The document discusses various principles of design including proportion, scale, balance, rhythm, symmetry, hierarchy and axis. It provides details on proportion in materials, structures and manufactured elements. It also covers theories and systems of proportion like the golden section, classical orders, Renaissance theories, Modulor and anthropometry. Balance is described as visual, symmetrical, asymmetrical and radial. Rhythm is the repetition of elements in space and time. Axis is defined as a line between two points that elements can be arranged around. Symmetry is the balanced distribution of equivalent forms on opposite sides of a line.

1. Principles of Design
Ar.Swetha.K
Associate Professor
Nehru college Of Architecture, Palakkad

2. Principles of design
Exploration of the basic principles of design such as
– Proportion
– Scale
– Balance
– Rhythm
– Symmetry
– Hierarchy
– Axis

3. Proportion
Refers to proper or harmonious
relation of one part to another or to
the whole.
--Material
--Structural
--Manufactured– Material
– have distinct properties of elasticity, hardness & durability-
have strength which they cannot extend themselves without
fracturing, breaking or collapsing.
– Eg: 4” thick & 8’ long stone slab supports itself and acts as
bridge b/w 2 supports. If its size is scaled to 4 times it
collapses under its own weight.
– Materials have rational proportions dictated by their inherent
strenghts & weakness.
– Steel – strong-compression & tension- columns, beams &
planar sheet materials.
– Wood –flexible fairly elastic-linear posts & beams, planar
boards, volumetric element in log cabin construction.
Ashtabula bridge disaster
Possible fatigue failure of cast iron element
Tarr Steps in Exmoor, a 3,000-year-
old iconic clapper bridge

5. – Structural
– Structural elements- span spaces & transmit their
loads through vertical supports to foundation
systems.
– Size & proportion directly related to the structural
tasks.
– Beams-transmit loads horizontally across space
to their vertical supports. Span or load increases
beam collapses, depth increased strength will
increase 4 times.
– Columns- thicker as their loads & unsupported
height increase.
Proportion
Refers to proper or harmonious relation
of one part to another or to the whole.
--Material
--Structural
--Manufactured
steel crown hall, Illinois Institute of
Technology, Chicago Mies Van der rohe
Schwartz
house, two
rivers,
Wisconsin,
F.L. Wright

6. – Manufactured
– Architectural elements are sized &
proportioned not only according to
structural properties & function but by
process through which they are
manufactured.
– Mass produced in factories- have
standard sizes & proportions imposed
by individual manufacturers or
industry standards.
– Eg: concrete block & modular brick,
steel sections, standard door &
Proportion
Refers to proper or harmonious
relation of one part to another or to
the whole.
--Material
--Structural
--Manufactured

7. – Theories of proportion
– Golden section
– Classical orders
– Renaissance theories
– Modulor
– Ken
– Anthropometry
– Scale
Proportioning systems
go beyond the functional &
technical determinants of
architectural form & space to
provide an aesthetic rationale
for their dimensions.

8. – Types of proportion
– Arithmetic-c-b/b-a=c/c (
1,2,3)
– Geometric-c-b/b-a=c/b
(1,2,4)
– Harmonic-c-b/b-a=c/a
(2,3,6)
Proportioning systems
go beyond the functional &
technical determinants of
architectural form & space to
provide an aesthetic rationale
for their dimensions.
a b c
a
b
c

9. Golden section
Defined as the ratio between 2 sections of a line, or
the 2 dimensions of a plane figure, in which the
lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater as
the greater is the sum of both. It can be expressed
algebraically by the equation of 2 ratios.
a/b=b/a+b

10. Golden section
Defined as the ratio between 2 sections of a line, or
the 2 dimensions of a plane figure, in which the
lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater as
the greater is the sum of both. It can be expressed
algebraically by the equation of 2 ratios.
a/b=b/a+b

11. Golden section
Defined as the ratio between 2 sections of a line, or the 2 dimensions of a plane figure, in
which the lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater as the greater is the sum of both.
It can be expressed algebraically by the equation of 2 ratios.

13. -Classical orders
• to Greeks & Romans of classical antiquity, the orders represented their
proportioning of elements the perfect expression of beauty & harmony.
• The basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column, from this module were
derived the dimensions of the shaft, the capital, as well as the pedestal below & the
entablature above, down to the smallest detail.

14. – Classical orders

15. – Classical
orders

16. – Classical orders

17. – The renaissance architects applied Pythagoras theorem to get series of ratios manifested
in dimensions of room or a façade & in sequence of spaces & an a entire plan.
– 7 ideal plan shapes for rooms: Andrea Palladio in his “ the four books on Architecture
proposed the 7 most beautiful & proportion able manners of rooms- circle , square, 1:√2,
3 :4, 2:3, 3:5 &1:2.
– Determining the Heights of room: Palladio proposed several methods for determining
the height of a room. The height of rooms with flat ceilings would be equal to their width.
Height of square rooms with vaulted ceilings would be 1/3rd greater than the width. For
other rooms Palladio used Pythagoras theory of mean to determine their heights
Renaissance theories
The architects of renaissance, believing that their
buildings had to belong to higher order, returned to
the Greek mathematical system of proportions.
a
b
c
Arithmetic-c-b/b-a=c/c ( eg..1,2,3)
Geometric-c-b/b-a=c/b (eg..1,2,4)
Harmonic-c-b/b-a=c/a (eg..2,3,6)
In each case , the height of a room is equal to the mean (b) between the extremes of the width (a) &

18. Modulor
– Le Corbusier developed his proportioning
system, The modular, To order” the
dimensions of that which contains & that
which is contained”
– He based his measuring tool, the modular, on
both mathematics & the proportions of the
human body.
– Red & blue series, diminishing scales of
dimensions were related to the stature of the
human figure.

