Aeronautical engineer's data book clifford matthews, b sc, ceng, mba. fmech-e

Aeronautical engineer's data book clifford matthews, b sc, ceng, mba. fmech-e
Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book Clifford Matthews BSc, CEng, MBA, FIMechE OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI
Butterworth-Heineman Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group First published 2002 © Clifford Matthews 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Matthews, Clifford Aeronautical engineer’s data book 1. Aerospace engineering–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title 629.1’3 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Matthews, Clifford. Aeronautical engineer’s data book / Clifford Matthews. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0 7506 5125 3 1. Aeronautics–Handbooks, Manuals, etc. I. Title. TL570.M34 2001 629.13'002'12–dc21 2001037429 ISBN 0 7506 5125 3 Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent, UK Printed and bound by A. Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Reading, UK
Contents Acknowledgements vii Preface ix Disclaimer x 1 Important Regulations and Directives 1 2 Fundamental Dimensions and Units 6 2.1 The Greek alphabet 6 2.2 Units systems 7 2.3 Conversions 8 2.4 Consistency of units 20 2.5 Foolproof conversions: using unity brackets 21 2.6 Imperial–metric conversions 22 2.7 Dimensional analysis 22 2.8 Essential mathematics 25 2.9 Useful references and standards 47 3 Symbols and Notations 49 3.1 Parameters and constants 49 3.2 Weights of gases 49 3.3 Densities of liquids at 0°C 50 3.4 Notation: aerodynamics and fluid mechanics 50 3.5 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 56 4 Aeronautical Definitions 66 4.1 Forces and moments 66 4.2 Basic aircraft terminology 70 4.3 Helicopter terminology 71 4.4 Common aviation terms 72 4.5 Airspace terms 75 5 Basic Fluid Mechanics 76 5.1 Basic properties 76 5.2 Flow equations 79
iv Contents 5.3 Flow regimes 86 5.4 Boundary layers 88 5.5 Isentropic flow 89 5.6 Compressible 1D flow 90 5.7 Normal shock waves 91 5.8 Axisymmetric flow 93 5.9 Drag coefficients 94 6 Basic Aerodynamics 96 6.1 General airfoil theory 96 6.2 Airfoil coefficients 96 6.3 Pressure distributions 98 6.4 Aerodynamic centre 100 6.5 Centre of pressure 101 6.6 Supersonic conditions 102 6.7 Wing loading: semi-ellipse assumption 103 7 Principles of Flight Dynamics 106 7.1 Flight dynamics – conceptual breakdown 106 7.2 Axes notation 106 7.3 The generalized force equations 110 7.4 The generalized moment equations 110 7.5 Non-linear equations of motion 111 7.6 The linearized equations of motion 111 7.7 Stability 114 8 Principles of Propulsion 115 8.1 Propellers 115 8.3 Engine data lists 126 8.4 Aero engine terminology 126 8.5 Power ratings 129 9 Aircraft Performance 132 8.2 The gas turbine engine: general principles 118 9.1 Aircraft roles and operational profile 132 9.2 Aircraft range and endurance 136 9.3 Aircraft design studies 138 9.4 Aircraft noise 140 9.5 Aircraft emissions 144 10 Aircraft Design and Construction 145 10.1 Basic design configuration 145 10.2 Materials of construction 164 10.3 Helicopter design 165 10.4 Helicopter design studies 168
vContents 11 Airport Design and Compatibility 173 11.1 Basics of airport design 173 11.2 Runway pavements 196 11.3 Airport traffic data 197 11.4 FAA-AAS airport documents 197 11.5 Worldwide airport geographical data 205 11.6 Airport reference sources and bibliography 205 12 Basic Mechanical Design 215 12.1 Engineering abbreviations 215 12.2 Preferred numbers and preferred sizes 215 12.3 Datums and tolerances – principles 217 12.4 Toleranced dimensions 218 12.5 Limits and fits 223 12.6 Surface finish 227 12.7 Computer aided engineering 224 13 Reference Sources 235 13.1 Websites 235 13.2 Fluid mechanics and aerodynamics 235 13.3 Manufacturing/materials/structures 235 13.4 Aircraft sizing/multidisciplinary design 240 13.5 Helicopter technology 240 13.6 Flying wings 240 13.7 Noise 241 13.8 Landing gear 241 13.9 Airport operations 241 13.10Propulsion 242 Appendix 1 Aerodynamic stability and control derivatives 243 Appendix 2 Aircraft response transfer functions 245 Appendix 3 Approximate expressions for dimensionless aerodynamic stability and control derivatives 247 Appendix 4 Compressible flow tables 253 Appendix 5 Shock wave data 261 Index 269
