This document is a research paper submitted by Zuhong Wu to Professor Raymond Aldred for a graduate course on Christianity and Culture at the Canadian Theological Seminary. The paper aims to develop a systematic theology of Chinese culture by analyzing Chinese mythology and relating theological themes found therein to Confucianism and Taoism. The summary analyzes the paper's methodology and key insights drawn from its examination of Chinese creation myths involving Pangu and Nuwa, as well as the fall and restoration of the universe. Confucian concepts of the gentleman and the virtue of ren are also briefly discussed.
This views the text as a window, a source of information about the author, the addressees and the world in which they lives including but is not limited to the social, ecological, cultural background that gave rise to the text. The world of the author is known to be the world behind the text. There are various ways to determine how the world of the author influences and shapes the message of the Bible. This includes different Biblical Criticism
The study of the literary forms and genre of the different pericope in the Bible plays a very significant role in Biblical interpretation. This study allows the people to recognize that there are many types of literature. The authors always choose a vehicle through which they send a message to the readers. By there choice of genre, the authors are able to signal the readers how to take the message they want to convey.
This document discusses the influence of Confucian and Neo-Confucian thought on the Divine Principle. Some key points:
- The Divine Principle references yin and yang and traces the unfolding of the cosmos through their interaction, reflecting Neo-Confucian philosophy.
- God is represented as having both male and female characteristics, reflecting yin and yang polarity found in all things.
- Concepts like the "unmanifest" and "manifest" draw from Neo-Confucian diagrams and debates on the nature of the ultimate source.
- Regular study gatherings in the Unification tradition (hoondokhwae) reflect the Neo-Confucian practice
This document discusses the formation of the Christian canon and diversity in early Christianity. It describes four major Christian groups in the 2nd century: Jewish-Christian Adoptionists, who believed Jesus was adopted by God; Marcionite Christians, who followed Marcion and believed the God of the Jews was different from the God preached by Jesus; Gnostic Christians, who had diverse beliefs but many thought Jesus had two distinct beings; and Proto-Orthodox Christians, who believed Jesus was both fully divine and human. It then outlines major developments from the 1st-3rd centuries that led to the establishment of the New Testament canon, including writings of early Church fathers and Marcion proposing an exclusive canon that prompted Orthodox Christians to define
Christology In The Letters Of St. PaulMaidaLibrary
This document summarizes and compares the work of three leading exegetes - Aletti, Schnelle, and Fee - on Pauline Christology. All three scholars divide their work into two main parts. Aletti examines the "theologization of Christology" and the "christologization of theology." Schnelle and Fee both emphasize the importance of the titles "Christ," "Lord," and "Son of God" in Paul's writings. Overall, the exegetes agree on the major aspects of Paul's understanding of Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God, though each scholar explores some nuanced differences.
The document provides an introduction to scripture, explaining that scripture is the living word of God and essential for Christians to know Christ. It discusses that scripture developed over time from oral traditions to written texts and was eventually canonized. The Bible contains both the Old and New Testaments and is made up of different literary genres. While written through human authors, scripture is divinely inspired, and the Catholic Church teaches that it is inerrant in matters of faith and morals.
Historical evidence for the authenticity of the BibleSarah Salviander
Evidence is presented to support the New Testament as a reliable record of the ministry of Jesus and of the early Christian church. The means by which the New Testament has been preserved are also examined. Presentation by John Darms.
This vol
ume undertakes to give these sayings of Jesus in
their original forms. These doubtless vary in some
respects from Jesus exact sayings, but not in any
very important degree. It has been impracticable
in most cases to give the evidence for these originals
without making the volume too technical, and so de
feating the purpose I have in view, to set forth plainly
the ethical Teaching of Jesus.
This views the text as a window, a source of information about the author, the addressees and the world in which they lives including but is not limited to the social, ecological, cultural background that gave rise to the text. The world of the author is known to be the world behind the text. There are various ways to determine how the world of the author influences and shapes the message of the Bible. This includes different Biblical Criticism
The study of the literary forms and genre of the different pericope in the Bible plays a very significant role in Biblical interpretation. This study allows the people to recognize that there are many types of literature. The authors always choose a vehicle through which they send a message to the readers. By there choice of genre, the authors are able to signal the readers how to take the message they want to convey.
This document discusses the influence of Confucian and Neo-Confucian thought on the Divine Principle. Some key points:
- The Divine Principle references yin and yang and traces the unfolding of the cosmos through their interaction, reflecting Neo-Confucian philosophy.
- God is represented as having both male and female characteristics, reflecting yin and yang polarity found in all things.
- Concepts like the "unmanifest" and "manifest" draw from Neo-Confucian diagrams and debates on the nature of the ultimate source.
- Regular study gatherings in the Unification tradition (hoondokhwae) reflect the Neo-Confucian practice
This document discusses the formation of the Christian canon and diversity in early Christianity. It describes four major Christian groups in the 2nd century: Jewish-Christian Adoptionists, who believed Jesus was adopted by God; Marcionite Christians, who followed Marcion and believed the God of the Jews was different from the God preached by Jesus; Gnostic Christians, who had diverse beliefs but many thought Jesus had two distinct beings; and Proto-Orthodox Christians, who believed Jesus was both fully divine and human. It then outlines major developments from the 1st-3rd centuries that led to the establishment of the New Testament canon, including writings of early Church fathers and Marcion proposing an exclusive canon that prompted Orthodox Christians to define
Christology In The Letters Of St. PaulMaidaLibrary
This document summarizes and compares the work of three leading exegetes - Aletti, Schnelle, and Fee - on Pauline Christology. All three scholars divide their work into two main parts. Aletti examines the "theologization of Christology" and the "christologization of theology." Schnelle and Fee both emphasize the importance of the titles "Christ," "Lord," and "Son of God" in Paul's writings. Overall, the exegetes agree on the major aspects of Paul's understanding of Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God, though each scholar explores some nuanced differences.
The document provides an introduction to scripture, explaining that scripture is the living word of God and essential for Christians to know Christ. It discusses that scripture developed over time from oral traditions to written texts and was eventually canonized. The Bible contains both the Old and New Testaments and is made up of different literary genres. While written through human authors, scripture is divinely inspired, and the Catholic Church teaches that it is inerrant in matters of faith and morals.
Historical evidence for the authenticity of the BibleSarah Salviander
Evidence is presented to support the New Testament as a reliable record of the ministry of Jesus and of the early Christian church. The means by which the New Testament has been preserved are also examined. Presentation by John Darms.
