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4. Principles of Corrosion
Engineering and
Corrosion Control
Zaki Ahmad
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
6. I dedicate this book to the memory of my most beloved son Intekhab Ahmad who
breathed his last on April 20, 2004.
“We are from Almighty God and unto him we return”
Intekhab was the greatest driving force behind this book and may Almighty God rest
his soul in peace and grant him the highest level in paradise.
7. Contents
Preface xiv
Acknowledgments xvi
1 Introduction to corrosion 1
1.1 Historical background 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.3 Corrosive environment 3
1.4 Consequences of corrosion 3
1.5 Cost of corrosion 3
1.6 Breakdown of spending on corrosion 4
1.7 Corrosion science and corrosion engineering 4
1.8 Inter-disciplinary nature of corrosion 5
1.9 Corrosion education 5
1.10 Functional aspects of corrosion 5
1.11 Five good reasons to study corrosion 6
Questions 7
References 7
2 Basic concepts in corrosion 9
2.1 Anodic and cathodic reactions 10
2.2 Anodic reactions characteristics 11
2.3 Cathodic reactions characteristics 12
2.4 Types of corrosion cells 12
2.5 Mechanism of corrosion of iron 13
2.6 Concept of free energy 14
2.7 Reversible electrode potential 18
2.8 Concentration cell 22
2.9 Liquid junction potential 23
2.10 Application of free energy to corrosion cells 23
2.11 Nernst equation 24
2.12 Sign convention 26
2.13 Reference electrodes 33
2.14 Pourbaix diagrams (stability diagrams) 45
Questions 52
Suggested books for reading 55
Keywords 55
8. Contents vii
3 Corrosion kinetics 57
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis and its application in determining
the corrosion rate 57
3.1 The laws 57
3.2 Corrosion kinetics 61
3.3 Helmholtz double layer 64
3.4 Reverse reaction (cathodic reaction) 68
3.5 Departure from equilibrium [activation over-potential (η)] 69
3.6 Tafel equation 73
3.7 Mixed potential theory and its application 75
3.8 Evans diagrams 77
3.9 Prediction of corrosion tendency on the basis of mixed potential theory 78
3.10 Application of mixed potential theory 79
3.11 Concentration polarization 84
3.12 Effect of various factors on concentration polarization 86
3.13 Resistance polarization (ohmic polarization) 87
3.14 Measurement of corrosion 87
3.15 Determination of corrosion rates by electrochemical measurements 90
3.16 Polarization resistance (linear polarization) 90
3.17 Theoretical background 91
3.18 Modern developments 92
3.19 Kinetics of passivity 94
3.20 Definition of important electrochemical parameters for
active–passive metals 98
3.21 Measured vs actual polarization behavior of active–passive metals 99
3.22 Control of passivity 101
3.23 Effect of environment 104
3.24 Conversion factors 106
3.25 Illustrative problems 107
Questions 113
Suggested reading 118
Keywords 118
4 Types of corrosion: materials and environments 120
4.1 Introduction 120
4.2 Uniform corrosion 121
4.3 Galvanic corrosion 126
4.4 Dezincification 134
4.5 Crevice corrosion 139
4.6 Pitting corrosion 149
4.7 Intergranular corrosion 162
4.8 Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen damage 183
4.9 Corrosion fatigue 221
4.10 Fretting corrosion 241
4.11 Erosion–corrosion and cavitation damage 246
Questions 252
9. viii Contents
References 263
Keywords 266
5 Cathodic protection 271
5.1 Introduction 271
5.2 Basis of cathodic protection 271
5.3 Working of cathodic protection system 272
5.4 Factors leading to corrosion of underground metallic structures 272
5.5 Electrical basis of cathodic protection 277
5.6 Electrochemical theory of cathodic protection 280
5.7 Anodic polarization 283
5.8 Cathodic protection systems 283
5.9 Components of galvanic systems 287
5.10 Impressed current system 293
5.11 Components of impressed current systems and AC/DC systems 295
5.12 Types of ground-beds 299
5.13 Major impressed current anodes 303
5.14 Protection of submarine pipelines 304
5.15 Design parameters in cathodic protection 305
5.16 Current requirements 306
5.17 Backfill 306
5.18 Measurements in cathodic protection 307
5.19 Pipe-to-soil potential 310
5.20 Factors affecting pipe-to-soil potential 312
5.21 Potential survey 312
5.22 Measurement of current flow 314
5.23 Reference electrode 316
5.24 Coating resistance tests 317
5.25 Current requirement tests 319
5.26 Current density requirement for a bare structure 321
5.27 Stray current corrosion 325
5.28 Cathodic protection interferences 326
5.29 Design charts 329
5.30 Ground-bed design 330
5.31 Soil resistivity and pipe-to-soil potential survey 331
5.32 Calculations in cathodic protection design 333
5.33 Important formulae in cathodic protection calculations 342
Questions 345
Recommended literature on cathodic protection 349
Keywords 350
6 Corrosion control by inhibition 352
6.1 Introduction 352
6.2 Scope of inhibitor 352
10. Contents ix
6.3 Examples of application of inhibitors 352
6.4 Important consideration in selection of inhibitors 353
6.5 Important terms related to inhibitors 353
6.6 Classification of inhibitors 354
6.7 Description of inhibitors 354
6.8 Inorganic anodic inhibitors 366
6.9 Organic inhibitors 367
6.10 Synergistic inhibitors 369
6.11 Scavengers 369
6.12 Neutralizers 371
6.13 Scale inhibitors 371
6.14 Rebar inhibitors 373
6.15 Biocides 374
6.16 Inhibitor application techniques 375
6.17 Vapor phase inhibitors 376
6.18 Inhibitor efficiency and inhibitor concentration 377
Questions 377
Suggested Reading 379
Keywords 380
7 Coatings 382
7.1 Introduction 382
7.2 Objectives 383
7.3 Classification of coatings 383
7.4 Scope of coatings 384
7.5 Painting, coating and lining 384
7.6 Paint coating system 385
7.7 Paint coating components 385
7.8 Composition and functions of paint coating components 386
7.9 Classification of binders 394
7.10 Pigments 396
7.11 Solvent 398
7.12 Thinners (diluents) 401
7.13 Additives 401
7.14 Metallic coatings 405
7.15 Aluminum coatings 411
7.16 Tin coatings 413
7.17 Nickel coatings 414
7.18 Cadmium coating 416
7.19 Conversion coatings 416
7.20 Anodized coatings 419
7.21 Glass flake coatings 420
7.22 Failure of paints and coatings 420
7.23 Selection of coatings 430
Questions 431
Suggested literature for reading 435
Keywords 435
11. x Contents
8 Corrosion prevention by design 438
8.1 Introduction 438
8.2 Service life of equipment 438
8.3 Causes of failures in the context of design 438
8.4 Corrosive environment 440
8.5 Stages in the design process 441
8.6 Consideration of areas requiring attention at design stage 441
8.7 Soldering and threading 453
8.8 Crevices 456
8.9 Design to control corrosion in water distribution, oil
and gas pipelines 457
8.10 Flowing water systems 458
8.11 Accessibility for maintenance 463
8.12 Designs for liquid containers 464
8.13 Design in packaging 466
8.14 Coating and design 467
8.15 Storage of combat vehicles 471
Questions 476
Suggested reading 478
Keywords 478
9 Selection of materials for corrosive
environment 479
9.1 Introduction 479
9.2 Factors affecting the performance of materials 480
9.3 The material selection process 483
9.4 Materials classification 484
9.5 Materials and fluid corrosivity 491
9.6 Ranking of performance of materials 494
9.7 Electrolyte factors 496
9.8 Corrosion indices 497
9.9 Iso-corrosion charts 501
9.10 Cost effectiveness 502
9.11 Selection of materials for corrosive environments 502
9.12 Corrosion characteristics of carbon and low alloy steels 506
9.13 Corrosion rate of carbon steel in seawater 509
9.14 Cast irons 509
9.15 Ductile and cast iron pipes 511
9.16 Stainless steels 512
9.17 Corrosion behavior of copper and copper alloys 517
9.18 Corrosion resistance of copper-base alloys in seawater 520
9.19 Aluminum and its alloys 523
9.20 Nickel and its alloys 533
9.21 Titanium and its alloys 537
Questions 545
References 547
Keywords 548
12. Contents xi
10 Atmospheric corrosion 550
10.1 Introduction 550
10.2 Classification of atmospheric corrosion 550
10.3 Weather and Atmosphere 551
10.4 Major factors affecting atmospheric corrosion 553
10.5 Effect of atmospheric factors on atmospheric corrosion 553
10.6 Pollutants chemistry and their impact on atmospheric corrosion 555
10.7 Mechanism of atmospheric corrosion (electrochemical cycle) 558
10.8 Potential–pH diagram (Fe–H2O) 561
10.9 Atmospheric corrosion of copper and its alloys 561
10.10 Cracking of copper alloys 564
10.11 Aluminum and its alloys 565
10.12 Potential–pH diagram (Al–H2O) 566
10.13 Atmospheric corrosion of zinc 569
Questions 571
References 574
Keywords 575
11 Boiler corrosion 576
11.1 Definition 576
11.2 Introduction 576
11.3 Requirements of an efficient boiler 576
11.4 Classification of boilers 576
11.5 Major design 577
11.6 Circulation 580
11.7 Water tube circuit 580
11.8 Water conditioning 586
11.9 Major corrosion problems in boilers 598
Questions 605
Suggested reading 607
Keywords 607
12 Concrete corrosion 609
12.1 Introduction 609
12.2 Technical terms 609
12.3 Production, types and curing of cement 611
12.4 Engineering properties of concrete 612
12.5 Chemistry of portland cement 613
12.6 Concrete chemistry, hydration reactions 613
12.7 Durability and deterioration of cement 614
12.8 Corrosion of reinforcement (rebar corrosion) 616
12.9 Factors affecting corrosion 617
12.10 Construction practice 622
12.11 Summary of principles involved in corrosion reinforcement 622
12.12 Methods of corrosion control of reinforcing steel 624
13. xii Contents
12.13 Corrosion protection of reinforcement 629
12.14 Concrete repairs and rehabilitation 630
12.15 Electrochemical methods of evaluation of reinforcement corrosion 635
Questions 643
Suggested reading 644
Keywords 645
Index 647
14. Supporting material accompanying this book
A full set of accompanying multiple choice questions and worked solutions for this
book are available for teaching purposes.
Please visit http://www.textbooks.elsevier.com and follow the registration
instructions to access this material, which is intended for use by lecturers and tutors.
15. Preface
The phenomenon of corrosion is as old as the
history of metals and it has been looked on as a
menace which destroys metals and structures and
turns beauty into a beast. Our human civiliza-
tion cannot exist without metals and yet corrosion
is their Achilles heel. Although familiarity with
corrosion is ancient, it has been taken very pas-
sively by scientists and engineers in the past.
Surprisingly, it is only during the last six decades
that corrosion science has gradually evolved to
a well-defined discipline. Corrosion Science and
Engineering is now an integral part of engineer-
ing curriculum in leading universities throughout
the world. With the rapid advances in mate-
rials in the new millennium, the demand for
corrosion engineering courses has dramatically
increased. This has necessitated the need for the
publication of new books. Professor U. R. Evans,
Prof. H. H. Uhlig and Prof. M. Fontana wrote a
classical generation of basic text books covering
the fundamentals of corrosion science and engi-
neering. These books served as texts for decades
and some of them are still being used. Several new
books in corrosion have been published in recent
years to cater to the needs of corrosion science and
engineering students. As a teacher of corrosion
engineering for the last twenty-five years, I found
the material to be deficient in corrosion engineer-
ing content. However, sufficient coverage was
given to the understanding of corrosion science.