Preface The objective of this Aeronautical Engineer’s Data book is to provide a concise and useful source of up-to-date information for the student or practising aeronautical engineer. Despite the proliferation of specialized infor mation sources, there is still a need for basic data on established engineering rules, conver sions, modern aircraft and engines to be avail able in an easily assimilated format. An aeronautical engineer cannot afford to ignore the importance of engineering data and rules. Basic theoretical principles underlie the design of all the hardware of aeronautics. The practical processes of fluid mechanics, aircraft design, material choice, and basic engineering design form the foundation of the subject. Technical standards, directives and regulations are also important – they represent accumu lated knowledge and form invaluable guide lines for the industry. The purpose of the book is to provide a basic set of technical data that you will find useful. It is divided into 13 sections, each containing specific ‘discipline’ information. Units and conversions are covered in Section 2; a mixture of metric and imperial units are still in use in the aeronautical industry. Infor mation on FAA regulations is summarized in Section 1 – these develop rapidly and affect us all. The book contains cross-references to other standards systems and data sources. You will find these essential if you need to find more detailed information on a particular subject. There is always a limit to the amount
viii Preface of information that you can carry with you – the secret is knowing where to look for the rest. More and more engineering information is now available in electronic form and many engineering students now use the Internet as their first source of reference information for technical information. This new Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book contains details of a wide range of engineering-related websites, including general ‘gateway’ sites such as the Edinburgh Engineering Virtual Library (EEVL) which contains links to tens of thousands of others containing technical infor mation, product/company data and aeronautical-related technical journals and newsgroups. You will find various pages in the book contain ‘quick guidelines’ and ‘rules of thumb’. Don’t expect these all to have robust theoret ical backing – they are included simply because I have found that they work. I have tried to make this book a practical source of aeronautics-related technical information that you can use in the day-to-day activities of an aeronautical career. Finally, it is important that the content of this data book continues to reflect the infor mation that is needed and used by student and experienced engineers. If you have any sugges tions for future content (or indeed observations or comment on the existing content) please submit them to me at the following e-mail address: aerodatabook@aol.com Clifford Matthews
Acknowledgements Special thanks are due to Stephanie Evans, Sarah Pask and John King for their excellent work in typing and proof reading this book.
Disclaimer This book is intended to assist engineers and designers in understanding and fulfilling their obligations and responsibilities. All interpreta tion contained in this publication – concerning technical, regulatory and design information and data, unless specifically otherwise identi fied, carries no authority. The information given here is not intended to be used for the design, manufacture, repair, inspection or certification of aircraft systems and equipment, whether or not that equipment is subject to design codes and statutory requirements. Engineers and designers dealing with aircraft design and manufacture should not use the information in this book to demonstrate compliance with any code, standard or regula tory requirement. While great care has been taken in the preparation of this publication, neither the author nor the publishers do warrant, guarantee, or make any representa tion regarding the use of this publication in terms of correctness, accuracy, reliability, currentness, comprehensiveness, or otherwise. Neither the publisher, author, nor anyone, nor anybody who has been involved in the creation, production, or delivery of this product shall be liable for any direct, indirect, consequential, or incidental damages arising from its use.