This vol
ume undertakes to give these sayings of Jesus in
their original forms. These doubtless vary in some
respects from Jesus exact sayings, but not in any
very important degree. It has been impracticable
in most cases to give the evidence for these originals
without making the volume too technical, and so de
feating the purpose I have in view, to set forth plainly
the ethical Teaching of Jesus.
Catholic and protestant practices split-denominationsJesse Bluma
The Catholic Church structure was hierarchical like a monarchy, with the Pope having the greatest authority over bishops, priests, and laypeople. The Protestant structure was more decentralized, with authority distributed among church members, elders, and ministers. Both Catholic and Protestant church structures were influenced by contemporary European power structures of monarchies and emerging republican forms of government. Protestants helped replace absolute monarchy in places like England with more democratic and representative systems. These Protestant ideals of liberty, equality, and representative government later influenced the founding of the American republic.
The document discusses biblical interpretation and the Apocrypha. It provides details on identifying different literary types such as poetry, prophecy, parables and allegories. It also discusses reasons why the Apocrypha is not considered inspired scripture, such as it was written after prophecy ceased, contains historical inaccuracies and doctrines not found in the Bible, and was rejected by Jews and early Christians as not being part of the canon.
[Jacob neusner and_bruce_chilton]_the_intellectual(book_fi.org)Tolotang Tau
This document analyzes how early Christian and Jewish thinkers adopted Greek philosophical modes of thought and argumentation. It argues that from their earliest writings, figures like Paul and rabbinic sages structured their works around articulating contradictory positions and using reasoned arguments to validate one view over others. This approach established the Western traditions of religious intellectual thought and science. The document examines how Christian theologians and Jewish sages appropriated alien Greek philosophical logic and shaped their religions' foundational texts around explicit disputes and rigorous debate from the very beginning.
Naturalistic World view, Modern Biblical Interpretation, De-mythologizing the text, higher criticism, Critical Literary Theory, Case study: Sharon Brous," Awakening the Scream", Ikar. Modern Messianic Biblical Interpretation, Case Study: Jonathan Bernis, "The Lost Tribes".
Bibliology and Hermeneutics (Session 4)Bong Baylon
The document discusses the canonization of scripture, specifically addressing questions about how we know which books belong in the Bible. It outlines several facts and fables regarding how canonicity is determined. The key facts are that prophetic nature, apostolic authority, and God alone determine canonicity. It also discusses the process of canonization for both the Old and New Testaments, highlighting the recognition of the canon by the early church rather than any formal decree.
En the trinity_is_not_a_biblical_beliefLoveofpeople
The Trinity is not explicitly mentioned in the Bible and was not a doctrine that Jesus or his followers preached. It was a doctrine that developed gradually over centuries through theological debates and controversies. Major Christian references acknowledge that the Trinity as it is understood today was not a part of early Christian teachings and was not fully formulated until the 4th century. The doctrine of the Trinity was established at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE under Roman Emperor Constantine, rather than being derived directly from the Bible or teachings of Jesus.
The document discusses the Gutenberg Bible of the New York Public Library, which was bought by James Lenox in 1847. It was the first Gutenberg Bible to come to the United States, and according to national folklore, the officers at the New York Customs House removed their hats upon seeing it due to its importance.
This document discusses different views of how Jesus could be both fully God and fully human. It describes the Alexandrian and Antiochene views debated in the early church. The Council of Chalcedon affirmed Jesus had two complete natures, human and divine, in one person. Later debates discussed whether Jesus's divine attributes were limited or communicated to his humanity. The document proposes a model where the Logos was Jesus's rational soul and divine aspects were subliminal during his earthly life. It aims to show the Incarnation doctrine can be coherent.
In order to understand the story of Scripture and read the world from the Bible’s perspective, we must “play the game” on the Bible’s field and follow the Bible’s
rules.
Instead of a pagan view of time and eternity (primarily based on Plato and Greek philosophy), the Bible presents time linearly. A simple timeline can be used to describe redemptive history in a two-age manner (“this age” and “the age to come”), separated by a climactic day called the Day of the LORD.
The document provides an overview of the course "The New Testament" taught by Professor Bart D. Ehrman. The course examines the 27 books of the New Testament from a historical perspective through 24 lectures combining biblical scholarship, archaeology, and literary analysis. It explores questions about the factual accuracy of stories of Jesus's life, the compilation and editing of the New Testament, and contradictory portrayals of Jesus. The course aims to place Jesus in his historical context and investigate the authenticity of biblical accounts versus forgeries.
This document provides the course description, objectives, requirements and schedule for HT 501: Early Christian History taught by Steven J. Beardsley in June 2013. The course is an introduction to the establishment and development of Christianity from its origins to 451CE, paying attention to trends, personalities and events. Primary sources and secondary texts will be used. Requirements include online discussion, two papers on primary sources, a timeline chart and a take-home final exam. The course will meet Monday through Wednesday for lectures and discussion.
God save me! The North American Christian FundamentalismYury Fontão
The work was presented in a discipline in the course of
International Relations, aiming to demonstrate the main thinkers and theological currents that underlie Christian Fundamentalism in the United States of America.
I hope you like it, good reading everyone!
This document provides an overview of key terms related to the interpretation of Sacred Scripture according to Catholic teaching. It defines and explains concepts like divine economy, typology, mystagogy, the senses of Scripture, exegesis, hermeneutics, and tradition. Divine economy refers to God's plan governing all of creation and salvation history. Typology sees prefigurations of Christ and the New Covenant in the people and events of the Old Testament. Mystagogy explains the mystery contained within Scripture and liturgy. Exegesis and hermeneutics are the interpretation and study of interpretive methods for Scripture. Tradition encompasses Revelation, Church councils, liturgy, and the life of the
Santeria originated in Cuba as a combination of the Yoruba religion of West African slaves and Catholicism under Spanish rule. It has around 10 million adherents in the Americas, including 50,000 in South Florida. Santeria believers worship orichas (deities) through offerings and ancestor veneration, relying on oral tradition rather than holy texts. Key practices include religious initiation, divination, healing, and funeral rites performed mostly in homes. While Santeria affirms an all-powerful creator god, Christianity differs in relying solely on Christ for salvation and healing.
The document discusses medieval and Renaissance philosophy. It provides questions about key philosophers and their ideas during these time periods. Some of the philosophers and concepts mentioned include Augustine of Hippo, Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, the geocentric model of the universe, the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus, and Galileo Galilei's legend of uttering "And yet it moves" after recanting his theory.