In this book, chapters on cathodic protection,
materials selection, concrete corrosion and coat-
ings have been written to cater to the needs of cor-
rosion engineering students as well as corrosion
engineers. These chapters contain simple and suf-
ficient information to enable students to design
corrosion preventive measures. A large number of
illustrative problems are given in the chapter on
cathodic protection to show how simple cathodic
protective systems may be designed. The chapter
on material selection is devoted to an understand-
ing of the art of selection of materials for corrosive
environment and applying the knowledge of cor-
rosion prevention – the objective of corrosion
engineering students. Concrete corrosion is a
global problem and of particular interest to civil,
chemical and mechanical engineering students.
The chapter on boiler corrosion would be of spe-
cific interest to corrosion engineering students
and corrosion engineers who desire to refresh
their knowledge of the fundamentals of boiler
corrosion and water treatment. The chapter on
concrete corrosion has been added in view of the
global interest in concrete corrosion. It presents
the mechanism of rebar corrosion, preventive
measures and evaluation methods in a simpli-
fied form with eye-catching illustrations. And the
unique feature of the book is the follow-up of each
chapter by keywords, definitions, multiple-choice
questions, conceptual questions and review ques-
tions. A solution manual will soon be available
to students containing solutions of problems and
answers to multiple-choice questions. These are
intended to test the readers comprehension of the
principles covered in the text. I have put all my
lifetimeteachingexperienceintowritingthisbook
for corrosion engineering students in the sopho-
more or junior year. Graduate students lacking
background in corrosion will also benefit from
the book. It is expected that the students would
be able to understand the principles of corrosion
science and engineering in a simple and logical
manner and apply them for solutions to corro-
sion engineering problems. This book is written
with a new approach and new philosophy and
it is hoped that it will fulfill their aspirations.
While writing this book, I passed through the
most turbulent period of my life with the loss
of my most beloved son Intekhab Ahmad who
passed away suddenly on April 20, 2004 leaving
16. Preface xv
a sea of unending tears and sadness in my life.
It was followed by my own sickness, operation
and desertions of some of my closest ones. I am
grateful to Almighty Allah that I passed through
this traumatic period and am able to complete
the book. The success of my efforts will depend
on how well this book is received by the students
and the corrosion community. This book will not
only be found very useful by corrosion engineer-
ing students but also by corrosion scientists and
engineers in their problems in their professional
capacity and those interested in corrosion.
17. Acknowledgments
The author appreciates the valuable support pro-
vided by King Fahd University of Petroleum
& Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia in writing this book. I thank Dr
Faleh Al-Sulaiman, Chairman ME Department
for his encouragement. The author wishes to
thank Prof. G. Hocking, Professor, Imperial Col-
lege of Science and Technology for his dedicated
support in technical editing of the script. The
author thanks Mr Irfan Hussaini (now a graduate
student at Pennsylvania State University, USA)
for making all the figures of the textbook which
was a gigantic task and very well accomplished by
him. IwasindeedfortunatetohaveMrSyedIshrat
Jameel, Secretary, ME Department, KFUPM to
type the various drafts of the book. I sincerely
thank him. I thank Mr Abdul Aleem B. J.,
Lecturer, ME Department, KFUPM for proof
reading of chapters, figures and coordinating with
the publisher. I wish to thank Mr Mohammed
Abbas, my graduate student, for his dedicated
support in correction of scripts, figures, checking
equations, problems and solutions. I thank my
teacher and mentor Dr J. C. Scully, Ex-Reader,
Leeds University, who inspired me to adopt
corrosion as my career. I have been inspired by
the works of Prof. Mars G. Fontana, R. N. Perkins,
R. W. Staehle, P. A. Schweitzer, Prof. Ronald.
M. Latanision, Prof. A. Ashby and do not claim
any originality of ideas. The author wishes to
thankthenumerouspublishers, professionalsoci-
eties and corrosion consultants for granting per-
mission for copyrighted photographs and figures.
Special thanks to American Society of Metals
(ASM), American Society of Testing and Mate-
rials (ASTM), National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE), British Corrosion Journal,
British Standard Institute, John Wiley and Sons
Inc., McGraw Hill, Chapman & Hall and oth-
ers. I appreciate the cooperation of Corrintec,
USA and Texaco, Houston Research Center and
Sigma Paints Company for permission to use fig-
ures. I appreciate the moral support given by
my sons Manzar Ahmad, Assistant Professor,
SSUET, Karachi and Intessar Ahmad, University
of Adelaide, Australia. Finally, I thank my creator,
God the Almighty, who gave me the strength and
patience to complete this book.
18. C h a p t e r
1
Introduction to
Corrosion
1.1 Historical
Background
‘Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth where
moth and rust doth corrupt and where thieves break-
through and steal.’
(Mathew 6:14)
The word corrosion is as old as the earth,
but it has been known by different names.
Corrosion is known commonly as rust, an unde-
sirable phenomena which destroys the luster and
beauty of objects and shortens their life. A Roman
philosopher, Pliny (AD 23–79) wrote about the
destruction of iron in his essay ‘Ferrum Cor-
rumpitar.’ Corrosion since ancient times has
affected not only the quality of daily lives of
people, but also their technical progress. There
is a historical record of observation of corrosion
by several writers, philosophers and scientists, but
there was little curiosity regarding the causes and
mechanism of corrosion until Robert Boyle wrote
his ‘Mechanical Origin of Corrosiveness.’
Philosophers, writers and scientists observed
corrosion and mentioned it in their writings:
■ Pliny the elder (AD 23–79) wrote about
spoiled iron.
■ Herodotus (fifth century BC) suggested the
use of tin for protection of iron.
■ Lomonosov (1743–1756).
■ Austin (1788) noticed that neutral water
becomes alkaline when it acts on iron.
■ Thenard (1819) suggested that corrosion is an
electrochemical phenomenon.
■ Hall (1829) established that iron does not rust
in the absence of oxygen.
■ Davy (1824) proposed a method for sacrificial
protection of iron by zinc.
■ De la Rive (1830) suggested the existence of
microcells on the surface of zinc.
The most important contributions were later
made by Faraday (1791–1867) [1] who estab-
lished a quantitative relationship between chem-
ical action and electric current. Faraday’s first
and second laws are the basis for calculation of
corrosion rates of metals. Ideas on corrosion
control started to be generated at the begin-
ning of nineteenth century. Whitney (1903)
provided a scientific basis for corrosion control
based on electrochemical observation. As early
as in eighteenth century it was observed that
iron corrodes rapidly in dilute nitric acid but
remains unattacked in concentrated nitric acid.
Schönbein in 1836 showed that iron could be
made passive [2]. It was left to U. R. Evans to pro-
vide a modern understanding of the causes and
control of corrosion based on his classical electro-
chemical theory in 1923. Considerable progress
towards the modern understanding of corrosion
was made by the contributions of Evans [3],
Uhlig [4] and Fontana [5]. The above pioneers
of modern corrosion have been identified with
their well known books in the references given
at the end of the chapter. Corrosion laboratories
19. 2 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
established in M.I.T., USA and University of
Cambridge, UK, contributed significantly to the
growth and development of corrosion science
and technology as a multi disciplinary subject.
In recent years, corrosion science and engineer-
ing has become an integral part of engineering
education globally.
1.2 Definitions
Corrosion is a natural and costly process of
destruction like earthquakes, tornados, floods
and volcanic eruptions, with one major differ-
ence. Whereas we can be only a silent spectator to
the above processes of destruction, corrosion can
be prevented or at least controlled. Several defi-
nitions of corrosion have been given and some of
them are reproduced below:
(A) Corrosion is the surface wastage that occurs
when metals are exposed to reactive envi-
ronments.
(B) Corrosion is the result of interaction
between a metal and environments which
results in its gradual destruction.
Figure 1.1 Refining-corrosion cycle
(C) Corrosion is an aspect of the decay of
materials by chemical or biological agents.
(D) Corrosion is an extractive metallurgy in
reverse. For instance, iron is made from
hematite by heating with carbon. Iron cor-
rodes and reverts to rust, thus completing
its life cycle. The hematite and rust have the
same composition (Fig. 1.1).
(E) Corrosion is the deterioration of materials
as a result of reaction with its environment
(Fontana).
(F) Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal
by chemical or electrochemical reaction with
the environment (Uhlig).
Despite different definitions, it can be
observed that corrosion is basically the result of
interaction between materials and their environ-
ment. Up to the 1960s, the term corrosion was
restricted only to metals and their alloys and it did
not incorporate ceramics, polymers, composites
and semiconductors in its regime. The term cor-
rosion now encompasses all types of natural and
man-made materials including biomaterials and
nanomaterials, and it is not confined to metals
and alloys alone. The scope of corrosion is consis-
tent with the revolutionary changes in materials
development witnessed in recent years.
20. Introduction to corrosion 3
1.3 Corrosive
Environment
Corrosion cannot be defined without a reference
to environment. All environments are corrosive
to some degree. Following is the list of typical
corrosive environments:
(1) Air and humidity.
(2) Fresh, distilled, salt and marine water.
(3) Natural, urban, marine and industrial
atmospheres.
(4) Steam and gases, like chlorine.
(5) Ammonia.
(6) Hydrogen sulfide.
(7) Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
(8) Fuel gases.
(9) Acids.
(10) Alkalies.
(11) Soils.
It may, therefore, be observed that corrosion
isapotentforcewhichdestroyseconomy, depletes
resources and causes costly and untimely failures
of plants, equipment and components.
1.4 Consequences of
Corrosion
Some important consequences of corrosion are
summarized below:
■ Plant shutdowns. Shutdown of nuclear
plants, process plants, power plants and
refineries may cause severe problems to
industry and consumers.
■ Loss of products, leaking containers, storage
tanks, water and oil transportation lines and
fueltankscausesignificantlossofproductand
may generate severe accidents and hazards.
It is well-known that at least 25% of water is
lost by leakage.
■ Loss of efficiency. Insulation of heat
exchanger tubings and pipelines by corrosion
products reduces heat transfer and piping
capacity.
■ Contamination. Corrosion products may
contaminate chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
dyes, packaged goods, etc. with dire conse-
quences to the consumers.
■ Nuclear hazards. The Chernobyl disaster is
a continuing example of transport of radio-
active corrosion products in water, fatal to
human, animal and biological life.
The magnitude of corrosion would depend
upon the sensitivity of a particular metal or
alloy to a specific environment. For instance,
copper corrodes rapidly in the presence of
ammonia and it is a serious problem in agri-
cultural areas. Many historical statues made
from bronze have been destroyed by ammonia
released from fertilizers. Environmental condi-
tioning offers one method of controlling cor-
rosion, such as the use of inhibitors and oil
transmission pipelines.
1.5 Cost of Corrosion
In a study of corrosion cost conducted jointly
by C. C. Technologies Inc., USA [6], Federal
Highway Agencies (FHWA), USA [7] and
National Association of Corrosion Engineers [8],
the direct corrosion cost was estimated to be
around 276 billion US dollars, approximately
3.1% of the national gross domestic product.
Based on an extensive survey conducted by
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
Ohio, USA and National Institute of Standards
andTechnology(NIST),in1975, thecostwasesti-
mated to be 82 billion US dollars, which would
have exceeded 350 billion US dollars in view of
price inflation over the last twenty-five years.