Section 1 Important regulations and directives A fundamental body of information is contained in the US Federal Aviation Regula tions (FAR). A general index is shown below: Federal Aviation Regulations Chapters I and III Subchapter A – definitions and abbreviations Part 1: Definitions and abbreviations Subchapter B – procedural rules Part 11: General rule-making procedures Part 13: Investigative and enforcement procedures Part 14: Rules implementing the Equal Access to Justice Act of 1980 Part 15: Administrative claims under Federal Tort Claims Act Part 16: Rules of practice for federally- assisted airport enforcement proceedings Part 17: Procedures for protests and contracts disputes Subchapter C – aircraft Part 21: Certification procedures for products and parts Part 23: Airworthiness standards: normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter category airplanes Part 25: Airworthiness standards: transport category airplanes
2 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book Part 27: Airworthiness standards: normal category rotorcraft Part 29: Airworthiness standards: transport category rotorcraft Part 31: Airworthiness standards: manned free balloons Part 33: Airworthiness standards: aircraft engines Part 34: Fuel venting and exhaust emission requirements for turbine engine powered airplanes Part 35: Airworthiness standards: propellers Part 36: Noise standards: aircraft type and airworthiness certification Part 39: Airworthiness directives Part 43: Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration Part 45: Identification and registration marking Part 47: Aircraft registration Part 49: Recording of aircraft titles and security documents Subchapter D – airmen Part 61: Certification: pilots and flight instructors Part 63: Certification: flight crewmembers other than pilots Part 65: Certification: airmen other than flight crewmembers Part 67: Medical standards and certification Subchapter E – airspace Part 71: Designation of class a, class b, class c, class d, and class e airspace areas; airways; routes; and reporting points Part 73: Special use airspace Part 77: Objects affecting navigable airspace Subchapter F – air traffic and
3Important regulations and directives general operation rules Part 91: Part 93: Part 95: Part 97: Part 99: Part 101: Part 103: Part 105: Part 107: Part 108: Part 109: Part 119: Part 121: Part 125: Part 129: Part 133: Part 135: Part 137: Part 139: General operating and flight rules Special air traffic rules and airport traffic patterns IFR altitudes Standard instrument approach procedures Security control of air traffic Moored balloons, kites, unmanned rockets and unmanned free balloons Ultralight vehicles Parachute jumping Airport security Airplane operator security Indirect air carrier security Subchapter G – air carriers and operators for compensation or hire: certification and operations Certification: air carriers and commercial operators Operating requirements: domestic, flag, and supplemental operations Certification and operations: airplanes having a seating capacity of 20 or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6000 pounds or more Operations: foreign air carriers and foreign operators of US – registered aircraft engaged in common carriage Rotorcraft external-load operations Operating requirements: commuter and on-demand operations Agricultural aircraft operations Certification and operations: land airports serving certain air carriers Subchapter H – schools and other certificated agencies
4 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book Part 141: Pilot schools Part 142: Training centers Part 145: Repair stations Part 147: Aviation maintenance technician schools Subchapter I – airports Part 150: Airport noise compatibility planning Part 151: Federal aid to airports Part 152: Airport aid program Part 155: Release of airport property from surplus property disposal restrictions Part 156: State block grant pilot program Part 157: Notice of construction, alteration, activation, and deactivation of airports Part 158: Passenger Facility Charges (PFCs) Part 161: Notice and approval of airport noise and access restrictions Part 169: Expenditure of federal funds for nonmilitary airports or air navigation facilities thereon Subchapter J – navigational facilities Part 170: Establishment and discontinuance criteria for air traffic control services and navigational facilities Part 171: Non-federal navigation facilities Subchapter K – administrative regulations Part 183: Representatives of the administrator Part 185: Testimony by employees and production of records in legal proceedings, and service of legal process and pleadings Part 187: Fees Part 189: Use of federal aviation administration communications system