This document provides an introduction and table of contents to the book "Ten Great Religions" by James Freeman Clarke. It outlines the objective of comparing the major world religions to understand their key characteristics, origins, truths and errors. Such comparative theology can furnish new evidence for Christianity by showing that it is adapted to all races, in contrast to ethnic religions that are partial. It also demonstrates that Christianity is progressively developing, while ethnic religions are arrested. The book aims to conduct this comparative analysis of Christianity and religions like Confucianism, Brahmanism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Scandinavian, Jewish and Islamic faiths.
The document discusses key concepts in Buddhism including the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and Nirvana. It provides details on the life of Buddha and compares some Buddhist teachings to concepts in Unificationism such as the emphasis on family salvation rather than individual salvation and the belief in multiple saviors rather than just Buddha. The document also discusses Zen Buddhism and provides instructions for practicing Zen meditation and applying it to daily activities.
This document discusses several apocryphal texts including the Life of Adam and Eve, Assumption of Moses, Protevangelium of James, and Gospel of Thomas. It provides overview information and sample passages from each text. The Life of Adam and Eve and Assumption of Moses were written between 100 BC-100 AD and contain details not found in the biblical accounts. The Protevangelium of James from the 2nd century AD expands on Mary and Joseph's story. The Gospel of Thomas reflects Greek influence and may draw from the canonical gospels.
La resolución establece las obligaciones y requisitos mínimos para realizar la investigación de incidentes y accidentes de trabajo. Define los términos clave e identifica los responsables de llevar a cabo las investigaciones y establecer medidas correctivas. Establece que los empleadores deben conformar un equipo investigador y utilizar una metodología estandarizada para investigar todos los incidentes y accidentes dentro de los 15 días posteriores. También define los elementos mínimos que debe contener el informe de investigación.
This document discusses the importance of teaching culture when teaching language. It argues that language teachers should teach the culture of the target language speakers. It presents John Austin's Speech Acts theory which examines moments of communication where statements have a function based on context. Several situations are provided that contrast how speech acts like complaints, requests, and invitations differ across cultures like American vs Egyptian, American vs Korean, American vs Spanish, and business negotiations across cultures. It warns against cultural imperialism and advocates respecting cultural differences rather than imposing one's own cultural norms.
Catholic and protestant practices split-denominationsJesse Bluma
The Catholic Church structure was hierarchical like a monarchy, with the Pope having the greatest authority over bishops, priests, and laypeople. The Protestant structure was more decentralized, with authority distributed among church members, elders, and ministers. Both Catholic and Protestant church structures were influenced by contemporary European power structures of monarchies and emerging republican forms of government. Protestants helped replace absolute monarchy in places like England with more democratic and representative systems. These Protestant ideals of liberty, equality, and representative government later influenced the founding of the American republic.
The document discusses biblical interpretation and the Apocrypha. It provides details on identifying different literary types such as poetry, prophecy, parables and allegories. It also discusses reasons why the Apocrypha is not considered inspired scripture, such as it was written after prophecy ceased, contains historical inaccuracies and doctrines not found in the Bible, and was rejected by Jews and early Christians as not being part of the canon.
[Jacob neusner and_bruce_chilton]_the_intellectual(book_fi.org)Tolotang Tau
This document analyzes how early Christian and Jewish thinkers adopted Greek philosophical modes of thought and argumentation. It argues that from their earliest writings, figures like Paul and rabbinic sages structured their works around articulating contradictory positions and using reasoned arguments to validate one view over others. This approach established the Western traditions of religious intellectual thought and science. The document examines how Christian theologians and Jewish sages appropriated alien Greek philosophical logic and shaped their religions' foundational texts around explicit disputes and rigorous debate from the very beginning.
Naturalistic World view, Modern Biblical Interpretation, De-mythologizing the text, higher criticism, Critical Literary Theory, Case study: Sharon Brous," Awakening the Scream", Ikar. Modern Messianic Biblical Interpretation, Case Study: Jonathan Bernis, "The Lost Tribes".
Bibliology and Hermeneutics (Session 4)Bong Baylon
The document discusses the canonization of scripture, specifically addressing questions about how we know which books belong in the Bible. It outlines several facts and fables regarding how canonicity is determined. The key facts are that prophetic nature, apostolic authority, and God alone determine canonicity. It also discusses the process of canonization for both the Old and New Testaments, highlighting the recognition of the canon by the early church rather than any formal decree.
En the trinity_is_not_a_biblical_beliefLoveofpeople
The Trinity is not explicitly mentioned in the Bible and was not a doctrine that Jesus or his followers preached. It was a doctrine that developed gradually over centuries through theological debates and controversies. Major Christian references acknowledge that the Trinity as it is understood today was not a part of early Christian teachings and was not fully formulated until the 4th century. The doctrine of the Trinity was established at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE under Roman Emperor Constantine, rather than being derived directly from the Bible or teachings of Jesus.
The document discusses the Gutenberg Bible of the New York Public Library, which was bought by James Lenox in 1847. It was the first Gutenberg Bible to come to the United States, and according to national folklore, the officers at the New York Customs House removed their hats upon seeing it due to its importance.
This document discusses different views of how Jesus could be both fully God and fully human. It describes the Alexandrian and Antiochene views debated in the early church. The Council of Chalcedon affirmed Jesus had two complete natures, human and divine, in one person. Later debates discussed whether Jesus's divine attributes were limited or communicated to his humanity. The document proposes a model where the Logos was Jesus's rational soul and divine aspects were subliminal during his earthly life. It aims to show the Incarnation doctrine can be coherent.
In order to understand the story of Scripture and read the world from the Bible’s perspective, we must “play the game” on the Bible’s field and follow the Bible’s
rules.
Instead of a pagan view of time and eternity (primarily based on Plato and Greek philosophy), the Bible presents time linearly. A simple timeline can be used to describe redemptive history in a two-age manner (“this age” and “the age to come”), separated by a climactic day called the Day of the LORD.
The document provides an overview of the course "The New Testament" taught by Professor Bart D. Ehrman. The course examines the 27 books of the New Testament from a historical perspective through 24 lectures combining biblical scholarship, archaeology, and literary analysis. It explores questions about the factual accuracy of stories of Jesus's life, the compilation and editing of the New Testament, and contradictory portrayals of Jesus. The course aims to place Jesus in his historical context and investigate the authenticity of biblical accounts versus forgeries.