19. The basic Grid consists of 3
measures 113, 70 & 43
centimeters, proportioned
according to the golden
section.
43+70=113
113+70=183
113+70+43=226(2X113)
113, 183 & 226 define the
space occupied by the human
figure.

20. – Ken -is a traditional Japanese unit of length,
equal to six Japanese feet (shaku). The exact
value has varied over time and location but
has generally been a little shorter than 2
meters (6 ft 7 in). It is now standardized as 1
9/11 meter.
– used as a proportion for the intervals
between the pillars of traditional-style
buildings
– The length also appears in other contexts,
such as the standard length of the bō staff in
Japanese martial arts and the standard
dimensions of the tatami mats.
– As these are used to cover the floors of most
Proportioning systems
go beyond the functional & technical determinants
of architectural form & space to provide an
aesthetic rationale for their dimensions.
-Ken

21. Anthropometry
– Refers to the measurement of the
size & proportions of the human
body.
– mere guidelines which should be
modified to satisfy specific user
needs, which changes based on
gender, age & racial groups, even
from one individual to the next.
– The dimensions & proportions of the
human body affect the proportions
of things which we handle, the
height & distant of things we try to
reach, & the dimensions of the
furnishings we use for sitting,
working, eating & sleeping.

22. scale
– Refers to size of something relative to some
known standard or recognized constant.
– Mechanical scale : calculation of objects
physical size according to standard
system of measurement
– Visual/human scale: refers to difference
found when one objects compared to
others visually
– Monumental scale: feeling of smallness
when we compare ourselves to a exterior
or interior space

23. balance
– Stability of an arrangement
– Arrangement appears secure and stable
– Balance must be both visual and actual
– visual balance refers to the way an arrangement appears to the eye.
– Symmetrical balance: arrangement of identical elements corresponding
in size, shape & relative position about a common axis. Also called as
axial or bilateral symmetry
– Asymmetrical balance: lack of correspondence in size, shape or
relative position among the element of a composition.
– Radial balance: results from arrangement of elements about a center.

24. What kind of balance is illustrated in this painting Oriental Poppies, by
Georgia O’Keefe?

25. symmetrical balance
If you could visually divide the paper in half. There would be a
poppy on both sides. No one side dominates the pictures. Neither poppy
appears to be more important than the other.

26. What type of balance is shown in this painting, Arrangement in Grey and Black: Portrait of the
Painter's Mother (commonly known as Whistler’s Mother), by James Whistler?
Whistler?

27. Asymmetrical balance
The large form of the woman is "visually equal" to the black curtain and white
painting on the wall. This makes the painting appear balanced.

28. What type of balance is shown in this stained glass artwork, Rose Window?

29. Radial Balance: Look at the spiral or spinning effect of the pattern. The axis is the center point
and the design or pattern appears to "radiate" from that point.

30. rhythm
– Repetition of elements in space & time.
– Repetition not only creates visual unity but
also includes a rhythmic continuity of
movement
– Graded in size, color, value to give direction
to sequence.

31. axis A line established by 2 points in space, about
which forms & spaces can be arranged in a
symmetrical or balanced manner.
– Axis has qualities of length &
direction, and induces movement &
promotes views along its path.
– For tis definition axis must be
terminated at both of its ends by a
significant form or space.
– Notion of axis can be reinforced by
defining edges along its length.
– Axis can also be established by
symmetrical arrangements of forms
& spaces.

32. axis
The Uffizi Gallery is a prominent art
museum located adjacent to the Piazza
della Signoria in central Florence, region of
Tuscany, Italy
The auditorium of the First Unitarian Church
and School, Rochester (New York and Salk
Institute for Biological Studies La Jolla
(California) 1959-1965
Tajmahal, India

33. symmetry The balanced distribution and arrangement of equivalent
forms & spaces on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane,
or about a center or axis.
– There are 2 fundamental types of symmetry
– Bilateral symmetry- refers to the balanced
arrangement of similar or equivalent elements on
opposite sides of a median axis so that only one
plane can divide the whole into essentially identical
halves.
– Radial symmetry refers to the balanced
arrangement of similar , radiating elements such
that the composition can be divided into similar
halves by passing a plane at any angle around a
center point or along a central axis.

34. symmetry
Petronas tower, Kuala Lumpur.

35. hierarchy The articulation of the importance or significance of form or space
by its size, shape or placement relative to the other forms &
spaces of the organization.
1. Hierarchy by size- dominate an architectural
composition by being significantly different in size
from all other elements in the composition.
2. Hierarchy by shape- visually dominant by
differentiating its shape from that of the other
elements in the composition.
3. Hierarchy by placement- strategically placed to
call attention to itself as being the most important
element in composition. Includes termination of
linear sequence, centerpiece of symmetrical
organization, focus of centralized or radial
organization, being offset above, below or in

36. The lagoons
Dubai.
Putrajaya Waterfront Kuala Lumpur .
hierarchy

37. reference
– Francis DK.Ching ,Architecture- Form, Space & Order