpreter. Biblical theology seeks to understand what the biblical authors believed and taught based on the context of their times. It considers the Bible as the inspired word of God. Theological interpretation of Scripture locates itself within the church community and revolves around the affirmations that the Bible is Scripture and the church is one. It focuses on understanding the theological vision of Scripture and engaging with it faithfully, rather than spanning historical distances. Historical questions are still important but aim to allow the text its own voice rather than discover meaning. Theological interpretation is concerned with facilitating
An Exploration Of Christian Theology - By Don ThorsenStephen Faucher
This summary provides the essential information from the document in 3 sentences:
The document reviews several books related to theology and religious studies. It summarizes the key topics and perspectives discussed in each book, such as discussions of feminist theology, idolatry in religious traditions, Jewish evangelism, and the relationship between spiritual formation and the doctrine of biblical inerrancy among younger evangelicals. The reviews provide assessments of the value and audience for each book.
This document discusses imagining a more inclusive future for the Bible. It summarizes Gregory Jenks' previous work on this topic and explores further how the Bible could be used with confidence in today's complex world. Jenks argues that the Bible has never had a single, fixed form and proposes imagining it with a more open canon that reflects the inclusive nature of early Christian communities centered around open table fellowship.
This document outlines various critical methods that have been used to study the Bible historically and academically. It discusses key figures from the 18th century onward who challenged traditional orthodox interpretations and pioneered new historical-critical approaches. Some of the critical methods mentioned include textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, and literary criticism. The document also summarizes the work and perspectives of influential scholars like Semler, Lessing, de Wette, Schleiermacher, Strauss, Bauer, Wrede, Schweitzer, Bultmann, Dibelius, Streeter, and Kasemann who helped develop modern biblical criticism.
The theology of the old testament by walter brueggemannbeninbr
Walter Brueggemann seeks to craft a new biblical theology organized around the core concept of Israel's testimony about God found in Old Testament texts. He categorizes this testimony into four parts: Israel's praise and confession of God (core testimony), laments questioning God (countertestimony), indirect allusions to God's nature (unsolicited testimony), and forms of mediation that brought God close such as law, prophets, cult, etc (embodied narrative). Brueggemann analyzes many Old Testament passages through these lenses to generate a dynamic theology focused on the rhetorical power of the biblical texts rather than historical criticism.
This document examines how a postcolonial perspective can provide insights for reading prophetic literature. It discusses how postcolonial theory can interrogate the categorization of texts as "prophetic literature" and probe its production. The document traces the development of prophetic studies from focusing on prophets' biographies and roles to examining them as social and political figures. It argues that postcolonial theory can help analyze how the notion of the "prophetic book" was constructed and how prophetic texts came to be seen as an authoritative literary genre.
Any reading of the Scriptures will need a theology of history to relate the events to each other. A theology of history becomes necessary not only for an understanding of God’s dealings with humans at different times, but also in order to understand, for instance, why a particular divine commandment is not binding at other times. Thus, theology of history also sheds light on biblical politics and ethics. More significantly, it helps us in the understanding of contemporary history and its trends and in being able to predict where all this is leading towards.
Biblical Theology in Relation to Other Categories of TheologyRobert Munson
Introductory Presentation for courses on NT Biblical Theology. Draws from a perspective ,more in line with G. E. Ladd, especially since that was the textbook for the course..
This was the introductory presentation for a short-course I taught on Biblical Theology (OT). While not my specialty, I do love Biblical Theology. This presentation relates Biblical Theology to other theological categories.
This document discusses the influence of Confucian and Neo-Confucian thought on the Divine Principle. Some key points:
- The Divine Principle references yin and yang and traces the unfolding of the cosmos through their interaction, reflecting Neo-Confucian philosophy.
- God is represented as having both male and female characteristics, reflecting yin and yang polarity found in all things.
- Concepts like the "unmanifest" and "manifest" draw from Neo-Confucian diagrams and debates on the nature of the ultimate source.
- Regular study gatherings in the Unification tradition (hoondokhwae) reflect the Neo-Confucian practice
This document is a research paper submitted by Zuhong Wu to Professor Raymond Aldred for a graduate course on Christianity and Culture at the Canadian Theological Seminary. The paper aims to develop a systematic theology of Chinese culture by analyzing Chinese mythology and relating theological themes found therein to Confucianism and Taoism. The summary analyzes the paper's methodology and key insights drawn from its examination of Chinese creation myths involving Pangu and Nuwa, as well as the fall and restoration of the universe. Confucian concepts of the gentleman and the virtue of ren are also briefly discussed.