This document provides the course description, objectives, requirements and schedule for HT 501: Early Christian History taught by Steven J. Beardsley in June 2013. The course is an introduction to the establishment and development of Christianity from its origins to 451CE, paying attention to trends, personalities and events. Primary sources and secondary texts will be used. Requirements include online discussion, two papers on primary sources, a timeline chart and a take-home final exam. The course will meet Monday through Wednesday for lectures and discussion.
God save me! The North American Christian FundamentalismYury Fontão
The work was presented in a discipline in the course of
International Relations, aiming to demonstrate the main thinkers and theological currents that underlie Christian Fundamentalism in the United States of America.
I hope you like it, good reading everyone!
This document provides an overview of key terms related to the interpretation of Sacred Scripture according to Catholic teaching. It defines and explains concepts like divine economy, typology, mystagogy, the senses of Scripture, exegesis, hermeneutics, and tradition. Divine economy refers to God's plan governing all of creation and salvation history. Typology sees prefigurations of Christ and the New Covenant in the people and events of the Old Testament. Mystagogy explains the mystery contained within Scripture and liturgy. Exegesis and hermeneutics are the interpretation and study of interpretive methods for Scripture. Tradition encompasses Revelation, Church councils, liturgy, and the life of the
Santeria originated in Cuba as a combination of the Yoruba religion of West African slaves and Catholicism under Spanish rule. It has around 10 million adherents in the Americas, including 50,000 in South Florida. Santeria believers worship orichas (deities) through offerings and ancestor veneration, relying on oral tradition rather than holy texts. Key practices include religious initiation, divination, healing, and funeral rites performed mostly in homes. While Santeria affirms an all-powerful creator god, Christianity differs in relying solely on Christ for salvation and healing.
The document discusses medieval and Renaissance philosophy. It provides questions about key philosophers and their ideas during these time periods. Some of the philosophers and concepts mentioned include Augustine of Hippo, Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, the geocentric model of the universe, the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus, and Galileo Galilei's legend of uttering "And yet it moves" after recanting his theory.
This document provides an introduction and table of contents to the book "Ten Great Religions" by James Freeman Clarke. It outlines the objective of comparing the major world religions to understand their key characteristics, origins, truths and errors. Such comparative theology can furnish new evidence for Christianity by showing that it is adapted to all races, in contrast to ethnic religions that are partial. It also demonstrates that Christianity is progressively developing, while ethnic religions are arrested. The book aims to conduct this comparative analysis of Christianity and religions like Confucianism, Brahmanism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Scandinavian, Jewish and Islamic faiths.
The document discusses key concepts in Buddhism including the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and Nirvana. It provides details on the life of Buddha and compares some Buddhist teachings to concepts in Unificationism such as the emphasis on family salvation rather than individual salvation and the belief in multiple saviors rather than just Buddha. The document also discusses Zen Buddhism and provides instructions for practicing Zen meditation and applying it to daily activities.
This document discusses several apocryphal texts including the Life of Adam and Eve, Assumption of Moses, Protevangelium of James, and Gospel of Thomas. It provides overview information and sample passages from each text. The Life of Adam and Eve and Assumption of Moses were written between 100 BC-100 AD and contain details not found in the biblical accounts. The Protevangelium of James from the 2nd century AD expands on Mary and Joseph's story. The Gospel of Thomas reflects Greek influence and may draw from the canonical gospels.
La resolución establece las obligaciones y requisitos mínimos para realizar la investigación de incidentes y accidentes de trabajo. Define los términos clave e identifica los responsables de llevar a cabo las investigaciones y establecer medidas correctivas. Establece que los empleadores deben conformar un equipo investigador y utilizar una metodología estandarizada para investigar todos los incidentes y accidentes dentro de los 15 días posteriores. También define los elementos mínimos que debe contener el informe de investigación.
This document discusses the importance of teaching culture when teaching language. It argues that language teachers should teach the culture of the target language speakers. It presents John Austin's Speech Acts theory which examines moments of communication where statements have a function based on context. Several situations are provided that contrast how speech acts like complaints, requests, and invitations differ across cultures like American vs Egyptian, American vs Korean, American vs Spanish, and business negotiations across cultures. It warns against cultural imperialism and advocates respecting cultural differences rather than imposing one's own cultural norms.
This document provides information about writing a research paper, including:
- Research papers are academic works that are typically 20-25 pages and require collecting and analyzing information from multiple sources.
- The structure of a research paper includes distinct sections like an introduction, main body, conclusion, and bibliography.
- Writing a research paper is a multi-step process that involves selecting a topic, researching the topic, outlining the paper, and drafting and revising the final paper.
- Choosing a good research topic is important, and topics should be narrowly focused yet interesting and allow the writer to find sufficient information to research thoroughly.
American Sign Language (ASL) developed as a language for deaf individuals to communicate. However, the introduction of cochlear implants threatens the future of ASL and deaf culture. The document discusses the history and development of ASL, how it allows deaf individuals to communicate through gestures and facial expressions. It also examines the controversy around cochlear implants, with some seeing them as a medical solution while others in the deaf community view them as a threat to the preservation of ASL and deaf identity.
This document summarizes a research paper on the backlash against the globalization of language. It begins by discussing how globalization has impacted languages worldwide and caused some languages to decline while others have been influenced by foreign tongues. There is now emerging dominance of English as the global lingua franca, especially in science and academia, which some view negatively as "Americanization." Some cultures strongly resist the spread of English to protect their native language and culture. The paper explores this issue through analysis of sources on language endangerment, death, and politics. It argues that language globalization threatens cultural diversity by making languages homogeneous.
Research Paper - Culture and Communication in a World of GlobalizationJennifer Lloyd
(1) Culture shapes how we communicate and express emotions, but with globalization it is important to understand differences in how cultures express emotion to maintain relationships.
(2) Emotions are cognitively constructed and each society develops emotional norms, so emotion expression and management differs across cultures.
(3) People are most accurate at decoding emotions in their own culture; cultures also differ in how they encode and interpret emotional intensity.
This research paper discusses the relationship between organizational culture and employee commitment. It defines culture and business culture. It summarizes a study that found a significant positive relationship between corporate culture and employee commitment. The paper recommends that organizations involve employees in decision making, adapt to change, and enable identification with the organizational mission to increase commitment. It also notes that culture is more important than strategy, as culture determines how effectively a strategy can be executed.