5Important regulations and directives Part 191: Withholding security information from disclosure under the Air Transportation Security Act of 1974 Subchapter N – war risk insurance Part 198: Aviation insurance Chapter III – parts 400 to 440 Subchapter A – general Part 400: Basis and scope Part 401: Organization and definitions Subchapter B – procedure Part 404: Regulations and licensing requirements Part 405: Investigations and enforcement Part 406: Administrative review Subchapter C – licensing Part 413: Applications Part 415: Launch licenses Part 417: License to operate a launch site Part 440: Financial responsibility Requests for information or policy concerning a particular Federal Aviation Regulation should be sent to the office of primary inter est (OPI). Details can be obtained from FAA’s consumer hotline, in the USA toll free, at 1- 800-322-7873. Requests for interpretations of a Federal Aviation Regulation can be obtained from: Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Ave SW Washington, DC 20591 USA
Section 2 Fundamental dimensions and units 2.1 The Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet is used extensively in Europe and the United States to denote engineering quantities (see Table 2.1). Each letter can have various meanings, depending on the context in which it is used. Table 2.1 The Greek alphabet Name Symbol Capital Lower case alpha 〈 ␣ beta 〉 ␤ gamma ⌫ ␥ delta ⌬ ␦ epsilon ⌭ ⑀ zeta ⌮ ␨ eta ⌯ ␩ theta ⍜ ␪ iota ⌱ ␫ kappa ⌲ ␬ lambda ⌳ ␭ mu ⌴ ␮ nu ⌵ ␯ xi ⌶ ␰ omicron ⌷ ␱ pi ⌸ ␲ rho ⌹ ␳ sigma ⌺ ␴ tau ⌻ ␶ upsilon ⌼ ␷ phi ⌽ ␾ chi ⌾ ␹ psi ⌿ ␺ omega ⍀ ␻
7Fundamental dimensions and units 2.2 Units systems The most commonly used system of units in the aeronautics industry in the United States is the United States Customary System (USCS). The ‘MKS system’ is a metric system still used in some European countries but is gradually being superseded by the expanded Système Interna tional (SI) system. 2.2.1 The USCS system Countries outside the USA often refer to this as the ‘inch-pound’ system. The base units are: Length: foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) Force: pound force or thrust (lbf) Time: second (s) Temperature: degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 2.2.2 The SI system The strength of the SI system is its coherence. There are four mechanical and two electrical base units from which all other quantities are derived. The mechanical ones are: Length: metre (m) Mass: kilogram (kg) Time: second (s) Temperature: Kelvin (K) or, more commonly, degrees Celsius or Centigrade (°C) Other units are derived from these: e.g. the newton (N) is defined as N = kg m/s2 . Formal SI conver sion factors are listed in ASTM Standard E380. 2.2.3 SI prefixes As a rule, prefixes are generally applied to the basic SI unit, except for weight, where the prefix is used with the unit gram (g), not the basic SI unit kilogram (kg). Prefixes are not used for units of angular measurement (degrees, radians), time (seconds) or temperature (°C or K). Prefixes are generally chosen in such a way that the numerical value of a unit lies between 0.1 and 1000 (see Table 2.2). For example:
8 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book 28 kN rather than 2.8 ϫ 104 N 1.25 mm rather than 0.00125 m 9.3 kPa rather than 9300 Pa Table 2.2 SI unit prefixes Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1024 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1021 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 1 000 000 000 = 109 1 000 000 = 106 1 000 = 103 100 = 102 10 = 101 0.1 = 10–1 0.01 = 10–2 0.001 = 10–3 0.000 001 = 10–6 0.000 000 001 = 10–9 0.000 000 000 001 = 10–12 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10–15 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10–18 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10–21 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10–24 yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hicto deka deci centi milli micro µ nano n pico p femto f atto a zepto z yocto y Y Z E P T G M k h da d c m 2.3 Conversions Units often need to be converted. The least con fusing way to do this is by expressing equality: For example, to convert 600 lb thrust to kilograms (kg) Using 1 kg = 2.205 lb Add denominators as 1 kg 2.205 lb kg ᎏ = ᎏᎏ x 600 lb Solve for x 600 ϫ 1 x = ᎏ = 272.1 kg 2.205 Hence 600 lb = 272.1 kg
9Fundamental dimensions and units Setting out calculations in this way can help avoid confusion, particularly when they involve large numbers and/or several sequential stages of conversion. 2.3.1 Force or thrust The USCS unit of force or thrust is the pound force (lbf). Note that a pound is also ambigu ously used as a unit of mass (see Table 2.3). Table 2.3 Force (F) or thrust Unit lbf gf kgf N 1 pound 1 453.6 0.4536 4.448 thrust (lbf) 1 gram 2.205 1 0.001 9.807 force (gf) ϫ 10–3 ϫ 10–3 1 kilogram- 2.205 1000 1 9.807 force (kgf) 1 newton (N) 0.2248 102.0 0.1020 1 Note: Strictly, all the units in the table except the newton (N) represent weight equivalents of mass and so depend on the ‘standard’ acceleration due to gravity (g). The true SI unit of force is the newton (N) which is equivalent to 1 kgm/s2 . 2.3.2 Weight The true weight of a body is a measure of the gravitational attraction of the earth on it. Since this attraction is a force, the weight of a body is correctly expressed in pounds force (lbf). Mass is measured in pounds mass (lbm) or simply (lb) Force (lbf) = mass (lbm) ϫ g (ft/s2 ) Or, in SI units: force (N) = mass (kg) ϫ g (m/s2 ) 1 ton (US) = 2000 lb = 907.2 kg 1 tonne (metric) = 1000 kg = 2205 lb 2.3.3 Density Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Table 2.4 shows the conversions between units.