The document discusses using a suspension bridge as a model for biblical worship. It says worship should be supported by firm biblical foundations ("towers") like the key elements of early church worship in Acts 2:42. It also allows flexibility ("span") for creative cultural expressions, as the New Testament is largely silent on worship forms. Two "towers" are discussed: biblical constants like preaching, prayer etc.; and biblical principles that guide worship decisions while allowing application variation. The document examines several such principles and their implications for a local church's worship.
This document provides an overview of sacred texts from major world religions and discusses the Bible from an academic perspective. It notes that sacred texts like the Bible, Quran, Vedas and others convey spiritual truths, establish connections to the divine, foster communal identity, provide morality and mystical experiences. While these texts contain valuable stories of faith for communities, it is not about which is most truthful. The document then discusses the Bible, noting it is a collection of writings resulting from faith seeking to tell symbolic stories about humanity's relationship to God. It explains the divisions of the Bible and importance of hermeneutics in proper interpretation given ancient nature and need to understand author's intentions, text structure and reader's perspectives.
Power Point Presentations for a class by Glenn Giles of Denver, Colorado on Apologetics, Biblical Criticism and Inspiration. Class was taught in San Diego Dec 11-12 2009.
This document provides course descriptions for graduate courses taken by Palladino Robert Alfred. The courses cover topics such as biblical foundations, theological foundations, Vatican II teachings, historical foundations, biblical spirituality, Christian spirituality, the nature of love, theology and ministry of the word, Old Testament wisdom literature, eschatology, Mary in the modern world, and comparative religion. The courses examine scripture interpretation, theology, church history, spiritual writings, philosophical perspectives on love, preaching and teaching the word of God, wisdom literature, last things, Marian apparitions, and other religions.
The document discusses Sun Myung Moon's view of the Bible and its authority. It makes three key points:
1) Moon acknowledged the Bible's authority but did not view it as inerrant. He saw the Bible as containing God's eternal truth, while its expression through human language could contain errors or limitations.
2) Moon believed interpreting the Bible was important to find the eternal truths behind its words. His interpretation of the Bible formed the basis of his Divine Principle teachings.
3) Moon's view is similar to some Christian traditions that distinguish between the Bible's content (God's truth) and its form of expression, rather than viewing the Bible itself as inerrant in every detail. This
Andrew Walls and The Missionary Movement in Christian History (1996) Introdu...April Smith
This document summarizes Andrew Walls' seminal work "The Missionary Movement in Christian History" which argues that translation is central to the transmission and survival of Christianity across cultures and time. It discusses two of Walls' main contributions: 1) that Christianity has progressed serially, with new centers emerging as old ones decline; and 2) that translation of the gospel into new cultural contexts is akin to the incarnation, with Christianity constantly being reoriented and expressed through indigenous languages and traditions. While still influential, the work leaves out aspects like Catholicism, Pentecostalism and gender that subsequent scholarship has incorporated to give a more complete picture of world Christianity.
- Reverend Moon was influenced by Confucianism through his early education in Chinese classics like the Analects of Confucius.
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- Regular study groups in the Unification tradition called "hoondokhwae" resemble the Neo-Confucian practice of mutual investigation and savoring of classical texts in fellowship with others.
The document provides an overview of the history of biblical hermeneutics, or interpretation methods. It discusses how interpretation has evolved from early Jewish and Christian practices focusing on allegory and tradition, to the Reformation period beginning "our" modern historical-grammatical approach. It also notes the rise of new hermeneutical methods in the 1700s and issues around interpretation dividing churches today.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
1. http://int.sagepub.com/
Interpretation
http://int.sagepub.com/content/32/1/46
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/002096437803200104
1978 32: 46Interpretation
Brevard S. Childs
The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
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- Jan 1, 1978Version of Record>>
by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from by Benin Benson on October 14, 2013int.sagepub.comDownloaded from
2. The Canonical Shape
of the Prophetic Literature
B R E V A R D S. C H I L D S
Professor of Old Testament
Yale University Divinity School
A major literary and theological force was at work
in shaping the present form of the Hebrew Bible
by which prophetic oracles directed to one generation
were fashioned in Sacred Scripture by a canonical
process to be used by another generation.