Because of the long time involved in conduct-
ing cost structure, it is not possible to update
the information every year. However, both stud-
ies show that corrosion costs are staggering and
a figure of about 350 billion US dollars appears
to be a reasonable estimate for another two to
three years. At least 35% of the above amount
could have been saved by taking appropriate cor-
rosion control measures. In UK, the corrosion
cost is estimated to be 4–5% of the GNP [4].
In Japan, the cost of corrosion is estimated to be
5258 trillion Yen per year. For most industrialized
nations, the average corrosion cost is 3.5–4.5%
21. 4 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
of the GNP. Below are some startling figures of
corrosion losses:
■ The corrosion cost of gas and liquid transmis-
sion pipelines in USA exceeds seven billion
US dollars. The figure for the major oil pro-
ducing countries in the Gulf region are not
known, however the cost expected to be very
high because of highly corrosive environment
in the region [8].
■ The corrosion-free life of automobiles in the
coastal regions of Arabian Gulf is about six
months only [9].
■ Nearly 95% of concrete damage in the
Arabian Gulf coastal region is caused by rein-
forcement corrosion and consequent spalling
of concrete [10].
■ It is estimated that 10% of all aircraft
maintenance in USA is spent on corrosion
remediation [11].
■ Major annual corrosion losses to the tune of
£350 million in transport, £280 million in
marine, £250 million in buildings and con-
struction and £180 million in oil and chemical
industries, have been reported in UK [12].
These are uncorrected 1971 figures.
■ About $120 billion is spent on maintenance
of aging and deteriorating infrastructures in
USA [13].
■ Automotive corrosion costs 23.4 billion US
dollars annually in USA [8].
■ Every new born baby in the world now has an
annual corrosion debt of $40.
1.6 Breakdown of
Spending on Corrosion
The petroleum, chemical, petrochemical, con-
struction, manufacturing, pulp and paper
and transportation (railroad, automotive and
aerospace) industries are the largest contributors
to corrosion expenditure. The cost of corrosion
differs from country to country. For instance
in USA, the transportation sector is the largest
sector contributing to corrosion after public util-
ities, whereas in the oil producing countries,
such as the Arabian Gulf countries, petroleum
and petrochemical industries are the largest
contributor to corrosion expenditure. The high-
way sector in USA alone includes 4 000 000 miles
of highways, 583 000 bridges, which need corro-
sion remediation maintenance [8]. The annual
direct corrosion cost estimated to be 8.3 billion
US dollars. The direct corrosion of transportation
sector is estimated to be 29.7 billion US dollars.
It includes the corrosion cost of aircraft, haz-
ardous materials transport, motor vehicles, rail-
road car and ships [8]. In the oil sector, drilling
poses severe hazards to equipment in the form
of stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen induced
cracking and hydrogen sulfide cracking [6]. In
USA alone this sector costs more than 1.2 billion
US dollars. The cost is very staggering in major
oil producing countries, like Saudi Arabia, Iran,
Iraq and Kuwait. The direct cost of corrosion to
aircraft industry exceeds 2.2 billion US dollars [8].
Corrosion has a serious impact on defense
equipment. In the Gulf War, a serious prob-
lem of rotor blade damage in helicopter was
caused by the desert sand. The thickness of the
blade was reduced to 2–3 mm in some instances.
The desert erosion–corrosion offered a new chal-
lenge to corrosion scientists and engineers. The
storage of defense equipment is a serious matter
for countries with corrosive environments, such
as Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and Southeast Asia.
Humidity is the biggest killer of defense hardware.
Storageofdefenseequipmentdemandsminimum
humidity, scanty rainfall, alkaline soil, no dust
storms, no marine environment and minimal
dust particles.
From the above summary, it is observed that
corrosion exists everywhere and there is no indus-
try or house where it does not penetrate and it
demands a state of readiness for engineers and
scientists to combat this problem.
1.7 Corrosion Science
and Corrosion
Engineering
The term science covers theories, laws and
explanation of phenomena confirmed by inter-
subjective observation or experiments. For
22. Introduction to corrosion 5
instance, the explanation of different forms of
corrosion, rates of corrosion and mechanism
of corrosion is provided by corrosion science.
Corrosionscienceisa‘knowingwhy’ofcorrosion.
The term engineering, contrary to science, is
directed towards an action for a particular pur-
pose under a set of directions and rules for
action and in a well-known phrase it is ‘know-
ing how.’ Corrosion engineering is the appli-
cation of the principles evolved from corrosion
science to minimize or prevent corrosion. Corro-
sion engineering involves designing of corrosion
prevention schemes and implementation of spe-
cific codes and practices. Corrosion prevention
measures, like cathodic protection, designing
to prevent corrosion and coating of structures
fall within the regime of corrosion engineering.
However, corrosion science and engineering go
hand-in-hand and they cannot be separated: it is
a permanent marriage to produce new and better
methods of protection from time to time.
1.8 Inter-disciplinary
Nature of Corrosion
The subject of corrosion is inter-disciplinary
and it involves all basic sciences, such as
physics, chemistry, biology and all disciplines of
engineering, such as civil, mechanical, electrical
and metallurgical engineering.
1.9 Corrosion
Education
The subject of corrosion has undergone an irre-
versible transformation from a state of isolated
and obscurity to a recognized discipline of engi-
neering. From the three universities in USA
which offered courses in corrosion in 1946, cor-
rosion courses are now offered by almost all
major technical universities and institutions in
USA, UK, Europe, Southeast Asia, Africa and
Japan. Corrosion is now considered as an essen-
tial component of design. Learned societies like
National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
European Federation of Corrosion, Japan Society
of Corrosion Engineers and others are playing
leading role in the development of corrosion
engineering education. Detailed information on
corrosion education, training centers, oppor-
tunities in corrosion can be found in various
handbooks and websites. Some sources of infor-
mation are listed in the bibliography. As a
consequence of cumulative efforts of corrosion
scientists and engineers, corrosion engineering
has made quantum leaps and it is actively con-
tributing to technological advancement ranging
from building structures to aerospace vehicles.
1.10 Functional
Aspects of Corrosion
Corrosion may severely affect the following
functions of metals, plant and equipment:
(1) Impermeability: Environmental constitu-
ents must not be allowed to enter pipes,
process equipment, food containers, tanks,
etc. to minimize the possibility of corrosion.
(2) Mechanical strength: Corrosion should not
affect the capability to withstand specified
loads, and its strength should not be under-
mined by corrosion.
(3) Dimensional integrity: Maintaining dimen-
sions is critical to engineering designs and
they should not be affected by corrosion.
(4) Physical properties: For efficient operation,
the physical properties of plants, equipment
and materials, such as thermal conduc-
tivity and electrical properties, should not be
allowed to be adversely affected by corrosion.
(5) Contamination: Corrosion, if allowed to
build up, can contaminate processing equip-
ment, food products, drugs and pharma-
ceutical products and endanger health and
environmental safety.
(6) Damage to equipment: Equipment adjacent
to one which has suffered corrosion failure,
may be damaged.
Realizing that corrosion effectively blocks
or impairs the functions of metals, plants
23. 6 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
and equipment, appropriate measures must
be adopted to minimize loss or efficiency of
function.
1.10.1 Health, Safety,
Environmental and
Product Life
These can involve the following:
(1) Safety: Sudden failure can cause explo-
sions and fire, release of toxic products and
collapse of structures. Several incidents of fire
have been reported due to corrosion causing
leakage of gas and oil pipelines. Corrosion
adversely affects the structural integrity of
components and makes them susceptible
to failure and accident. More deaths are
caused by accidents in old cars because of
the weakening of components by corrosion
damage. Corrosion has also been a significant
factor in several accidents involving civil and
military aircraft and other transportation
vehicles. Corrosion failure involving bridges,
ships, airports, stadiums are too numerous
to be mentioned in detail in this chapter
and recorded in the catalog of engineering
disasters [11].
(2) Health: Adverse effects on health may be
caused by corroding structures, such as a
plumbing system affecting the quality of
water and escaping of products into the
environment from the corroded structures.
(3) Depletion of resources: Corrosion puts
a heavy constraint on natural resources
of a country because of their wastage by
corrosion. The process of depletion out-
weighs the discovery of new resources which
may lead to a future metal crisis similar to the
past oil shortage.
(4) Appearance and cleanliness: Whereas anes-
thetics numb the senses, aesthetics arouse
interest, stimulate and appeal to the senses,
particularly the sense of beauty. A product
designed to function properly must have
an aesthetic appeal. Corrosion behaves like
a beast to a beauty. It destroys the aes-
thetic appeal of the product and damages
the product image which is a valuable asset
to a corporation. Surface finishing processes,
such as electroplating, anodizing, mechan-
ical polishing, electro polishing, painting,
coating, etching and texturing all lead to the
dual purpose of enhancement of aesthetic
value and surface integrity of the product.
(5) Product life: Corrosion seriously shortens
the predicted design life, a time span after
which replacement is anticipated. Cars have,
in general, a design life of twelve years, but
several brands survive much longer. A DC-3
aircraft has a design life of twenty years but
after sixty years they are still flying. The
Eiffel Tower had a design life of two years
only, and even after one hundred years it is
still a grand symbol of Paris. The reason for
their survival is that the engineers made use
of imaginative designs, environmental resis-
tant materials and induction of corrosion-
free maintenance measures. Distinguished
and evocative designs always survive whereas
designs of a transitory nature deteriorate
to extinction with time. Design life is a
process of imagination, material selection
and corrosion-free maintenance.
(6) Restoration of corroded objects: Objects of
outstanding significance to natural history
need to be preserved. Many historical struc-
tures have been lost through the ravages of
corrosion. One recent example is the call for
help to restore the revolutionary iron-hulled
steamships Great Britain built in 1843. It has
been described as mother of all modern ships,
measuring 3000 feet in length and weighing
1930 tons. A plea for £100 000 has been made
for its restoration.
1.11 Five Good Reasons
to Study Corrosion
(1) Materials are precious resources of a country.
Our material resources of iron, aluminum,
copper, chromium, manganese, titanium,
etc. are dwindling fast. Some day there
will be an acute shortage of these materials.
An impending metal crisis does not seem
24. Introduction to corrosion 7
anywhere to be a remote possibility but a
reality. There is bound to be a metal crisis
and we are getting the signals. To preserve
these valuable resources, we need to under-
stand how these resources are destroyed by
corrosion and how they must be preserved by
applying corrosion protection technology.
(2) Engineering knowledge is incomplete
without an understanding of corrosion.
Aeroplanes, ships, automobiles and other
transport carriers cannot be designed with-
out any recourse to the corrosion behavior of
materials used in these structures.
(3) Several engineering disasters, such as crash-
ing of civil and military aircraft, naval and
passenger ships, explosion of oil pipelines
and oil storage tanks, collapse of bridges and
decks and failure of drilling platforms and
tanker trucks have been witnessed in recent
years. Corrosion has been a very important
factor in these disasters. Applying the knowl-
edge of corrosion protection can minimize
such disasters. In USA, two million miles
of pipe need to be corrosion-protected for
safety.
(4) The designing of artificial implants for the
human body requires a complete under-
standing of the corrosion science and
engineering. Surgical implants must be
very corrosion-resistant because of corrosive
nature of human blood.
(5) Corrosion is a threat to the environment. For
instance, water can become contaminated
by corrosion products and unsuitable for
consumption. Corrosion prevention is inte-
gral to stop contamination of air, water and
soil. The American Water Works Association
needs US$ 325 billion in the next twenty years
to upgrade the water distribution system.