10 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book Table 2.4 Density (␳) Unit lb/in3 lb/ft3 kg/m3 g/cm3 1 lb per in3 1 1728 2.768 27.68 ϫ 104 1 lb per ft3 5.787 1 16.02 1.602 ϫ 10–4 ϫ 10–2 1 kg per m3 3.613 6.243 1 0.001 ϫ 10–5 ϫ 10–2 1 g per cm3 3613 62.43 1000 1 ϫ 10–2 2.3.4 Pressure The base USCS unit is the lbf/in2 (or ‘psi’). 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 Pa = 1.45038 ϫ 10–4 lbf/in2 In practice, pressures in SI units are measured in MPa, bar, atmospheres, torr, or the height of a liquid column, depending on the application. See Figures 2.1, 2.2 and Table 2.5. So for liquid columns: 1 in H2O = 25.4 mm H2O = 249.089 Pa 1 in Hg = 13.59 in H2O = 3385.12 Pa = 33.85 mbar. 1 mm Hg = 13.59 mm H2O = 133.3224 Pa = 1.333224 mbar. 1 mm H2O = 9.80665 Pa 1 torr = 133.3224 Pa For conversion of liquid column pressures: 1 in = 25.4 mm. 2.3.5 Temperature The basic unit of temperature is degrees Fahren heit (°F). The SI unit is kelvin (K). The most commonly used unit is degrees Celsius (°C). Absolute zero is defined as 0 K or –273.15°C, the point at which a perfect gas has zero volume. See Figures 2.3 and 2.4. °C = 5 /9 (°F – 32) °F = 9 /5 (°C + 32)
11Fundamental dimensions and units 10 bar 1 bar atmosphere 1MPaor1 MN m2 1bar 1.013bar 760mmHg 1.1097 kg/cm2 10 5 N/m 2 or10 5 Pa 10.3mH 2 O 14.7psi Rules of thumb: An apple ‘weighs’ about 1.5 newtons A meganewton is equivalent to about 100 tonnes An average car weighs about 15 kN Fig. 2.1 Pressure relationships KSI ϫ1000 ϫ6.895.10–3 ϫ145.03 ϫ 1.0197 ϫ 0.9807 ϫ 10.0 ϫ 0.1 ϫ 0.09807 ϫ 10.197 ϫ 14.223 ϫ 0.06895 ϫ 0.0703 psi BarKg/cm2 N/mm2 (MPa) ϫ 14.503 Fig. 2.2 Pressure conversions
12 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book 0 K Volume –273.15˚C 0˚C 100˚C 32˚F 212˚F Fig. 2.3 Temperature 2.3.6 Heat and work The basic unit for heat ‘energy’ is the British thermal unit (BTU). Specific heat ‘energy’ is measured in BTU/lb (in SI it is joules per kilogram (J/kg)). 1 J/kg = 0.429923 ϫ 10–3 BTU/lb Table 2.6 shows common conversions. Specific heat is measured in BTU/lb °F (or in SI, joules per kilogram kelvin (J/kg K)). 1 BTU/lb °F = 4186.798 J/kg K 1 J/kg K = 0.238846 ( 10–3 BTU/lb °F 1 kcal/kg K = 4186.8 J/kg K Heat flowrate is also defined as power, with the unit of BTU/h (or in SI, in watts (W)). 1 BTU/h = 0.07 cal/s = 0.293 W 1 W = 3.41214 BTU/h = 0.238846 cal/s 2.3.7 Power BTU/h or horsepower (hp) are normally used or, in SI, kilowatts (kW). See Table 2.7. 2.3.8 Flow The basic unit of volume flowrate is US gallon/min (in SI it is litres/s). 1 US gallon = 4 quarts = 128 US fluid ounces = 231 in3