T H E DEBATE OVER METHODOLOGY
THE STUDY OF THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE of the Old Testa-
ment has gone through several important phases within the modern period.
One thinks of the development of the methods of literary, form, and redactional
criticism, as well as the use of comparative materials from the field of history of
religions, psychology, and sociology.1
From this history of modern research a
wide consensus has emerged that the present literature is the product of a long
history of development, a portion of which can now be successfully reconstructed
through critical methodology. It is also generally agreed that the recovery of this
prehistory has greatly illumined the study of the biblical literature by bringing
into sharp focus the historical milieu of the prophets and in providing criteria
1. Cf. the most recent survey of the history of research by Ronald E. Clements, One
Hundred Years of Old Testament Interpretation (Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1976),
pp. 51-75. Walther Zimmerli's The Law and the Prophets (Oxford, 1965) also has some
pertinent observations on the history of scholarship. Moreover, the specialized treatments of
the major figures remain invaluable: E. Sehmsdorf, Die Prophetenauslegung bei ]. G.
Eichhorn (Göttingen, 1971); H. J. Kraus's interesting analysis of G. H. A. Ewald's contribu-
tion to the study of the prophets in Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten
Testaments (Neukirchen Kreis Moers, Verlag der Buchhandlung des Erziehungsvereins, 1956) ;
Werner Klatt, Hermann Gunkel. Zu seiner Theologie der Religionsgeschichte und zur Entste-
hung der formgeschichtlichen Methode (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1969).
46
3. The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
Interpretation
for interpreting the peculiar oral and literary forms in which the message was
couched.
However, in my opinion, in spite of some impressive gains, the application of
historical-critical methodology has resulted in serious weaknesses in the handling
of the biblical literature. First of all, the legacy of the literary-critical method in
distinguishing between "genuine" and "non-genuine" oracles has continued to
interject a pejorative category into the discussion. Secondly, the form-critical
analysis has increasingly atomized the literature and continued to rest much of
its analysis upon fragile and often highly speculative theories of original settings.
Thirdly, the redactional and sociological methods have tended to politicize the
biblical material and render it into a type of political propaganda.2
As a result,
little success has been achieved in interpreting the prophetic books as Scripture
of the church which accords to the Bible an authoritative role in the formation
of the Christian life.
The purpose of this essay is to suggest a different approach to the biblical
material, which I shall try to illustrate in terms of the prophets. It begins with
the recognition that a major literary and theological force was at work in shaping
the present form of the Hebrew Bible. This force was exerted during most of the
history of the literature's formation, but increasingly in the postexilic period
exercised its influence in the collecting, selecting, and ordering of the biblical
traditions in such a way as to allow the material to function as authoritative
Scripture for the Jewish community. In the transmission process, tradition, which
once arose in a particular milieu and addressed various historical situations, was
shaped in such a way as to serve as a normative expression of God's will to later
generations of Israel who had not shared in those original historical events. In
sum, prophetic oracles which were directed to one generation were fashioned
into Sacred Scripture by a canonical process to be used by another generation.
The reason for treating the final form of Scripture with such seriousness lies
in the peculiar relationship between text and people of God which is constitutive
of canon. The shape of the biblicaj text reflects a history of encounter between
God and Israel. Canon serves to describe this unique relationship and to define
the scope of this history by establishing an end to the process. It assigns a special
quality to this particular segment of history which is deemed normative for all
future generations of this community of faith. The significance of the final form
of the biblical literature is that it alone bears witness to the full history of revela-
tion. Within the Old Testament neither the process of the formation nor the
2. Examples of this approach can be found in the works of Otto Plöger, Theocracy and
Eschatology, trans, by S. Rudman (Richmond, John Knox Press, 1968); Morton Smith,
Palestinian Parties and Politics that Shaped the Old Testament (New York, Columbia Uni-
versity Press, 1971) ; P. D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic. The Historical and Sociological
Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology (Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1975).
47
4. history of its canonization is assigned an independent integrity. These dimensions
have been either lost or purposely blurred. Rather, canon asserts that the witness
to Israel's experience with God is testified to in the effect on the biblical text
itself. It is only in the final form of the biblical text in which the normative
history has reached an end that the full effect of this revelatory history can be
perceived.