Questions
Conceptual Questions
1. Explain how corrosion can be considered as
extractive metallurgy in reverse.
2. Listfiveimportantconsequencesofcorrosion.
3. Which is the most common cause of cor-
rosion damage, corrosion fatigue, stress
corrosion cracking or pitting corrosion?
4. Describe with an example how cor-
roded structures can lead to environmen-
tal pollution.
5. Does corrosion affect humans? If so,
explain how.
6. Describe two engineering disasters in which
corrosion played a leading role.
7. State two important corrosion websites.
8. How can corroded structures be injurious to
human health?
9. Name three cities in Southeast Asia and the
Middle East which have the most corrosive
environment.
10. What is the best way to minimize the corro-
sion of defense equipment during storage?
11. What is the relationship between depletion of
natural resources and corrosion?
References
[1] Walsh, F. (1991). Faraday and his laws of elec-
trolysis. Bulletin of Electrochem, 7, 11, 481–489.
[2] Schönbein, C. (1936). Pogg. Ann., 37, 390.
[3] Evans, U.R. (1972). An Introduction to Metallic
Corrosion, 2nd ed. London: Arnold.
[4] Uhlig, H.H. (1985). Corrosion and Corrosion
Control, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
[5] Fontana, M.G. (1986). Corrosion Engineer-
ing, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
[6] C. C. Technologies Laboratories, Inc. (2001).
Cost of corrosion and prevention strategies in
the United States, Ohio: Dublin, USA.
[7] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),
Office of the Infrastructure and Development
(2001). Report FHWA-RD-01-156.
[8] National Association of Corrosion Engineers
(NACE) (2002). Materials Performance, Special
Issue, Houston, Texas, USA, July. Jointly with
C. C. Technologies and FHWA.
[9] Ahmad, Z. (1996). Corrosion phenomena in
coastal area of Arabian Gulf. British Corrosion
Journal, 31, (2), 191–197.
[10] Rashid-uz-Zafar, S., Al-Sulaiman, G.J. and
Al-Gahtani, A.S. (1992). Symp. Corrosion and
the Control, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May, 110.
[11] Tullmin, M.A.A., Roberge, P.R., Grenier, L. and
Little, M.A. (1990). Canadian Aeronautics and
Space Journal, 42, (2), 272–275.
25. 8 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
[12] Hoar, T.P. (1971). Report of the Committee on
Corrosion and Protection, London: HMSO.
[13] Latanisian, R.M., Leslie, G.G., McBrine, N.J.,
Eselman, T.etal. (1999). Applicationofpractical
ageing management concepts to corrosion engi-
neering, Keynote Address. 14th ICC, Capetown,
South Africa, 26 Sep–10 Oct.
General References
[14] Hackerman, N. (1993). A view of the history
of corrosion and its control. In: Gundry,
R.D. ed. Corrosion 93 Planery and Keynote
Lectures, Texas: NACE, Houston, 1–5.
[15] Pliny (1938). Natural History of the World.
London: Heinemann.
[16] Hoare, T.P. (1971). Report of the Commit-
tee on Corrosion and Protection. London:
HMSO.
[17] Uhlig, H.H. (1949). Chemical and Engineer-
ing News, 97, 2764.
[18] N. B. S. (1978). Corrosion in United States,
Standard Special Publication.
[19] Bennett, L.H. (1978). Economic Effects of
Metallic Corrosion in USA, Special Publica-
tion 511-1, Washington, DC.
Websites
[20] www.intercorrosion.com
[21] www.learncorrosion.com
[22] www.nace.org
[23] www.iom3.org
Software
[24] NACE: Basic Corrosion (National Asso-
ciation of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,
Texas), Course on CD-Rom, 2002.
[25] Corrosion Survey Data Base (COR.SUR),
access via NACE website, NACE, Houston,
Texas, 2003.
[26] Rover Electronic Data Books™, William
Andrew, Inc., New York, USA, 2002.
[27] Peabody, A.W. Control of Pipeline Corro-
sion, 2nd Edition, Ed. R. Bianchette, NACE,
Houston, Texas, 2003.
[28] Corrosion Damage: A Practical Approach,
NACE, Houston, Texas, 2003.
26. C h a p t e r
2
Basic Concepts in
Corrosion
For corrosion to take place, the formation
of a corrosion cell is essential. A corrosion
cell is essentially comprised of the following four
components (Fig. 2.1).
■ Anode
■ Cathode
■ Electrolyte
■ Metallic path.
Anode: One of the two dissimilar metal electrodes
in an electrolytic cell, represented as the
negative terminal of the cell. Electrons are
released at the anode, which is the more
reactive metal. Electrons are insoluble in
aqueous solutions and they only move,
through the wire connection into the cath-
ode. For example, in a battery, zinc cas-
ing acts as the anode. Also in a Daniel cell,
zinc is the anode as oxidation occurs on it and
electrons are released (Fig. 2.2). Corrosion
nomenclature is the opposite of electroplat-
ing nomenclature, where an anode is positive
and the cathode is negative.
Cathode: One of the two electrodes in an elec-
trolytic cell represented as a positive terminal
of a cell. Reduction takes place at the cathode
and electrons are consumed. Example, car-
bon electrode in a battery, copper electrode
in a Daniel cell. Figure 2.3 shows the reduc-
tion of hydrogen ion. The electron is always a
reducing agent.
Electrolyte: It is the electrically conductive solu-
tion (e.g. salt solution) that must be present
for corrosion to occur. Note that pure water
is a bad conductor of electricity. Positive elec-
tricity passes from anode to cathode through
the electrolyte as cations, e.g. Zn++ ions dis-
solvefromazincanodeandthuscarrypositive
current away from it, through the aqueous
electrolyte.
Metallic Path: The two electrodes are connected
externally by a metallic conductor. In the
metallic conductor, ‘conventional ’ current
flows from (+) to (−) which is really elec-
trons flowing from (−) to (+). Metals provide
a path for the flow of conventional current
which is actually passage of electrons in the
opposite direction.
Current Flow: Conventional current flows from
anode (−) to cathode (+) as Zn++ ions
through the solution. The current is carried
by these positive charged ions. The circuit is
completed by passage of electrons from the
anode (−) to the cathode (+) through the
external metallic wire circuit (outer current).
Electron Flow:
H+
+ e → H, 2H → H2 ↑
Although the anode (e.g. Fe or Zn) is the most
negative of the two metals in the cell, this reac-
tion does not occur there because its surface
is emanating Fe++ ions which repel H+ ions
from discharging there. The circuit is com-
pleted by negative ions (−) which migrate
from the cathode (+), through the elec-
trolyte, towards the anode (−). They form
27. 10 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
Figure 2.1 Corrosion cell in action
Fe(OH)2 when they enter the cloud of Fe++
ions coming from the anode.
Anions: Migrate towards the anode (OH−)
but precipitate as Fe(OH)2 before reach-
ing it.
Cations: Migrate towards the cathode (Fe2+).
Figure 2.2 A galvanic cell (Daniel cell)
Current flow in an electrochemical cell is
shown in Fig. 2.4.
2.1 Anodic and
Cathodic Reactions
The anode is the area where metal is lost. At the
anode, the reactions which take place are oxida-
tion reactions. It represents the entry of metal ion
into the solution, by dissolution, hydration or by
complex formation. It also includes precipitation
of metal ions at the metal surface. For example
Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2. Ferrous hydroxide
or rust formation on steel surface is a common
example. Some more examples are:
(a) 2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2 ↑
(b) Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2 ↑
28. Basic concepts in corrosion 11
Figure 2.3 Figure showing the reduction of
hydrogen in an acid electrolyte
(c) Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 ↑
(d) Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ↑
The reactions (a–d) involve the release of
hydrogen gas. All the reactions shown above
Figure 2.4 Current flow in an electrochemical cell
involve oxidation to a higher valence state.
Reactions(a–d)canbewrittenintermsofelectron
transfer as below:
(a) Al → Al3+
+ 3e
(b) Fe → Fe2+ + 2e
(c) Zn → Zn2+
+ 2e
(d) Zn → Zn2+
+ 2e
Anodic reaction in terms of electron transfer
is written as
M → Mn+
+ ne
2.2 Anodic Reactions
Characteristics
(1) Oxidation of metal to an ion with a charge.
(2) Release of electrons.
(3) Shift to a higher valence state.
The process of oxidation in most metals and
alloys represents corrosion. Hence, if oxidation is
stopped, corrosion is stopped.
29. 12 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
2.3 Cathodic Reactions
Characteristics
Cathodic reactions are reduction reactions which
occur at the cathode. Electrons released by the
anodic reactions are consumed at the cathode
surface. Unlike an anodic reaction, there is a
decrease in the valence state. The most common
cathodic reactions in terms of electrons transfer
are given below:
(a) 2H+ + 2e → H2 ↑ (in acid solution)
(b) O2 + 4H+4e → 2H2O (in acid solution)
(c) 2H2O + O2 + 4e → 4OH− (in neutral and
alkaline solutions)
(d) Fe3+ + e → Fe+2 (metal ion reduction in
ferric salt solutions)
(e) Metal deposition: M2+ + 2e → M
Ni++
+ 2e → Ni
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
(f) Bacterial reduction of sulfate: SO2−
4 +8H+ +
8e → S− + 4H2O
Figure 2.5 Typical galvanic cell
2.4 Types of Corrosion
Cells
There are several types of corrosion cells:
(1) Galvanic cells
(2) Concentration cells
(3) Electrolytic cell
(4) Differential temperature cells.
2.4.1 Galvanic Cells
The galvanic cell may have an anode or cathode
of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte or the same
metal in dissimilar conditions in a common elec-
trolyte. For example, steel and copper electrodes
immersed in an electrolyte (Fig. 2.5), represents
a galvanic cell. The more noble metal copper acts
as the cathode and the more active iron acts as an
anode. Current flows from iron anode to copper
cathode in the electrolyte.
30. Basic concepts in corrosion 13
2.4.2 Concentration Cells
This is similar to galvanic cells except with an
anode and cathode of the same metal in a het-
erogeneous electrolyte. Consider the corrosion of
a pipe in the soil. Concentration cells may be set
up by:
(a) Variation in the amount of oxygen in soils.
(b) Differences in moisture content of soils.
(c) Differences in compositions of the soil.
Concentration cells are commonly observed
in underground corroding structures, such as
buried pipes or tanks (Fig. 2.6). The inequality of
dissolved chemicals causes a potential difference
which establishes anode in the more concen-
trated region and cathode in the less concentrated
region.
2.4.3 Electrolytic Cell
This type of cell is formed when an external cur-
rent is introduced into the system. It may consist
of all the basic components of galvanic cells and
concentration cells plus an external source of
electrical energy.
Notice that anode has a (+) polarity and
cathode has (−) polarity in an electrolytic cell,
where external current is applied. This is the type
of cell set up for electrically protecting the struc-
tures by cathodic protection. The polarity of an
electrolytic cell is opposite to that in a galvanic
(corrosion) cell (Fig. 2.7).
Figure 2.6 Concentration cell formation in an underground pipeline
Figure 2.7 Electrolytic cell. The cathode and anode
can be any metal
2.5 Mechanism of
Corrosion of Iron
Consider a piece of iron exposed to humid air
which acts as an electrolyte. Fe2+ ions are released
from the anode by oxidation and OH− ions from
the cathode by reduction on the metal surface.
31. 14 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
The negative and positive ions combine
Fe++
+ 2OH−
→Fe(OH)2
(white green precipitate)
Fe(OH)2 is insoluble in water and separates from
the electrolyte. A more familiar name of Fe(OH)2
is rust.