As you see from the title of this presentation there are fifty the most common Research Paper Topics. Fore topics are in this article https://essay-academy.com/account/blog/fifty-research-paper-topics
The document is a research paper about American Sign Language (ASL). It discusses the origins and development of ASL, how it differs from spoken languages, its importance for the deaf community, and its growing popularity. The paper also explores how ASL has been used to communicate with animals and how it helps develop identity and social skills in deaf children.
Four ‘Magic’ Questions that Help Resolve Most Problems - Introduction to The ...Fiona Campbell
Most problems in business are from Values, Beliefs (inside world problems) Strategy, Environment (outside world problems) This presentation give you an introduction and examples of how to use NLP Meta Model questions to quickly identify where a problem lives.
When you know this communication is clearer and problems get solved quicker.
Incorporating “Culture” in psychology research from the indigenous perspective - based on the paper “Indigenous, cultural, and cross-cultural psychology: A theoretical, conceptual, and epistemological analysis” ( Uichol Kim, 2000)
- Reverend Moon was influenced by Confucianism through his early education in Chinese classics like the Analects of Confucius.
- His philosophy shares some similarities with Neo-Confucian concepts like li (principle), yin-yang duality, and the unmanifest/manifest dichotomy.
- Regular study groups in the Unification tradition called "hoondokhwae" resemble the Neo-Confucian practice of mutual investigation and savoring of classical texts in fellowship with others.
THE PLATONIC AND NEOPLATONIC TRADITIONS AND ROOTS OF CHRISTIANITYDr Ian Ellis-Jones
Excerpts from a major thesis written by Dr Ian Ellis-Jones - copyright Ian Ellis-Jones - all rights reserved - for information only - commercial use (except by copyright holder) prohibited
The document discusses the origins of acupuncture, tracing it back over 4,000 years to ancient China and suggesting its roots may be in biblical traditions. It notes that early Chinese characters correlate to stories in Genesis and that ancient Chinese rituals were similar to Jewish sacrificial ceremonies. The document argues that acupuncture was developed by Taoists who worshipped the God of the Bible and predated other Chinese traditions like Confucianism and Buddhism. It aims to show that acupuncture is a natural, scientifically-based healing technique rather than sorcery as some believe, and that integrating it fully could help address rising healthcare costs.
This document outlines various critical methods that have been used to study the Bible historically and academically. It discusses key figures from the 18th century onward who challenged traditional orthodox interpretations and pioneered new historical-critical approaches. Some of the critical methods mentioned include textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, and literary criticism. The document also summarizes the work and perspectives of influential scholars like Semler, Lessing, de Wette, Schleiermacher, Strauss, Bauer, Wrede, Schweitzer, Bultmann, Dibelius, Streeter, and Kasemann who helped develop modern biblical criticism.
This document discusses hagiography, which are writings about saints' lives and martyrdom that were intended to educate readers on virtues and inspire emulation of saints, rather than provide strictly historical accounts. It provides definitions and terminology related to hagiography and the cult of saints. It also discusses how historians in Late Antiquity had different approaches than modern historians, prioritizing edification over chronology and impartiality. The document examines themes commonly found in saints' lives and provides perspectives on hagiography from several scholars including Peter Brown, Averil Cameron, and David Brakke.
The document provides background on Krishnamurti and his connection to the Theosophical Society. It discusses:
- The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, which explored comparative religion and the idea of a universal brotherhood.
- Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater's discovery of Krishnamurti in 1909 and their belief that he would serve as a vehicle for the predicted World Teacher.
- The Order of the Star in the East, formed in 1911 to prepare for the coming of the World Teacher, with Krishnamurti as its head.
This document provides an overview of Genesis, including:
1) Genesis recounts the origins of mankind, sin entering the world, and God's plan to bless nations through Abraham.
2) Scholars debate who wrote Genesis, with tradition and the New Testament attributing it to Moses, though others argue it was compiled later.
3) Criticisms of Mosaic authorship include the documentary hypothesis, which argues Genesis was compiled from sources over centuries, and form criticism, which examines the oral traditions behind the text. However, these theories are problematic and archeological findings support details in Genesis.
A critical analysis of Christian history and the content of the Bible. We do not question God and the Spirit. We question the human made religion. This is a selection of facts and knowledge.
The document summarizes the timeline of Christian education from Jesus Christ in 3 BC to 27 AD, who taught authoritatively and used various teaching methods, to Augustine from 354 to 450 AD, who emphasized God's sovereignty and founded the Augustinian Order of Monks. It discusses several influential early Christian educators like Origen, who wrote one of the earliest Study Bibles, and John Chrysostom, who saw the importance of teaching youth. The Council of Nicea in 325 established doctrines for Christians to believe in, like the Nicene Creed.
This document discusses the Orthodox concept of the nature of Christ according to Pope Shenouda III. It begins by explaining that Christ is both fully God and fully man, with a perfect hypostatic union of the divine and human natures. It then summarizes several heresies regarding the nature of Christ such as Arianism, Apollinarianism, and Nestorianism. The document asserts that the Orthodox view is of the "one nature" of Christ, as taught by St. Cyril, meaning the divine and human natures are united without mingling, change, or separation. Analogies of human nature and iron united with fire are used to illustrate this union.
Bible Alive Jesus Christ 002: "Criteria & Historical Foundations“”BibleAlive
What is the nature of the 27 New Testament Documents? Learn our three goals for this course: We will try and 1) determine the meaning of the earthly life of Jesus illuminated by our Christian faith in his resurrection; 2) show Jesus’ central place in God’s plan of salvation and his role in revealing and carrying out that plan; and 3) show that the inspired portrait of the New Testament is not fictitious, but sheds light on the mystery of the real Jesus of Nazareth.
1. STUDENT MAILBOX: 85
CANADIAN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
A RESEARCH PAPER: TOWARD A THEOLOGY OF CHINESE CULTURE
SUBMITTED TO
PROFESSOR RAYMOND ALDRED
FOR THE GRADUATE COURSE
CHRISTIANITY AND CULTURE TH711
BY
ZUHONG WU
CALGARY, ALBERTA
APRIL 4, 2008
2. Introduction
The field of Chinese culture is always a neglected aspect of theological research.