Certainly earlier stages in the development of the biblical tradition were often
regarded as canonical prior to the establishment of the final form. In fact, the
final form frequently consists of an earlier, received form of the tradition which
has been transmitted unchanged from its original setting. But to take canon
seriously is also to take seriously the critical function which it exercises in respect
to the earlier stages of the literature's formation. A critical judgment is exercised
in the way in which the earlier stages are handled. At times the material is
passed on, complete with all of its original historical particularity. At other
times the canonical process selects, rearranges, or expands the received traditions.
The purpose of insisting on the authority of the final form is to preserve the
canon's role of providing this critical norm. To work with the final stage of the
text is not to lose the historical dimension, but rather it is to provide a critical
theological judgment regarding the process. A reconstructed depth dimension
may aid in understanding the interpreted text, but it does not possess an inde-
dependent integrity for the exegetical task within the context of the canon.
Then again, the final form of the text performs a crucial hermeneutical func-
tion in establishing the peculiar profile of a passage. Its shaping establishes an
order in highlighting certain features and subordinating others, in drawing
elements to the foreground, and in pushing others to the background. To work
with the final form is to resist any method which seeks critically to shift the
canonical ordering. Such an exegetical move occurs when an overarching cate-
gory such as Heilsgeschickte subordinates the unique canonical profile, or when
an historical or rhetorical reconstruction attempts to refocus the picture accord-
ing to its own standards of historical accuracy or literary aesthetics.
The canonical process was not simply an external valorization of successive
stages of literary development, but was an integral part of the literary process.
Beginning in the preexilic era, and increasing in significance in the postexilic
era, a canonical force was unleashed by Israel's religious use of her traditions
which resulted in a collecting, selecting, and ordering process. The motivations
behind the canonical process were diverse and seldom discussed in the biblical
material itself. However, a major concern was that a tradition from the past be
transmitted in such a way that its authoritative claim was laid upon all future
generations of Israel.
It is an axiom of many redactional critics that the layering within a biblical
48
5. The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
Interpretation
book derives from a desire to "update" an original tradition. While this descrip-
tion occasionally applies, the canonical approach to the Old Testament offers
a very different model of interpreting the growth of multi-layered texts. The
major issue turns on how one understands the process by which a biblical text is
actualized. It is constitutive of the canonical process that texts have been shaped
to provide the community of faith with guidelines for its appropriation. The
hermeneutical task of actualizing past traditions for each successive generation
lies at the heart of the process. Theological reflection on its actualization has
been built into the structure of the canonical text. The modern hermeneutical
impasse has arisen in large measure by disregarding the canonical shaping. The
usual critical methodology of restoring an original historical setting often in-
volves stripping away the very elements which constitute the canonical shape.
Little wonder that once the text has been anchored in the historical past by
"decanonizing" it, the interpreter has difficulty applying it to a modern religious
context !
T H E CANONICAL SHAPING OF THE PROPHETS
The effect of the canonical shaping of the prophetic literature reveals an enor-
mous variety in the manner by which the traditions were rendered as Sacred
Scripture. A few examples from the canonical process can be briefly sketched:
1 ) An original prophetic message was expanded by being placed in a larger
theological context. The Book of Amos provides a classic example of this fre-
quent canonical move. An important problem within the Book of Amos turns
on how to interpret the sudden shift from a message of total judgment of Israel
to one of promise for Israel in chapter 9. Often the shift in tone has been under-
stood as an attempt to soften Amos' harsh message by a later generation who
was either offended at the severity or who tried to make room for the later
restoration of Judah. However, the editors of chapter 9 did not soften Amos'
message of total judgment against sinful Israel by allowing a remnant to escape.
The destruction is fully confirmed (9:9-11). Rather, the tradents effected a
canonical shaping by placing Amos' words in a broader, eschatological frame-
work which transcended the historical perspective of the prophet. From God's
perspective there is a hope beyond the destruction seen by Amos. The effect of
chapter 9 is both to confirm the truth of Amos' original prophecy and to en-
compass it within the larger theological perspective of divine will which includes
hope and final redemption. To distinguish between genuine and non-genuine
oracles is to run in the face of the canon's intent.
2) The shaping process changed the level on which the original prophecy func-
tioned in order to afford the witness a new metaphorical role. The original
49
6. message of Hosea was directed to the inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom in
the mid-eighth century. The prophet's word constituted a sustained attack on
Israel's syncretistic religious worship which had changed the worship of Yahweh
into a fertility cult. Hosea appropriated the language of his opponents to claim
all the areas of fertility, land, and kinship for Yahweh, Israel's faithful lover.