Details of reactions involved in the corrosion
of iron-based materials is given below:
(1) Fe + H2O FeO + 2H+ + 2e− Forms
monolayer of FeO islands
(2) Fe + 2H2O → Fe(OH)2 + 2H+ + 2e
(3) 3FeO + H2O → Fe3O4 + 2H+ + 2e
(Black) (Magnetite)
(4) 2Fe3O4+H2O → 3(γ −Fe2O3)+2H++2e−
(Brown)
(5) 2[γ − Fe2O3] + 3H2O → 6(γ − FeOOH)
(Brown) (Yellow hydrated oxide)
The formation of rust, Fe(OH)2, is shown in
Fig. 2.8.
2.6 Concept of Free
Energy
In this section the relationship between free
energy and equilibrium constant is shown. The
contribution made by one mole of any con-
stituent, A, to the total free energy, G, of a mixture
is GA, which may be represented by
GA = G◦
A + RT ln aA (2.1)
Figure 2.8 Formation of rust in seawater
where
aA = activity of the substance,
T = absolute temperature,
and R = gas constant.
From the Gibbs–Helmholtz equation:
G = H − TS (2.2)
Substituting H = U + PV from the First Law of
Thermodynamics
F = PV − TS (2.3)
Differentiating:
dG = dU + PdV + VdP − TdS − SdT (2.4)
But for a reversible process,
dU = qrev − PdV at constant pressure and
qrev = TdS at constant temperature (2.5)
So,
dG = TdS − PdV + PdV + VdP
− TdS − SdT
i.e. dG = VdP − SdT, for a reversible process
at constant pressure and temperature.
(2.6)
At constant pressure, dP vanishes and this
becomes:
dG
dT
= −S
32. Basic concepts in corrosion 15
and at constant temperature dT vanishes and:
dG = VdP
However, the ideal gas equation for 1 mole is
PV =RT
V =
RT
P
→dG =
RT
P
dP, since dG =VdP
(2.7)
Integration between the limits G
A, GA and
P
A, PA gives:
GA
G
A
dG =
PA
P
A
RT
P
dP
GA −G
A =RT ln
PA
P
A
(2.8)
If GA is taken to refer for standard conditions,
GA −G
A =RT ln PA
or GA =G∗
A =RT ln PA
(2.9)
If activities are used instead of pressures, then as
in equation (2.1)
GA =G◦
A +RT ln aA
Applying G for the reaction
aA+bB ↔cC +dD
gives
G =(cGc +dGd)−(aGA +bGB) (2.10)
Using expression (2.1) for GA, GB, GC and GD:
G =c
G◦
C +RT ln aC
+d
G◦
D +RT ln aD
−a
G◦
A +RT ln aA
−b
G◦
B +RT ln aB
So, for 1 mole of forward reaction
G =G◦
+RT ln
ac
C ad
D
aa
Aab
B
(Van’t Hoff reaction isotherm) (2.11)
At equilibrium
G =0
and
ac
C ad
D
aa
Aab
B
=K, where K is the equilibrium
constant.
0=G◦
+RT ln K
G◦
=−RT ln K (2.12)
(∵G◦ is always =−RT ln K)
2.6.1 Free Energy (The
Driving Force of a
Chemical Reaction)
A chemical reaction at constant temperature and
pressure will only occur if there is an overall
decrease in the free energy of the system during
the reaction. Consider the following two reactions
for example:
(a) ZnO(s)+C(s)→Zn(s)+CO(g) at 1373K
S◦ =+285JK−1 mol−1
H◦ =+349.9kJ·mol−1
(b) Fe(s)+ 1
2 O2(g)→FeO(s)
S◦ =−71JK−1 mol−1
FeO
H◦ =+265.5kJ·mol−1
FeO
In example (b), both H◦ and S◦ work in
opposite signs to each other in terms of direction
of energy change, however, both of them pro-
ceed spontaneously as indicated. It is important
to know which one would decide the direction
of the reaction (H◦ or S◦). We must, there-
fore, introduce a single function expressing the
combined effect of change of both H and S.
Of the total enthalpy of the system only a part
33. 16 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
is converted to useful work, which is called free
energy (G). It can be defined in terms of H,
S and T. The relationship between the three is
deduced as
H◦
−G◦
=TS◦
(2.13)
which is a statement of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics and may be rearranged to:
G =H −TS (2.14)
G is thus a driving force for a reaction to
occur. Reactions at constant temperature and
pressure proceed in a direction which tends to
cause a decrease in free energy. G can be used
to predict the feasibility of a reaction as shown
below.
For a chemical reaction where the reactants
(A+B) react to yield the product (C +D)
according to
A+B →C +D (2.15)
the free energy change of the reaction can be
expressed as
G =GP −GR (2.16)
G =(HP −HR)−T(SP −SR) (2.17)
G =H −TS (2.18)
where
P = products
R = reactants.
(a) If the value of free energy change is negative,
the reactions will be spontaneous and take
place from left to right (A+B →C +D).
(b) If the value of the free energy change is
zero, the reaction is at equilibrium (A+B
C +D).
(c) If the value of the free energy change is pos-
itive, the reaction will proceed in the reverse
direction (A+B ←C +D).
It is not possible to obtain the absolute value
of free energy for a reaction. However, the change
in free energy can be measured.
Illustrative Example 2.1
Calculate G◦ for the following reaction at 500 K.
CuO(s)+H2(g)→Cu(s)+H2O
Solution:
H◦
500 =−87kJ·mol−1
S◦
500 =+47JK−1
mol−1
G =H◦
−TS◦
=−87000−(500×47)J·mol−1
=110.5kJ·mol−1
G◦ is negative (−ve), hence the reaction is
feasible.
Ever if G◦ were positive, a reaction produc-
ing gas pressures of products of less than unit
activity (=1 bar, for gases) is possible. The sign
of G◦ only predicts spontaneity if all activities
are unity.
2.6.2 Cell Potentials
and EMF
Electrochemical cells generate electrical energy
due to electrochemical reactions. The electrical
energy available is
Electrical energy=volts×current×time
=volts×coulombs
=EQ
where
Q =nF
n is the number of electrons involved in the
chemical reaction
F is Faraday’s constant = 96 500 C (g equiv.)−1
The gram equivalent is the number of moles
divided by the number of electrons involved
in the reaction
E is electromotive force (emf) of the cell (volts).
Any work performed can only be done
through a decrease in free energy of the cell
34. Basic concepts in corrosion 17
reaction, hence,
G =−nFE
where
G = free energy change (joules)
E = standard potential of the reaction (volts).
Illustrative Example 2.2
(1) Calculate the standard enthalpy change for
the following reaction at 298 K:
2PbS(s)+3O2(g)→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
Solution:
Given that the standard enthalpies of forma-
tion are:
H◦
298PbS=−94.5kJ·mol−1
H◦
298PbO(s)=−220.5kJ·mol−1
H◦
298SO2(g)=−298kJ·mol−1
Rewrite the equation:
2PbS(s)+3O2(g)→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓
2(−94.5) 3(0) 2(−220.5) 2(−298.0)
The standard enthalpy of formation of an
element is taken as zero at 298 K.
Using equation:
H =H2 −H1, where H2 = total enthalpy of
formation of products and
H1 is for the reactants
H =[2(−220.5)+2(−298)]−[2(−94.5)+0]
=−848.0kJ
(2) For the equilibrium ZnO(s)+C(s)⇔
Zn(s)+CO(g)
(a) Deduce the direction in which the reac-
tion would be feasible at 300 and 1200 K,
when all reactants and products are in
their standard states (i.e. unit activities).
(b) Deduct Kp for the reaction using the
relationship G◦ =H◦ −TS◦ for
the reaction.
Given enthalpies and entropies of reaction:
H300 =+65kJmol−1
S300 =+13.7JK−1
mol−1
H1200 =+180.9kJ·mol−1
S1200 =+288.6JK−1
mol−1
Solution:
(a) For reaction at 300 K:
(1) G◦ =65000−(300×13.7)
=60890J·mol−1
For reaction at 1200 K:
(2) G◦ =180900−(1200×288.6)
=−165420J·mol−1
As G◦ is negative for the reaction
at 1200 K, the reaction proceeds from
left to right in the forward direction
at 1200 K. The forward reaction is not
feasible at 300 K to produce 1 bar of
CO2 from 1 bar of CO: but it would
form much lower CO2 pressures spon-
taneously. Such low CO2 pressures
would not be sufficient to ‘push back
the atmosphere’ and so effectively no Zn
would be produced.
(b) Calculation of Kp.
The equilibrium constant (K) is given by
G =G◦
+RT ln
ac
C ad
D
aa
Aab
B
(2.19)
but the term in parenthesis is not K,
but is any arbitrary non-equilibrium
activity for which G is the free energy
change if such a reaction was carried out.
35. 18 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
At equilibrium G =0, and then
ac
C ad
D/aa
Aab
B =K equilibrium constant =
G◦ +RT ln K.
So, G◦
=−RT lnK (2.20)
Equation (2.19) can be rewritten as:
G =G◦
+RT ln
PC PD
PAPB
where P is partial pressure (actual)
assuming A, B, C and D are gases. The
above equation connecting G and K is
a form of van’t Hoff isotherm.
Now calculate Kp
ln Kp =−
G◦
RT
At 1200 K,
log10 Kp =
−165420
2.303×8.314×1200
=7.197
So, Kp =1.574×107.
Similarly at 300 K, Kp =2.512×10−11.
The value of Kp at 1200 shows that
the reaction proceeds fast (left to right)
comparedtothereactionat300K,which
proceeds at a negligible rate. At 1200 K,
bright red hot, reaction kinetics are fast
and it is safe to interpret a large K
value as a meaning that reaction is fast.
But the reaction 2H2 +O2 =2H2O has
a very large K value at room tem-
perature, yet is negligibly slow (unless
sparked), due to the very slow kinetics
at room temperature. K is a thermo-
dynamic factor, but kinetics may allow
only a negligible rate.
2.7 Reversible
Electrode Potential
When a metal is immersed in an electrolyte,
a dynamic equilibrium is established across the
interface with a potential difference between the
metal and electrolyte. The atoms of the metal,
M, ionize producing aquo-ions, Mn+(aq), and
electrons, ne, according to
M=Mn+
(aq)+ne (2.21)
where M represents metal atoms. The metal
is left with a negative charge and its positively
charged metal ions, Mn+(aq), in the electrolyte
are attracted back towards the metal surface.
Thus, a potential difference and dynamic equi-
librium between the metal and the solution
is established. The atoms of the metal con-
tinue to ionize until the displacement of elec-
trical charges produced balances the tendency
of the metallic atoms to ionize into the elec-
trolyte.
Consider, for example, a piece of zinc metal
in water. Zinc dissolves producing positively
charged zinc ions (cations):
Zn→Zn2+
+2e (2.22)
The zinc ions in the solution remain very close
to the metal surface. The zinc metal becomes
negatively charged as the positive ions leave its
surface. The excess electrons on the zinc sur-
face orient themselves opposite to a layer of zinc
ions of equal and opposite charge on the water
side of the zinc/water interface. Such a process
leads to the formation of an electrical double
layer of about 1 nm (10−7 cm) thickness along the
metal/solution interface (Fig. 2.9).
Figure 2.9A shows the metal/solution inter-
face at the moment of immersion and the forma-
tion of double layer is shown in Figs 2.9B and C.