Although in academic community sporadically there are some studies on some specific
themes of theology about Chinese culture, most of the studies are not systematic, and are
limited only to provide for application tools for the Western missionaries in evangelical
ministry1
. On the other hand, the ministers of Chinese origin in the front line of Christian
ministry are busy in learning the systematic theology derived from the Western culture
and applying it directly to the Chinese communities, thus causing a spiritual dilemma for
Chinese Christians losing their Chinese identity completely soon after being converted to
become Christians2
. As a seminary student as well as a Christian minister of Chinese
origin, I am interested in this dilemma, and am trying to figure out a way out of it in my
ministry praxis. My purpose is not to “speed up”, but to “slow down” the current trend of
pragmatic approach in Christian ministry in Chinese communities through a
systematically theological understanding of Chinese culture, so that we may be more
successful in Christian ministry by bringing out more Chinese Christians with strong faith
and clear culture identity. On the other hand, I am trying to avoid argument, and my
discussion and statement are personal and practical as well. I just try to form a
1
Ho, Daniel (1990) A Chinese evaluation of the western missionaries'
penetration of China : how they responded to China's
problems
from 1582 to 1937. Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI. p.1-5.
2
Sih, Paul Kwang Tsien (1952) From Confucius to Christ. New
York : Sheed & Ward. p.49-61.
2
3. systematic theology of Chinese culture that fits me best in my ministry praxis and that
may provide some useful insights of lasting value to other ministers who share the same
interest with me in Chinese ministry.
Methodology
As implied above, the mainstream of research used to focus on two ordinary approaches
toward a theology of Chinese culture: (a) To study some classics of Chinese dominant
culture, such as those of Confucianism, Taoism, Communism etc., and then try to draw
some theological implications from the study3
; (b) To study the history of the Western
missionary in China, and then conclude with a theology based on the successful biblical
principles and doctrines modified or improved by the successful missionaries in Chinese
ministry4
. Although there may be some advantages in the two approaches mentioned
above, they have their own fatal weaknesses. For example, the study of the Chinese
classics needs a skillful grasp of the Chinese ancient language and literature, as well as
the “official philosophy” of ancient China. As a result, it is difficult to relate the theology
derived from this kind of study to the praxis of contemporary Christian ministry; On the
other hand, a successful theology from the Western missionary, despite of its strong
biblical foundation and Christian faith, is not necessary applicable to a minister of
Chinese origin, especially to the one with clearly Chinese identity. The methodology
3
Sherley-Price, Lionel Digby (1951) Confucius and Christ : a
Christian estimate of Confucius. New York : Philosophical
Library.p.11-31.
4
Gates, Alan Frederick (1979) Think China : a study book on China
Pasadena, Calif. : William Carey Library. p.63-86.
3
4. employed in my research, however, is a little different from the above two approaches.
My research starts from an essential part of Chinese folk culture, Chinese mythology,
from which I am trying to form a theology of Chinese culture through an analysis of
the image of God and His relation to Human beings in the minds of ordinary Chinese.
Then I’ll move to two branches of “official philosophy” in ancient China (i.e.,
Confucianism and Taoism.). I consider this part of Chinese culture to be some successful
application cases (i.e., establishing some practical themes of theology) of the doctrines of
creation and salvation hidden behind Chinese mythology mentioned above. Finally, I’ll
try to conclude with an evaluation the proposed theology of Chinese culture, as well as
their applications in Christian ministry in Chinese community.
From Chinese mythology toward a theology of Chinese culture
Mythology is an in separated part, and perhaps the oldest part of human culture. On the
other hand, it is a kind of folk culture that describes the systematic worldview or deep
understanding of human reality. For example, Bultmann emphasized that mythology
plays an important role in theology in that it describes an existential reality of human
beings that requires interpretation of “demythologized”, as he described “Mythology is
the use of imagery to express the other-worldly in terms of this world and the divine in
terms of human life, the other side in terms of this side……It expresses man’s
understanding of himself in the world in which he lives……” 5
; While Brevard
emphasized that the reality of which the Bible speaks took from within the life of
5
Benedikt Otzen, Hans Gottlieb, and Knud Jeppesen. (1980) Myths
in the Old Testament. London :SCM Press. p.3.
4
5. historical Israel, a “New Israel” with obedience and faithfulness to God’s initiative for
redemption as her new existence6
. In light of these, It is also an assumption of this
research paper that mythology in the ancient China expressed not only the existential
experiences of God (or gods) in Chinese communities in general, but also a kind of
“New Chinese” reality with some divine features in the cultural tradition of Chinese in
her long history of about five thousand years.
In Chinese mythology, Pangu (pan means “coil up”, and gu means “antiquity”) was the
creator of the universe, the first divine being (a male god) who was miraculously born
within the cosmos egg. It was Pangu who separates heaven and earth, and when he died,
his body transformed into the universe. Chinese mythology recorded the creation
(emergence) of the universe in this way: “In the beginning, heaven and earth were in
chaotic formlessness like a chicken’s egg, Within this chaos Pangu was born. Pangu
could not bear to be confined to the darkness and stuffiness in the cosmic egg, so he
shattered the egg into pieces. The egg white was light so it became heaven whereas the
yolk was heavy was heavy so it became the earth……when Pangu was dying, his body
began to transform. His breath became the winds and clouds, his voice became the
thunder, his left eye became the sun, his right eye became the moon, his four limbs and
truck became the four extremes of the earth and the Five Mountains, his blood became
the rivers, his veins became the earth’s arteries, his flesh became fields and soil, his hair
and beard became the stars, his skin and body hair became plants, his teeth and bones
6
Childs, Brevard S.(1960) Myth and reality in the Old Testament.
Naperville, Ill. : A. R. Allenson. p.95-106
5
6. became various metals and rocks, his semen and marrow became pearls and jade, his
sweat became the rain and the dew……”7
.
From this mythological record, we can conclude with the following theological insights:
(1) The similarity to the biblical record of the creation of the universe in Genesis,
which include: (a) “In the beginning, heaven and earth were in chaotic
formlessness like a chicken’s egg.” is similar to “ In the beginning God created
the heaven and the earth. Now the earth was formless……” (Genesis 1:1-2); (b)
“……the darkness and stuffiness in the cosmic egg “ is similar to “ Now the earth
was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep……”(Genesis
1:2); (c) Pangu separated the heaven from earth by shattering the cosmos egg is
similar to God actively separated the light from the darkness, “day” from “night”,
water above ( “sky”) from water below, “land” from “seas” , etc.. (Genesis 1: 3-
10).