The sign acts of chapter 1 functioned as a history-creating act of divine judgment
which actualized the threat in the giving of names of judgment. But in its col-
lected form the original material has been arranged to reflect an important her-
meneutical shift in the function of Hosea's witness. The prophet's realistic lan-
guage is now understood metaphorically. Regardless of the prehistory behind the
sign acts in chapters 1 and 3, the present shape of these chapters has given the
material a symbolic interpretation. It is quite impossible to reconstruct a history
of Hosea's marriage from these two chapters. Rather, the intent that the sign
acts be understood metaphorically is made explicit in both chapters 1 and 3 (cf.
1:2, 4f., 6f., 9; 3:1, 4, 5). Moreover, the placing of chapter 2 as an extended
metaphor in between these two chapters provides the editor's symbolic key for
interpreting them.
3) A collection of prophetic material has been detached from its original his-
torical moorings and subordinated to a new theological context. The classic
example of this canonical move is so-called "Second-Isaiah." Critical scholarship
has made out a convincing case for dating chapters 40—55 (some scholars in-
clude the remaining chapters of the book as well ) to the period of the Babylonian
exile. Yet in their present canonical position these chapters have been consciously
loosened from their original setting and placed within the context of the eighth
century prophet, Isaiah of Jerusalem. Moreover, the original historical back-
ground of the exilic prophet has been drained of its historical particularity—
Cyrus has become a theological construct almost indistinguishable from Abraham
(cf. Rissane)—and the prophetic message has been rendered suitable for use by
later generations by transmitting it as a purely eschatological word.
4) A body of prophetic tradition has been edited in the light of a larger body
of canonical literature. From the perspective of literary criticism, the message of
Jeremiah has been cloaked in the later prosaic language of the Deuteronomic
school. But from a canonical perspective, Jeremiah's words have been preserved
in conjunction with a commentary which sought to understand his ministry as
part of a chain of divine messengers who were loyal to the law of Moses and
who warned of Jerusalem's coming destruction. Thus, the ordering of Jeremiah's
message within the tradition of the preachers of the law provides the later com-
munity with a prophetic interpretation of how the law properly functions within
the divine economy.
50
7. The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
Interpretation
Closely allied with this move is the dovetailing of traditions from the oracles
of Isaiah and Micah (Cf. Isa. 2:1-4 and Micah 4:1-4). From an historical
perspective one could argue for a common circle of tradents who transmitted
both sets of tradition. But from a canonical perspective the effect of the process
is to provide each prophetic book with a commentary in the light of which a
mutual enrichment is to be drawn.
5) By means of a radical theocentric focus in the ordering of a book, the
original historical sequence of a prophet's message was subordinated to a new
theological function. The Book of Nahum is introduced by a hymn; the Book
of Habakkuk concludes with one. But the effect on the material is similar. This
shaping process did not require a de-historicizing of the original oracles. Rather,
the material was left virtually untouched, yet a new role was assigned the oracles :
They now function as a dramatic illustration of the eschatological triumph of
God—whose divine nature is celebrated in a hymn—over his adversaries. In
Nahum the destruction of the enemy is explicitly derived from the nature of
God—a "jealous God," "avenging and wrathful," "keeping wrath for the
enemy"—who claims dominion over the entire world. The threat against Nine-
vah does not stem from the personal hatred of a Hebrew prophet against Assyria,
nor is it evoked by some particular historical event of the seventh century.
Rather, the biblical tradents use the initial psalm, even shattering its earlier
acrostic form, to establish the true theological context for understanding the
prophecy. Ninevah has become a type of a larger recurring phenomenon in
history against which God exercises his eternal power and judgment.
The prophecy of Ezekiel has continued to baffle its readers. The book appears
to lack the sharp contours of a definite geographical locality with a concrete
group of hearers. The prophet oscillates back and forth between Babylon and
Jerusalem. The traditional forms of prophetic oral speech are largely missing;
but the book abounds in allegory, sign acts, and visions. Surely the canonical key
to understanding this unusual book lies in the radical theocentric perspective of
the prophet which has deeply affected its final literary shape. Thus even when
his oracles are fixed within a chronological framework, these temporal moorings
are immediately transcended when the prophet testifies to the plan of God in
terms freed from any such human limitations. Similarly the spatial distinction
between Babylon and Jerusalem is completely relativized whenever the people of
God are viewed from the divine perspective as one entity.