The double layer shown in Figs 2.9B and C is
formed as a result of attraction between the neg-
ative ions (anions) and positive ions (cations)
on one hand, and repulsion between similarly
charged ion, anions or cations on the other
hand. As a result of the above interactions,
cations diffuse amongst the anions until an equi-
librium is established between the metal and
solution, and between the bulk of the solu-
tion and the layer adjacent to the metal surface.
The plane passing through the ions absorbed on
the metal surface is called the Inner Helmholtz
36. Basic concepts in corrosion 19
Figure 2.9 Representation of electrical double layer at a metal/solution interface
plane, whereas the plane passing through the
center of solvated cation is called the Outer
Helmholtz plane, which also marks the begin-
ning of a diffuse layer when an excess of charges
is neutralized (Fig. 2.9C). At this stage, it is
sufficient to understand the meaning of double
layer to know the electrode potential. Return-
ing to equation (2.21), it should be noted
that under the equilibrium conditions in the
system, the rate of ionization on the metal
surface:
M→Mn+
+ne (2.23)
becomes equal to the rate of discharge across the
double layer:
Mn+
+ne →M (2.24)
In other words, the rate of forward reac-
tion (equation (2.23)) becomes equal to the rate
of backward reaction (equation (2.24)) on the
metal electrode. This is described as an exchange
current.
The double layer described above is respon-
sible for the establishment of potential differ-
ence between the metal and solution, and this
potential difference is referred to as ‘Absolute
Electrode Potential.’ More details will be given in
Chapter 3.
2.7.1 Examples of
Reversible Cells
Figure 2.2 shows a Daniel cell which is a good
example of a reversible cell. A Daniel cell can be
presented as follows:
Znmetal/MZn2+ //MCu2+ /Cumetal (2.25)
where:
MZn2+ =1.0 mol of zinc salt, as for example
ZnSO4 per liter
MCu2+ =1.0 mol of CuSO4 per liter.
When writing down a cell, it is common prac-
tice to put the anode on the left-hand side and the
cathode on the right-hand side. The anode is the
electrode where oxidation reaction takes place,
and the cathode is the electrode where reduction
reaction takes place. Accordingly, the reactions in
a Daniel cell can be written as:
Zn→Zn2+
+2e (Oxidation at anode) (2.26)
Cu2+
+2e →Cu (Reduction at cathode)(2.27)
An emf of 1.10 V is produced in a Daniel cell. This
potential is equal to the difference in potentials
between the anode and the cathode. It is called the
‘Reversible Cell Potential ’ (Erev) or ‘Equilibrium
Potential ’ (Eeq).
38. Basic concepts in corrosion 21
half cells, consider a Daniel cell, shown in Fig. 2.2.
In the cell shown, zinc rod is immersed in one
molar solution of zinc sulfate, and copper rod
in one molar solution of copper sulfate. The
two solutions, zinc sulfate and copper sulfate,
are separated by a porous pot, which prevents
them from mixing but allows electrical contact.
As shown in the figure, Zn in ZnSO4 (1.0 M)
forms one half cell and Cu in CuSO4 (1.0 M)
forms another half cell. Each half cell has its own
potential.
2.7.4 Reactions in the Cell
In Daniel cell, zinc dissolves and a potential is
set up between the zinc ions and zinc metal in
the zinc half cell. In the copper half cell, copper
ions are deposited on the copper metal and a
potential is set up. Once the half cells are in
equilibrium, no further deposition or dissolution
would occur. If, now, the two half cells are
joined by a conductor, as shown in Fig. 2.2, elec-
trons would flow from zinc (anode) to copper
(cathode). As a result of electron flow, the equilib-
rium in the half cells is distributed, and, therefore
zinc will dissolve further according to the anodic
reaction (oxidation),
Zn→Zn2+
+2e (2.28)
andcopperionswilldischargefromcoppersulfate
solution in order to remove the excess electrons
according to the cathodic reaction (reduction of
Cu++ ions to Cu metal):
Cu2+
+2e →Cu (2.29)
The overall reaction of the cell is the sum of the
above two half cell reactions:
Zn+Cu2+
→Zn2+
+Cu (2.30)
The emf of the cell is the algebraic sum of the
potentials of the half cells or ‘Standard Electrode
Potential: ’
Ecell =EZn/Zn2+ +ECu2+/Cu (2.31)
The above cell (Daniel cell) can also be
represented as:
Zn(s)/ZnSO4(1.0M)//CuSO4(1.0M)/Cu(s)
(2.32)
2.7.5 Standard Hydrogen
Potential (SHE) and
Measurement of Single
Electrode Potentials
Absolute single electrode potential is a char-
acteristic property of a metal. All metals have
characteristicelectrodepotentials. Absolutesingle
electrode potentials cannot be measured directly.
They can be measured with respect to a standard
electrode such as standard hydrogen electrode
(SHE). The standard hydrogen electrode is a
widely used standard electrode. It is arbitrarily
assumed to have zero potential at all temper-
atures by definition. Thus, it provides a zero
reference point for electrode potentials. The con-
struction of the standard hydrogen electrode is
shown in Fig. 2.10. As shown in the figure,
Figure 2.10 Hydrogen electrode
39. 22 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
a platinum electrode is dipped in a solution con-
taining hydrogen ions at unit activity. To obtain
hydrogen ions at unit activity, a solution of
one mol per liter HCl can be used. To obtain unit
activity of hydrogen gas, hydrogen is passed at one
atmospheric pressure over platinum plate in the
solution. The SHE is expressed as
H2 →2H+
+2e (2.33)
The most acceptable method of obtaining stan-
dard electrode potentials is by comparing the
electrode potential of metals with the standard
hydrogen electrode. Since the SHE has zero elec-
trode potential at all temperatures by definition,
the electrode potential of a metal is numerically
equal to the emf of the cell formed by SHE and the
metal electrode. In other words, the emf of the cell
represents the electrode potential of the half cell
formed by the metal with respect to the standard
hydrogen electrode. In such a cell, reaction on the
hydrogen electrode is oxidation and reaction on
the other electrode is reduction. Such a cell can be
expressed as:
Pt(s)/H2(1atm)//H+
, (aH+ =1)//M/Mn+
(2.34)
The activity or concentration of the Mn+ ion
solution needs to be specified, as cell potential will
vary with it.
The electrode reaction for such a cell can
be written as (considering reduction reactions as
convention):
Mn+
+ne =M (2.35)
for metal electrodes, and
nH+
+ne =
n
2
H2 (2.36)
for the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
The cell reaction is obtained by taking the
difference of equations (2.35) and (2.36) above:
Mn+
+
n
2
H2 =M+nH+
(2.37)
Reaction (2.37) is the complete reaction for
the cell expressed in equation (2.34) above, where
one of the electrodes is SHE and the other is
the metal electrode of which we want to measure
the single electrode potential. The emf of the cell
expressed in equation (2.34) is given by:
Ecell =EMn+/M −E◦
H+/H2
(2.38)
where E◦
H+/H2
(SHE), the electrode potential of
standard hydrogen electrode and is assumed
equal to zero at all temperatures by convention.
Therefore, equation (2.38) becomes:
Ecell =EMn+/M (2.39)
2.7.6 The Potential (EMF)
of a Cell
The emf of any cell is, therefore given by
Ecell =
ERight −E◦
(SHE)
Right
−
ELeft −E◦
(SHE)
Left
(2.40)
and
Ecell =ERight −ELeft (2.41)
As the potential of SHE cancels, no matter
what value it is, the emf of the cell, Ecell, is not
affected. The cell potential (emf) is positive if
the left-hand electrode is negative and the right-
hand electrode, positive. Consequently, oxidation
would occur on the left-hand electrode, and
reduction on the right-hand electrode.
2.8 Concentration
Cell
In a concentration cell, the emf results from
transportation of an electrolyte (anion, cation
or both) from the more concentrated solution
to the more dilute solution. Here the metal is
in contact with two half cells having the same
electrolyte at two different concentrations. Such
a cell is represented, for example, by two zinc
40. Basic concepts in corrosion 23
electrodes immersed in zinc sulfate solutions at
different concentrations:
Zn(s)/Zn2+
(0.1M)//Zn2+
(1.0M)/Zn(s) (2.42)
Another example of a concentration cell is two
standard hydrogen electrodes immersed into two
HCl solutions of different concentrations:
Pt(s)H2(g, 1atm)/HCl(a2)//
HCl(a1)/H2(g, 1atm)/Pt(s) (2.43)
In the above cell, HCl is in two different
concentrations. The activity (molality × activity
coefficient) a1 is greater than activity a2; a1 a2.
Several types of concentration cells are encoun-
tered in corrosion. For example, a concentration
cell is formed if one end of a pipe is exposed to soil
and the other end to air. The end of the pipe in air
is exposed to a high concentration of oxygen than
the end of the pipe in the soil. The formation of
a concentration cell leads to differential aeration
corrosion in buried structures in the soil.
2.9 Liquid Junction
Potential
For accurate measurement of emf, two conditions
must be satisfied:
(a) The cell reaction must be reversible and
(b) no current must be drawn from the cell.
The boundary between two electrolytic solu-
tions with different concentrations is a source
of irreversibility in measuring the emf of
the cells. The potential difference developed at
the boundary is called ‘Liquid Junction Potential.’
The potential difference is caused by the
migration of ions from one electrolyte to another
electrolyte. Let us take the case of concentrated
HCl forming a junction with dilute HCl. Both
H+ and Cl− ions diffuse from concentrated HCl
to dilute HCl. The hydrogen ion moves faster
and, therefore, the dilute solution becomes posi-
tively charged due to ingress of H+ ions from the
stronger acid solution and the more concentrated
solution thus acquires a relative negative charge.
The consequent potential difference across the
double layer, which is a positively charged layer in
the dilute solution side and a negatively charged
layer in the concentrated solution, may effect the
emf of the cell seriously in certain cases. It is gen-
erally believed that the difference in potential is
caused by the difference in the rate of diffusion
of oppositely charged ions. In the above exam-
ple, the charge acquired by a dilute solution is
that of the faster moving ion (H+); chloride ions
(Cl−) diffuse much slower. The magnitude of the
liquid junction potential may affect the reversible
potential positively or negatively depending on
the mobilities of the ions. The most common
method of removing liquid junction potential is
to insert a KCl salt bridge between the electrolytes.
Porous barriers are also used. The introduc-
tion of salt bridge minimizes the liquid junction
potential. The KCl contained in the bridge, allows
the migration of K+ and Cl− ions which carry
most of the current and migrate with the same
mobility.
The potential of zinc is more negative, hence
it is considered as an anode (Zn→Zn2+
+2e)
and the potential of nickel is less negative than
zinc, hence it is considered as a cathode (Ni2+
+
2e →Ni). The sign of the potential is changed for
zinc as it oxidizes. From the potential obtained
(+0.51 V), it is clear that the reaction will proceed
spontaneously.
2.10 Application of
Free Energy to
Corrosion Cells
It is known that corrosion reactions produce
electrical energy. The amount of work done
by a cell is equal to the quantity of electri-
cal energy which it generates under constant
pressure, temperature and concentration of the
reaction. In an electrochemical reaction, electri-
cal energy available is equal to the product of
potential of the cell and the quantity of electric-
ity involved (volts × amperes × time). That is,
Electrical energy = E×Q. This is equal to the net
work done by the cell. From Faraday’s law, Q is
41. 24 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
one Faraday (F) for each gram equivalent of the
reactants. For n gram equivalent of the reactants,
Q is equal to nF. Work can only be performed if
the free energy of the cell is decreased, as shown
in Section 2.6.2:
G =−nFE (2.44)
where
G = change in Gibbs free energy of a cell in
joules per mole
n = number of electrons involved in the
reaction
E = emf of the cell in volts.