(2) This mythology implies the doctrine of incarnation, although it is a kind of mystic
& “natural” incarnation: Pangu was the creator of the universe at the very
beginning [(“In the beginning was the Word (logos)……through him all things
were created; without him nothings was made that has been made……” (John 1:1,
3)]). However, Pangu was born into the universe as a human being. When he is
dying, his whole body became parts of our living circumstance that our life
depends on, thus in some sense we are living under his glory, truth and grace
7
Yang, Lihui (2005) Handbook of Chinese mythology. Santa
Barbara : ABC-CLIO.p.63-66
6
7. [“The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. We have seen his
glory……full of grace and truth.” (Genesis 1:14)].
(3) This mythology also implies the doctrine of sacrifice: When Pangu was dying, he
“donated” his body in order for a living and eternal universe. This was an
embryonic form of sacrificial worship which was expanded and repeatedly
appeared in the ritual or worship practice of Chinese culture including
Confucianism and Taoism [“……to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy
and pleasing to God—this is your spiritual act of worship” (Romans 12:1)]; A
record of sacrificial creation similar to that of Pangu can also be found in Job 41,
although there God Yahveh did not die as a sacrificial action.]
(4) This mythology also implies a scientific mechanism of creation of the universe:
The “revolutionary” act of Pangu’s “shattered the egg into pieces” reminds us of
the “big bang” mechanism of the origin of the universe, although here it expresses
in a metaphoric way; Again “. The egg white was light so it became heaven
whereas the yolk was heavy was heavy so it became the earth.” and the
metaphoric formation of other parts of the universe from different parts of
Pangu’s body are also in accordance with scientific principle.
According to Chinese mythology, the creation of human beings was related to the
first divine female (goddess), Nüwa (nü means “female”, wa means “emperor”): “
……when heaven and earth had been created, no humans yet existed. So Nüwa
created human beings by molding them from yellow earth with her hands. The work
drained her strength and took a lot of time, so after she had molded many humans she
7
8. took a cord and pulled it through the mud, then lifted the cord and shook it. All of the
sludge that fell down from the cord became man and women……rich and noble
people were those made by Nüwa’s hands whereas poor and lowly people were those
made by Nüwa dragging a cord through the mud.”8
.
From this mythological record, we can also conclude with the following theological
insights:
(1) The similarity to the biblical record of the creation of human beings in Genesis,
mainly in that human beings were created from mud or ground [“…the Lord God
formed the man from the dust of the ground……” (Genesis 2:7)].
(2) More importantly, there are more differences than similarities in this mythological
record, as compared with the biblical record of the creation of human beings in
Genesis: (a) The creation of the universe and human beings were not done by the
same Trinity God; rather, they were separately done by a god (male Pangu) and a
goddess (female Nüwa). This is no necessarily implying a Binity God in the
creation record of Chinese culture (and of course, no Spirit was recorded in
Chinese mythology), rather, it may imply monotheism tradition of ancient
Chinese, because later on it became clear that Chinese regarded the preexisting
“Heaven” (or “Heaven and earth”) as their God. However, This dualism is
important in that it is the creation version of Yin-Yang worldview, which is also
the philosophical foundation of Chinese medicine and history; (b)Opposite to the
biblical record where God created one man and one woman with different
8
Yang, Lihui (2005) Handbook of Chinese mythology. Santa
Barbara : ABC-CLIO. p.68.
8
9. materials (Genesis 2) and then let them “Be fruitful and increase in number……”
(Genesis 1:28), in Chinese mythology, men and women were created at the same
time and with the same material. On the other hand, the Chinese mythology
emphasizes that different people with different social status were created
differently by different skills of the same goddess. This is also important in
understanding Chinese culture which focuses on society and politics more than
other cultures, as well as the atmosphere of fatalism hidden behind Confucianism
and Taoism.
It is interesting that in Chinese mythology, following the record of Nüwa’s creation
of human beings, there was a record of the fall of the universe, as well as its repair
(or restoration) by the same Nüwa: “In remote antiquity, (because of a cosmic
disorder caused by a war between the gods Gonggong and Zhuanxu) the four poles
supporting the sky collapsed, and the land of the nine divisions of ancient China
broke up. The sky could not completely cover the earth, and the earth could not
totally carry the world. Fires raged fiercely and did not go out. Floodwater ran
everywhere and did not subside. The fierce beasts devoured kind people, and violent
birds seized the old and the weak. Nüwa then melt stones of five colors to patch the
sky, cut the legs off a huge tortoise and set them up to support the four extremities of
the sky, slaughtered the Black Drogan to save the people, and collected ashes of reeds
to stop the flood. After that the sky got renewed, the four sky pillar were set up again,
the flood was stopped, and the nine divisions become peaceful.”9
9
Yang, Lihui (2005) Handbook of Chinese mythology. Santa
Barbara : ABC-CLIO.p. 11.
9
10. From this mythological record, we can also conclude with the following theological
insights:
(1) In Chinese mythology, the disaster on earth (including fires, floodwater, fierce
beasts etc. ) was caused by the conflicts between different spiritual beings of gods
or angels, rather than the sins of human beings.
(2) As the Creator of human beings, from the very beginning of the fall of the
universe, Nüwa was trying to save the life and the circumstance of human beings
by repairing the sky, killing the wild beasts, stopping the flood etc.
(3) Just like the creation of human beings, the repairing the sky (or the salvation of
human beings) is also a difficult work for Nüwa. These two great projects give us
a sense of suffering love of Nüwa towards human beings, a doctrine that
frequently appearing in Taoism as well. Theology based on Chinese mythology is
thus destined to be sentimental.
The theological themes of Confucianism
Confucianism in this paper means a school of philosophy established by Confucius
and his disciples. Confucius(551-479 BC) was originally a teacher (he was in fact the
founder and the first teacher of private school in the world). He became the greatest
of all the philosophers, in my opinion, was due to his proposal of the difference
between petty men and gentlemen (chün-tzu), as well as his effort to become a real
gentleman in his personal life. A chün-tzu is the ideal or perfect man (or saint) of
10
11. moral philosophy of Confucius, and it usually appeared in contrast with a petty man
in the classic of Confucianism of Analects of Confucius. For example, “Gentlemen
unite in steady of conspiring; petty men conspire in stead of uniting.” ;”The
gentleman sees righteousness; The petty man sees profit.”; “ A gentleman is always
broad-minded while a petty man is always full of anxiety.”; “ A gentleman sets strict
demands on himself while a petty man sets strict demands on others.”10
, etc..