6) The original prophetic message was placed within a rule-of-faith which pro-
vided the material with an interpretative guideline. It is generally recognized by
critical scholarship that two appendices have been fixed to the conclusion of the
Book of Malachi. To dismiss these verses as a "legalistic corrective" stemming
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8. from some disgruntled priestly editor is to misunderstand the canonical process
utterly. Rather, the first appendix reminds the whole nation that it still stands
under the tradition of Moses. The imperative to "remember the law of my
servant Moses" does not weaken Malachi's attack on the nation's sins, but it sets
a check against any misuse of the prophet's words which would call into question
national solidarity in the name of additional requirements for the pious. The
canonical effect of the first appendix to Malachi testifies that the law and the
prophets are not to be heard as rivals but as an essential unity within the one
divine purpose. The effect of the second appendix (4:5-6) is to balance the
memory of the past with the anticipation of the future.
In a similar way, the ending on the Book of Ecclesiastes is another example
of a rule-of-faith which would also order a wisdom book from a perspective
informed by God's commandments (12:13) and the coming judgment (v. 14).
7) Oracles which originally functioned in a variety of historical settings have
been arranged into set patterns which serve a new typological role in relation
to the coming rule of God. The clearest examples of a patterning schema are
the alternative blocks of oracles of judgment and salvation in the Books of Isaiah
(compare 1:1-31; 2:6-22; 3:1-26, with 2:1-5; 4:2-6) and Micah (cf. chaps.
1, 2, 6 with 2:12f.; 4 and 5). The effect of this move is that a typological se-
quence subordinates the original historical one and refocuses the material on the
dominant theological purposes undergirding all prophetic proclamation.
8 ) Prophetic symbolism has been given a radical new eschatological interpreta-
tion by shifting the referent within the original oracles. Scholars have long recog-
nized that the visions in Zechariah 1-6 appear once to have functioned inde-
pendently of each other and to have been addressed to particular historical
situations both preceding and following the return from the exile (cf. Galling).
But the tension between the original visions and their present framework points
to an intentional theological shaping. The prophetic visions of Zechariah are
now set in the second year of Darius, that is to say, some twenty years after the
return from Babylon. The deliverance from the exile now lies in the past.
Although the traditional language of the second exodus from slavery has been
retained, it has been given a new reference. The language of hope now points
to a still future event in which Israel's redemption lies. The original focus has
been eschatologized and projected once more into the future. The community
of faith which lives after the return still anticipates the future in the language
of the past. Israel will still "flee from the land of the north," "escape to Zion,"
and God will dwell in her midst ( 3 : 6ff. ).
The Book of Joel offers another example of a radical eschatologizing of an
original oracle (chaps. 1—2) which had only faintly adumbrated the full di-
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9. The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
Interpretation
mension of the End in the locust plague, but Israel learned to understand it as
the prelude to the Day of Yahweh when God would hold the final assize
(chap. 3).
To summarize, these examples of canonical shaping of the prophetic literature
in the history of ordering Israel's tradition as Scripture do not begin to exhaust
the richness of Old Testament interpretation, but at least they give a hint of the
creative dimension involved in the collecting process.
THEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE CANONICAL SHAPING
1 ) The task of Old Testament exegesis is the interpretation of the canonical text
as it has been shaped in the history of Israel's experience with God. The prophetic
books show many signs of a growth in their composition and different layers are
often discernible. But the tradents of the tradition have sought to hide their own
footprints in order to focus attention on the canonical text itself and not on the
process. The content of the prophets' message is first and foremost a theocentric
word. Concern with Israel's own identity is always secondary and derivative
from a prior understanding of God.
2) Since the Reformation period there has been a tendency among Protestants,
especially from the Reformed wing, to deprecate tradition as a threat to the
integrity of the divine word; however, Scripture and tradition belong together.
The active participation of the tradents in transmitting and shaping the biblical
witness in no way calls into question its divine source. Rather, Israel registered
the word of the prophets along with its own reception and saw in both the Spirit
of God at work. To speak of the Bible as canon is to emphasize its function as
the Word of God in the context of the worshiping community of faith. The
canon seeks to preserve the authority of the whole witness and to resist all
attempts to assign varying degrees of theological value to the different layers of
Scripture on the basis of literary or historical judgments.