Ifallsubstancesareintheirstandardstates(i.e.
at unit activity) the expression (2.44) becomes:
G◦
=−nFE◦
(2.45)
Illustrative Example 2.3
Forthecell[Cu/Cu2+(1.0M)]//[Zn2+
(1.0M)/Zn],
and the cell reaction Cu+Zn2+
→Cu2+ +Zn:
If G◦
298◦K =−147.5
kJ
mol−1
for Zn2+
and G◦
298◦K =63.35
kJ
mol−1
for Cu2+
Solution of the Problem:
G◦
Reaction =niG(i)−njG(j)
where
i = products
j = reactants
n = number of moles
∴G◦
Reaction =2[63.35+0−(−147.5+0)]
So,
G◦
Reaction =425.1
kJ
mol
Since,
G◦
Reaction =−nFE
=−2×96500×E
Hence,
E◦
Reaction =−0.002V
Reaction does not take place simultaneously.
2.11 Nernst Equation
The Nernst equation expresses the emf of a cell in
termsofactivitiesofproductsandreactantstaking
place in the cell reaction. Consider a general cell
reaction:
M1 +Mn+
2 M2 +Mn+
1 (2.46)
M1 and M2 represent metal electrodes, such as
Cu and Zn, in a cell, and the above reaction (2.46)
can be written as:
Cu+Zn2+
Zn+Cu2+
(2.47)
The free energy change (G) of a reaction is
given by the difference in the molar free energy
of products and reactants as shown in Section 2.6.
G =niG(i)−njG(j) (2.48)
Therefore, the free energy change for the
reaction (2.46) can be expressed as:
G◦
=(G◦
M2
+G◦
Mn+
1
)−(G◦
M1
+G◦
Mn+
2
) (2.49)
If the substances are in their standard states the
above expression becomes:
G◦
=(G◦
M2
+G◦
Mn+
1
)−(G◦
M1
+G◦
Mn+
2
) (2.50)
Free energies of any metal, such as M1 at its
standard state and any arbitrary state are related
through the following equation:
GM1 −G◦
M1
=RT ln aM1 (2.51)
where aM1 is the activity of metal M1, R
is the universal gas constant, and equal to
8.314 joules/degree/mole, and T is absolute
42. Basic concepts in corrosion 25
temperature in degrees Kelvin, ◦K, which is
(273.16 + t°C).
Subtracting equation (2.50) from equa-
tion (2.49), we get:
G−G◦
=
GM2 −G◦
M2
+ GMn+
1
−G◦
Mn+
1
−
GM1 −G◦
M1
− GMn+
2
−G◦
Mn+
2
Substituting from equation (2.51), we obtain:
G−G◦
=RT ln aM2 +RT ln aM1
−RT ln aM1 −RT ln aMn+
2
,
G−G◦
=RT ln
aM2 aMn+
1
aM1 aMn+
2
(2.52)
where the ‘a’ values are any arbitrary activity
values, for which G is the corresponding free
energy of that reaction. G◦ is the free energy
change for the reaction involving standard states
(unit activities).
As G =−nFE, and also G◦ =−nFE◦,
fromequations(2.44)and(2.45), respectively, the
above equation (2.52) becomes:
E−E◦
=
RT
nF
ln
aM1 aMn+
2
aM2 aMn+
1
(2.53)
whence
E−E◦
−
RT
nF
ln
aproduct
areactants
Suppose
M→Mz+
+ze
EM =E◦
M −
RT
nF
ln
az+
M ×zaz
e
=E◦
M −
RT
nF
ln
az+
M
because aM and ae =1.
At 25°C
EM =E◦
M −
0.059
2
log
az+
M
Equation (2.53) is a general form of the Nernst
equation. It expresses the emf involved in an
electrochemical reaction, such as equation (2.46)
in terms of R, T, F, n activities of products and
activities of reactants. However, the IUPAC sign
convention requires the above minus sign to be
replaced by a plus sign. The Nernst equation
is re-written to comply with the IUPAC sign
convention, as:
E =E◦
+
RT
nF
ln
oxidized state activities product
reduced state activities product
which is written regardless of which way round
the redox reaction is written, Hence, for
Zn=Zn++
+2e−, and for Zn++
+2e− =Zn,
E =E◦
+
RT
nF
ln aZn++ .
2.11.1 Application of
Nernst Equation to a
Corrosion Reaction
A corrosion reaction can be considered as com-
posed of two half cell reactions. One of the half
cell reactions corresponds to ‘oxidation reaction’
taking place on the ‘anode,’ and the other half cell
reaction corresponds to ‘reduction reaction’ taking
place on the ‘cathode’ of the cell. The contribution
of each half cell reaction to the Nernst expression
can be derived as follows:
M1 →Mn+
1 +ne (I) (2.54)
oxidation reaction at anode, and
Mn+
2 +ne →M2 (II) (2.55)
reduction reaction at cathode.
43. 26 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
Equation (2.53) can also be re-arranged
into expressions to correspond to reactions
(I) and (II):
E =E1 +E2 (2.56)
E = E◦
1 +
RT
nF
ln
aM1
an+
M1
+ E◦
2 +
RT
nF
ln
an+
M2
aM2
(2.57)
where
E◦
=standard potential, and E◦
=E◦
1 +E◦
2
E1 =E◦
1 +
RT
nF
ln
aM1
an+
M1
(2.58)
E2 =E◦
2 +
RT
nF
ln
an+
M2
aM2
(2.59)
and
E =E◦
+
RT
nF
ln
aM1 an+
M2
an+
M1
aM2
(2.60)
Equations (2.58) and (2.59) are Nernst equations
forthehalfcellreactionsandequation(2.60)isthe
Nernst equation for the complete cell reaction.
Equation (2.60) can be put into a mathematical
form:
E =E◦
+
RT
nF
ln
activities of reactants
activities of products
(2.61)
But, in addition to this statement (2.61), a sign
convention is necessary as already mentioned and
this will be discussed in the next section.
Since
RT
nF
ln=
2.303×8.314×(273+25)
96500
=0.05915 at 25◦
C
(2.62)
Equation (2.60) is more commonly used in the
form of
E =E◦
+
0.05915
n
×log
product of activities of reactants
product of activities of products
(2.63)
The expression (2.61) can also be written with the
activities inverted, as
E =E◦
−
RT
nF
ln
product of activities of products
product of activities of reactants
(2.64)
But this equation is incomplete without a sign
convention.
Quite separate from the above considerations,
standardRedoxpotentialsaretabulatedwithreac-
tive metals like Zn negative instead of positive,
which accords with the experimental fact that Zn
will actually become negative because when Zn++
ions leave it, then two electrons will appear in the
Zn metal, to maintain a charge balance.
Such reduction potentials are given in
Table 2.1. By convention the cell reaction is
written as if the oxidation process is occurring
at the electrode on the left and reduction on
the right. This practice is in accordance with
the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) Convention held in 1953
and modified in 1960.
2.12 Sign Convention
The older American Convention has been to
use oxidation potentials rather than reduction
potentials. The present practice is to use reduc-
tion potentials instead of oxidation potentials
in accordance with the recommendation of
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry) and existing European practice – the
general convention is that the cell emf is given by:
E◦
cell =E◦
Right −E◦
Left
The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is the
reference point. The construction of hydrogen
44. Basic concepts in corrosion 27
electrode is shown in Fig. 2.10. By definition, SHE
has zero potential at 25°C. It is assumed that oxi-
dation occurs at the hydrogen electrode so that
it is placed at the left-hand side of a cell dia-
gram. If a cell is composed of SHE and some other
electrode, then the measured voltage of the cell is
the electrode potential of the second electrode:
Ecell =Ex −0
Ecell =Ex
For example, in a galvanic cell made of a hydrogen
electrode and a zinc electrode [Zn/Zn2+ (1.0 M)],
the measured voltage is E =−0.763 volts.
E◦
cell =E◦
Zn −E◦
H2
E◦
cell =−0.763V
In the older textbooks, hydrogen electrode was
placed on the right, and the cell potential becomes:
Ecell =EH2 −Ex
The reaction was made oxidation and the sign was
changed. Thus the electrode potential E◦
Zn/Zn++
is +0.763 volts according to old convention.
E◦
cell =E◦
H2
−
E◦
Zn , E◦
Zn =+0.763V
E◦
cell =E◦
Zn
E◦
cell =0.763volts
which is opposite to that shown above. This
should clarify the confusion caused in student’s
minds by different conventions. The simplest
procedure avoids specifying ‘right’ and ‘left’ by
just writing:
E =E◦
+
RT
nF
ln
oxidized state activities product
reduced state activities product
which is written regardless of which way round
the chemical equation is written.
2.12.1 Cell emf and the
Direction of Spontaneous
Reaction
The following is a step-by-step procedure to apply
the above sign convention to a cell reaction in
order to determine cell emf and direction of
spontaneous reaction correctly.
(1) Write the right-hand electrode reaction.
The right-hand electrode reaction is always
reduction and the electron is always a reduc-
ing agent:
M+
R +e−
→MR
And reduction electrode potential is E◦
R.
(2) Write the left-hand electrode reaction. The
left-hand electrode reaction is oxidation.
However, we write it as reduction reaction
because of the convention we are using:
M+
L +e−
→ML
And the reduction electrode potential is E◦
L.
(3) Subtract the left-hand electrode reaction
and potential from those of right-hand
electrode to obtain cell reaction and cell
potential:
M+
R +ML =MR +M+
L
and E◦
cell =E◦
R −E◦
L
For example, calculate E◦ for the Daniel cell.
From the table of reduction potentials, write the
corresponding reactions:
Cu2+
+2e →Cu E◦
=0.337(R)
Zn2+
+2e →Zn E◦
=−0.763V(L)
Ecell =E◦
R −E◦
L
=0.337−(−0.763V)
=1.100V
45. 28 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
Another example: Using a cell of Pb2+/Pb and
Sn2+/Sn, calculate E◦
cell:
E◦
cell =E◦
R −E◦
L
L→R
R →L
=−0.126−(−0.136)
=0.10V
M+
+e→M
Zn→Zn++
+2e
Cu++
+2e→Cu
2.12.2 Positive and
Negative EMF
A positive emf (E 0) signifies a deficiency of
electrons on the right-hand electrode because of
the extraction of electrons from that electrode.
Figure 2.11 Implications of the sign convention
Therefore, the tendency of the right-hand
electrode is reduction (acceptance of electron;
MRE+e =MR, if E 0). At the same time,
positive emf signifies an excess of electrons on
the left-hand electrode. Therefore, the electrode
reaction is oxidation (ML =M+
L +e) on that elec-
trode. Thus, if E 0, the cell reaction has a
tendency to proceed from left to right: that is,
electrons are produced by the left-hand electrode
and consumed by the right-hand electrode. It also
indicates that the reaction is spontaneous.
Conversely, if E 0, the reaction at the right-
hand electrode is oxidation and the reaction at
the left-hand electrode reduction. The tendency
of the reaction would, therefore, be to proceed
from right to left and the reaction would not be
spontaneous. Figure 2.11 explains the flow of elec-
trons in the two situations explained above. The
same convention can also be understood in terms
of flow of positive current (positive charged ions).