However, the most important characteristic of a gentleman is love (ren), which is
central to Confucius’ moral philosophy. Ren in the original Chinese character means
two persons in relation. This basic human-relatedness is defined specifically as love,
which contains at least two semiotic foci: (1)a tender aspect of human feelings; (2) an
altruistic concern for others11
. The above two semiotic foci, putting together, forms an
essential part of self-cultivation as a gentleman. From self-cultivation, Confucius
expanded his ren to community life such as Family-regulation, Country-managing,
and World-pacifying12
. Therefore, we can see that Confucius in fact proposed a kind
of love similar to the biblical agape expressed in the Gospel. On the other hand,
Confucius put into practice ren as the essence of self-cultivation by establishing a
ritual system of Li, which emphasizes a respect or worship system in the sequence of
10
Sinolingua (1994) Analects of Confucius. Beijing: Beijing Foreign
Language Printing House. p.20, 55, 126, 295.
11
,13
Chung, Sung Wook (2005) Christ the one and only : a global
affirmation of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. Grand
Rapids,
Mich. : Baker Academic. p.204-222
12
Confucius (1971) Confucian analects : The great learning, and
Thedoctrine of the mean. New York : Dover
Publications.p.258-
259
11
12. Heaven, Earth, Emperor, Ancestors or Parents, and Teachers. This sequence of
Chinese ritual system implies the priority of worshiping God (heaven and earth or
heaven alone) in the life of an ancient gentleman13
.
The theological themes of Taoism
Taoism in this paper means a school of philosophy established by Lao tzu
and his disciples around 600 BC. Lao tzu was originally a royal librarian. He later
withdrew from the worldly life and became a hermit, leaving to the world a 4000-
words small book of Tao Te Ching, which expresses, in a mystic way, the Tao and its
application to the moral life of human beings as his personal pursuit. Lao tzu and his
Tao Te Ching are always a mystery to the scholars, and thus different people express
Taoism in different. For example, Legge emphasized that Taoism was ordinarily
rationalism, and that Tao was not a person, but a concept or idea14
; Covell, however,
tended to equate Tao (Dao) with the true God or God’s eternal Logos manifesting in
the incarnate Christ.15
In my opinion, Tao was a method, or attitude the hermit Lao tzu
proposed toward the world, which was complementary to that of Confucianism, as
Yin to Yang in the principle of Chinese medicine or history, in order to live a balance
13
14
Legge, James (1978) The religions of China : Confucianism and
Tâoism described and compared with Christianity.
Philadelphia :
R. West. P. 160.
15
Covell, Ralph R. (1986) Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ : a
history of the Gospel in Chinese. Maryknoll, N.Y. : Orbis
Books.p.49,122.
12
13. or harmonious life as a gentleman in ancient China. However, things are not so
simple, and there indeed exists a mystery hidden behind Tao expressed in Tao Te
Ching. That mystery made it possible for Chinese culture to open a new avenue for
theological questioning and religion tolerance. For example, we can discover some
similarity between the first verses of Tao Te Ching (“The Tao that can be told of is
not an universal Tao; The names that can be named are not universal names. It was
from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang; The named is but the mother that
rears the creation. ”16
and those of the book of John (“In the beginning was the Logos,
and the Logos was with God, and the Logos was God. He was with God in the
beginning. Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that
has been made.” (John 1:1-3) in terms of the pre-existence of Tao or Logos and its
function in creation. On the other hand, the moral emphasis of humility and
nothingness is also similar to Christian humble attitude toward the world and toward
each other. One example of these can also be found in the similarity between the
verses in Tao Te Ching (“The highest goodness is like water, because water excels in
benefiting the myriad creatures without contending with them and settles where none
would like to be, it comes close to Tao “) and those in the Bible [“For everyone who
exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be exalted. “(Luke
14:11)]17
16
Laozi (1982) Tao te ching. Hong Kong : The Chinese University
Press.p.2-3.
17
Legge, James (1978) The religions of China : Confucianism and
Tâoism described and compared with Christianity.
Philadelphia :
R. West.p.158.
13
14. Conclusions
Some evaluations about the theological insights mentioned above, as well as their
applications in Christian ministry among Chinese communities may be concluded in
the following way:
(1) There are some embryonic forms of biblical themes and doctrines in the ancient
Chinese culture, which may be the starting point of evangelical ministry among
Chinese community.
(2) Chinese culture is opening to theological questioning in some mystic (such as in
Taoism) and humanistic way (such as in Confucianism), which may provide the
main reason for some Chinese initial or continuing interests in Christianity.
(3) It is implied in Chinese culture that human beings are fundamentally good, which
may make it difficult for sin conviction in Chinese evangelical ministry.
However,
Chinese culture also implies that progress or civilization requires suffering and
love, which may provide for mature Christians or church for Chinese community
once after Chinese become Christians.
14
15. References
Benedikt Otzen, Hans Gottlieb, and Knud Jeppesen. (1980) Myths in
the Old Testament. London :SCM Press.
Childs, Brevard S.(1960) Myth and reality in the Old Testament.
Naperville, Ill. : A. R. Allenson.
Chung, Sung Wook (2005) Christ the one and only : a global
affirmation of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. Grand
Rapids,
Mich. : Baker Academic.
Confucius (1971) Confucian analects : The great learning, and The
doctrine of the mean. New York : Dover Publications.
Covell, Ralph R. (1986) Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ : a
history of the Gospel in Chinese. Maryknoll, N.Y. : Orbis
Books.
Gates, Alan Frederick (1979) Think China : a study book on China
Pasadena, Calif. : William Carey Library.
Ho, Daniel (1990) A Chinese evaluation of the western missionaries'
penetration of China : how they responded to China's
problems
from 1582 to 1937. Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI
Legge, James (1978) The religions of China : Confucianism and
Tâoism described and compared with Christianity.
Philadelphia :
R. West.
Laozi (1982) Tao te ching. Hong Kong : The Chinese University
Press.
Sherley-Price, Lionel Digby (1951) Confucius and Christ : a
Christian estimate of Confucius. New York : Philosophical
Library.
15
16. Sih, Paul Kwang Tsien (1952) From Confucius to Christ. New
York : Sheed & Ward.
Sinolingua (1994) Analects of Confucius. Beijing: Beijing Foreign
Language Printing House.
Yang, Lihui (2005) Handbook of Chinese mythology. Santa
Barbara : ABC-CLIO.
16