3 ) To assume that the prophets can be understood only if each oracle is related
to a specific historical event or located in its original cultural milieu is to intro-
duce a major hermeneutical confusion into the discipline and to render an
understanding of the canonical Scriptures virtually impossible.3
Rather, the true
referent of the biblical witness can only be comprehended from within the bibli-
cal literature itself. In the ongoing experience of Israel, as the addressee of God's
judgment and redemption, the divine purpose with his creation is revealed.
3. Hans Frei's critique of a referential reading of the Bible which emerged in the 18th
century and gained hegemony in the 19th marks a major advance in biblical hermeneutics
(cf. The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative [New Haven, Yale University Press, 1974]).
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10. Canon sets the parameters to this unique history which has both a beginning and
an end.
4) Biblical texts are made relevant to today's community of faith and to the
world, not by first decanonizing them in a claim of establishing an original
setting, but by faithfully hearing the intent of the literature which has already
been shaped to confront its hearers with the divine imperative. Canon serves as
a guarantee that the biblical material has not been collected for antiquarian
reasons, but as an eternal Word of God laying claim on each new generation.
5 ) Any attempt to write a theology of the prophets which disregards the canoni-
cal shaping, whether in a search for the prophets' verba ipsissima or in a pursuit
after prophetic self-understanding, can only end up with a formulation which
has little to do with the prophets of the Old Testament. Thus even if it were
possible to reconstruct an original Amos, the portrayal would have little in
common with the prophetic message which both the synagogue and church
heard from his book.
6) Much of the problem of understanding the New Testament's use of the Old
Testament prophets lies in the failure to take seriously the canonical perspective
held in common by both Jews and Christians of the first century. Thus, the New
Testament understands "Second-Isaiah's" message eschatologically as the procla-
mation of the immanent fulfillment of the promised new age. It interprets Joel's
visions in the radical eschatological terms of the kingdom. It hears Hosea's
promise of a divine reconciliation in which God restores to himself a new people.
It is quite impossible to read the Old Testament prophets through the eyes of
Duhm and Hölscher and yet understand what the New Testament is hearing in
the Old!
7 ) A final word is in order regarding the effect of canon on the larger exegetical
enterprise of interpreting the Old Testament. The approach which I am advo-
cating has been described by others as "canonical criticism." 4
I am not happy
with this term because it implies that the concern with canon is viewed as
another historical-critical technique which can take its place alongside of source
criticism, form criticism, rhetorical criticism, and the like. I do not envision the
approach to canon in this light. Rather, the issue at stake in canon turns on
establishing a stance from which the Bible is to be read as Sacred Scripture.
The concern with canon plays both a negative and a positive role in delineat-
ing the scope of biblical exegesis. On the one hand, its negative role consists in
relativizing the priority claims of the historical-critical method. It strongly
4. To my knowledge the term first appeared in J. A. Sanders' Torah and Canon (Phila-
delphia, Fortress Press, 1972).
54
11. The Canonical Shape of the Prophetic Literature
Interpretation
resists the assumption that every biblical text must first be filtered through an
established historical-critical mesh before one can even start the task of interpre-
tation. On the other hand, its positive role seeks to challenge the interpreter to
look closely at the text in its received form, and then critically to discern its
function for a community of faith. Attention to canon establishes certain bounda-
ries within which the tradition was placed. The canonical shaping serves not so
much to fix a given meaning to a particular passage as to chart the arena in
which the exegetical task is to be carried out. Attention to canon is not the end
but only the beginning of exegesis. It prepares the stage for the real performance
by clearing away unnecessary distractions and directing the audience's attention
to the main show which is about to be experienced.
In one sense the canonical approach sets limits to the exegetical task by taking
seriously the traditional parameters. In another sense the method seeks aggres-
sively to liberate the interpreter. By insisting on viewing the exegetical task as
constructive as well as descriptive, the interpreter is forced to confront the
authoritative text of Scripture in an ongoing theological reflection. By placing
the canonical text within the context of the community of faith, a variety of
different exegetical models, such as the liturgical or dramatic, are freed to
engage the text. In sum, the canon establishes a platform from which exegesis
is launched rather than a barrier by which creative theological struggle is cut off.
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