It is to be noted that according to the convention,
if a cell is short circuited, and the positive current
flows through the electrolyte from left to right,
the emf is positive. In this case the left-hand elec-
trode is the anode and the right-hand electrode
46. Basic concepts in corrosion 29
Table 2.2 Current flow conventions
emf Current flow Anode Cathode
+ L→R L R
− R →L R L
the cathode. If the current flows from right to left,
the emf is negative. Table 2.2 summarizes the
current flow convention in a cell.
From knowledge of cell potential it is thus
possible to predict whether a reaction would pro-
ceed spontaneously or not. From knowledge of
potential of half cells, and the cell potentials, it is
possible to predict whether a metal is an anode or
cathode or whether a corrosion reaction is likely
to take place or not. An understanding of elec-
trode potential is of fundamental importance to
the understanding of corrosion mechanism. This
is illustrated in typical problems given below.
Illustrative Problem 2.4
Two half cell reactions are given below:
Cu2+
+2e Cu, E◦
=0.34(V)
Zn2+
+2e Zn, E◦
=−0.763(V)
Their reduction potentials are given opposite to
each reaction. Calculate:
(a) the emf of the cell and
(b) show the spontaneous cell reaction.
Solution:
In Fig. 2.2, the left-hand electrode (Zn) is the
anode and the right-hand electrode (Cu) is the
cathode according to the convention we studied
earlier on. Therefore, zinc will undergo oxidation
and copper reduction as shown below. Hence:
(a) E◦
cell =E◦
R −E◦
L (according to IUPAC
convention)
E◦
cell =E◦
Cu −E◦
Zn
=0.337−(−0.763)
E◦
cell =+1.100volts
(b) Spontaneous cell reaction is given by:
cell reaction = cathodic reaction = anodic
reaction
Cu2+
+Zn=Zn2+
+Cu
From the table of standard reduction poten-
tials (Table 2.1), the reduction potential of Cu
is +0.34 volts and that of Zn is −0.76 volts. The
emf of the cell is positive. Hence the reduction is
spontaneous and it should proceed from left to
right.
If the position of the electrodes are now inter-
changed such that the copper electrode is placed
on the left and the zinc electrode on the right,
the sign of the cell emf will change. Here, zinc
electrode being on the right is treated as cathode
and the copper on the left as anode according to
the convention discussed earlier in the chapter.
Therefore:
Zn2+
+2e Zn, E◦
Zn =−0.763V
Cu2+
+2e Cu, E◦
Cu =+0.34V
Subtracting anodic reaction from cathodic reac-
tion to obtain the cell reaction
Zn2+
+CuZn+Cu2+
and E◦
cell =−1.10V
The emf obtained is now negative which indi-
cates that the reaction is not spontaneous and
the current flows from right to left. The left-
hand electrode where the current originates
is, therefore, the anode, and the right-hand elec-
trode, the cathode. The polarity of the cell is,
therefore, clearly established.
Illustrative Problem 2.5
Calculate the reversible potential for a zinc elec-
trode in contact with ZnCl2 when the activity of
zinc is aZn2+ =10−3, Use IUPAC convention.
Solution:
We write the half cell reaction
Zn2+
+2e Zn, E◦
Zn =−0.76V
Apply Nernst equation:
EZn =E◦
Zn +
RT
nF
ln
aZn2+
EZn =−0.76+
0.059
2
log
aZn2+
EZn =−0.76+0.03log
10−3
EZn =−0.85V
47. 30 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
Illustrative Problem 2.6
Show that for the reduction reaction given below:
2H+
+2e H2, EH =−0.0591pH
Solution:
The reaction is 2H+ +2e H2. Using Nernst
equation we obtain for the above reaction:
E(H+/H2) =E◦
(H+/H2) +
RT
nF
ln
[reactants]
[products]
or E(H+/H2) =E◦
(H+/H2) +
RT
nF
ln
[oxidized state]
[reduced state]
(IUPAC−Nernst)
Changing to 2.303 log and substituting for
R =8.314J/(mol·K), F =96490C,
T =298◦
K, 2.303RT/F =0.0591V.
The Nernst expression above can, therefore, be
written as:
E(H+/H2) =E◦
(H+/H2) +0.059 log[H+
]
Now substituting pH=−log(H+) in the above
expression we get:
E(H+/H2) =−0.0591pH
Illustrative Problem 2.7
Show that for the reaction: O2 +2H2O+4e
4(OH−),
E(O2/OH−) =E◦
(O2/OH−)
−0.0591logaOH−
Solution:
The reaction is O2 +2H2O+4e 4(OH−) (in a
basic solution), and
E(O2/OH−) =E◦
(O2/OH−)
+
RT
nF
ln
aO2
aOH−
4
Note that O2 is the oxidized state and OH− is
the reduced state, for the above reaction (from
IUPAC–Nernst expression).
The activity (ai) of an ion is defined by
ai =M1γi, where M1 = molality (mol/kg) of
the ions in the solution, and ai is the activity
coefficient. The activity coefficient ai for a given
concentration can be found from a table of activ-
ity coefficients given at the end of the chapter.
In dilute solutions, the activity coefficient is taken
to be unity.
If we take aO2 =PO2 /P◦ =1, when PO2 =
P◦ =1 bar, standard state, and R =8.314 J/mol·K,
F =96 485 C(g equiv.)−1, T =298◦K, and the
term 2.303RT/F =0.0591, and substitute in the
above expression, the oxygen electrode potential
becomes:
E(O2/OH−) =E◦
(O2/OH−)
−0.0591log a(OH−)
It can similarly be shown that in acid solu-
tion for a reaction, O2 +2H2O+4e →2H2O, the
oxygen electrode potential becomes:
E(O2) =E◦
(O2) +
RT
4nF
ln
a(O2) (aH+ )4
aH2O
Substituting the values for the constants as
above, we get:
E(O2) =E◦
(O2) +0.0592 log aH+
or since pH=−log aH+ ,
E(O2) =E◦
(O2) −0.0592pH
Illustrative Problem 2.8
Calculate the potential of oxygen electrode at
pH=14.0.
Solution:
Oxygen electrode reaction: in basic and neutral
environment is expressed as:
O2 +2H2O+4e →2H2O
Electrode potential equation for the electrode
at 25◦C is given by Illustrative Problem 2.7:
EO2 =E◦
O2
−0.0592log a(OH−)
where
log a(OH−) =−14−log a(H+)
=−14+pH
(from the knowledge of pH)
48. Basic concepts in corrosion 31
Therefore,
EO2 =E◦
O2
−0.0592(−14+pH)
Substitute E◦
O2
=0.401 (from Table 2.1).
Therefore,
EO2 =0.401+14×0.0592−0.0592pH
EO2 =0.401+0.828−0.0592pH
and so at pH=14,
EO2 =0.401+0.828−0.828
and EO2 =0.401
Illustrative Problem 2.9
In the cell reaction given below, what is the ratio
of the activities of ionic species required to make
the polarity reverse?
Fe2+
+Sn→Sn2+
+Fe
Solution:
Cell reaction:
Fe2+
+Sn→Sn2+
+Fe
Ratio of activities to make the polarity reverse at
25◦C.
Standard cell potential:
E◦
cell =E◦
Fe2+/Fe
−E◦
Sn2+/Sn
=−0.441−(−0.140)
=−0.441+0.140
=−0.301volts
The reaction in this case is non-spontaneous.
That is, Fe2+/Fe electrode will act as ‘anode’ and
Sn2+/Sn electrode will act as ‘cathode,’ the reverse
case of what was assumed in the problem.
To reverse the polarity:
Overall cell potential is given by:
Ecell =E◦
cell +
RT
nf
ln
[aReactant]
[aProduct]
=−0.301+
2.303RT
nF
log
aFe2+ aSn
aSn2+ aFe
where: aSn =1 and aFe =1.
Ecell =−0.301+
2.303RT
nF
log
aFe2+
aSn2+
Ecell =0, At the turn of polarity.
Therefore,
0.301=
2.303RT
nF
log
aFe2+
aSn2+
log
aFe2+
aSn2+
=
0.301×nF
2.303RT
Assuming the reaction is taking place at t =
25◦C,n =2,T =298◦K,R =8.315 J/mol and F =
96500 C(gequiv.)−1
Then
log
aFe2+
aSn2+
=
0.301×2×96500
2.303×8.314×298
=6.4×10−11
at 25◦
C
At 20◦C∼
=5×10−11
Illustrative Problem 2.10
The emf of a cell made of Zn (anode) and
H2 electrode (cathode) immersed in 0.7 M ZnCl2
is +0.690 volts. What is the pH of the solution?
Solution:
Given:
[Zn2+
]= 0.7M, For Zn2+
,
activity coefficient, γ =0.6133
∴ aZn2+ =0.7×0.6133=0.424
(Right)→2H+
+2e−
H2
(Left)→Zn2+
+2e−
Zn
E◦
Zn =−0.762V
Ecell =ER −EL
=E◦
H2
−
0.0592
2
log(pH2)−log
a2
H+
−
E◦
Zn
0.0592
2
log
aZn
−log
aZn2+
49. 32 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control
⇒ Ecell =−
0.0592
2
[2pH]+0.762
+
0.0592
2
[−log(0.42)]
0.690=−0.0296[2pH]+0.762
+0.0296(0.376)
⇒ 0.0296[2pH]=0.762−0.690+0.011=0.083
⇒ 2pH=
0.083
0.0296
⇒2pH=2.8
⇒ pH=1.4
Illustrative Problem 2.11
Calculatethetheoreticaltendencyofnickeltocor-
rode in deaerated water of pH=8. Assume the
corrosion products are H2 and Ni(OH)2 and the
solubility product is 1.6×10−16.
Solution:
Given: Ksp =1.6×10−16, pH=8, E◦
Ni =−0.25V
Since, pH+pOH=14⇒pOH=14−8=6
Ni2+
=
Ksp
[OH−]2
=
1.6×10−16
10−12
=1.6×10−4
(R)→2H+
+2e−
→H2
(L)→Ni2+
+2e−
→Ni
⇒Ecell =E◦
H2
−
0.0592
2
log(pH2)−2log (aH+ )
=−
E◦
Ni −
0.0592
2
log(aNi)
−log(aNi2+ )
⇒Ecell =−0.0296[2pH]+0.25
+0.0296
−log(1.6×10−4
)
⇒Ecell =−0.0296[2×8]+0.25
+0.0296[4−log(1.6)]
=−0.111volts
Ecell =−0.111volts
Illustrative Problem 2.12
Calculate the pressure of H2 required to stop
corrosion of iron immersed in 0.1 M FeCl2,
pH=4.
Solution:
(R)→2H+
+2e−
→H2
(L)→Fe2+
+2e−
→Fe
E◦
Fe =+0.44
aFe2+
=γ ×[Fe2+
]
=0.1×0.75
Ecell =ER −EL
Ecell =E◦
H2
−0.0296
log(pH2)−log(aH+ )2
−
E◦
Fe −0.0296
log(aFe)−log(aFe2+ )
Given: pH=4⇒
aH2
=10−4
⇒E =E◦
−0.0296
log(pH2)[aFe2+ ]
[H+]2
O =0.44−0.0296
log(7.5×106
)pH2
=
0.44
0.0296
=log[7.5×106
]pH2
=(7.5×106
)pH2 =7.32×1014
pH2 = 9.7 × 107
atm
Illustrative Problem 2.13
Calculate if silver would corrode when immersed
in 0.5 M CuCl2 to form solid AgCl. What is the
corrosion tendency?
Solution:
E◦
Cu =0.337 V, γCuCl2 =0.7
E◦
AgCl =0.220
⇒ aCu2+ =0.47×0.5=0.233
=0.47×2×0.5=0.47