13Fundamental dimensions and units 1 US gallon = 0.8 British imperial gallons = 3.78833 litres 1 US gallon/minute = 6.31401 ϫ 10–5 m3 /s = 0.2273 m3 /h 1 m3 /s = 1000 litres/s 1 litre/s = 2.12 ft3 /min ˚F 2500 2000 1500 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 ˚C˚F 140 120 100 300 250 210 90 200 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 –10 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 +30 +20 –20 +10 0 0–10 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 –80 –90 –100 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 –80 –90 –100 –120 –140 ˚C –120 –140 –160 –180 –200 –250 Temperature conversions ˚C Fig. 2.4 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 180 150 ˚F –160 –180 –200 –250 –300 –350 –400
Table 2.5 Pressure (p) Unit lb/in2 (psi) lb/ft2 atm in H20 cmHg N/m2 (Pa) 1 lb per in2 (psi) 1 144 6.805 ϫ 10–2 27.68 5.171 6.895 ϫ 103 1 lb per ft2 6.944 ϫ 10–3 1 4.725 ϫ 10–4 0.1922 3.591 ϫ 10–2 47.88 1 atmosphere (atm) 14.70 2116 1 406.8 76 1.013 ϫ 105 1 in of water at 39.2°F (4°C) 3.613 ϫ 10–2 5.02 2.458 ϫ 10–3 1 0.1868 249.1 1 cm of mercury at 32°F (0°C) 0.1934 27.85 1.316 ϫ 10–2 5.353 1 1333 1 N per m2 (Pa) 1.450 ϫ 10–4 2.089 ϫ 10–2 9.869 ϫ 10–6 4.015 ϫ 10–3 7.501 ϫ 10–4 1 Table 2.6 Heat BTU ft-lb hp-h cal J kW-h 1 British thermal unit (BTU) 1 777.9 3.929 ϫ 10–4 252 1055 2.93 ϫ 10–4 1 foot-pound (ft-lb) 1.285 ϫ 10–3 1 5.051 ϫ 10–7 0.3239 1.356 3.766 ϫ 10–7 1 horsepower-hour (hp-h) 2545 1.98 ϫ 106 1 6.414 ϫ 105 2.685 ϫ 106 0.7457 1 calorie (cal) 3.968 ϫ 10–3 3.087 1.559 ϫ 10–6 1 4.187 1.163 ϫ 10–6 1 joule (J) 9.481 ϫ 10–4 0.7376 3.725 ϫ 10–7 0.2389 1 2.778 ϫ 10–7 1 kilowatt hour (kW-h) 3413 2.655 ϫ 106 1.341 8.601 ϫ 105 3.6 ϫ 106 1 14
15 Table 2.7 Power (P) BTU/h BTU/s ft-lb/s hp cal/s kW W 1 BTU/h 1 2.778 ϫ 10–4 0.2161 3.929 ϫ 10–4 7.000 ϫ 10–2 2.930 ϫ 10–4 0.2930 1 BTU/s 3600 1 777.9 1.414 252.0 1.055 1.055 ϫ 10–3 1ft-lb/s 4.62 1.286 ϫ 10–3 1 1.818 ϫ 10–3 0.3239 1.356 ϫ 10–3 1.356 1 hp 2545 0.7069 550 1 178.2 0.7457 745.7 1 cal/s 14.29 0.3950 3.087 5.613 ϫ 10–3 1 4.186 ϫ 10–3 4.186 1 kW 3413 0.9481 737.6 1.341 238.9 1 1000 1 W 3.413 9.481 ϫ 10–4 0.7376 1.341 ϫ 10–3 0.2389 0.001 1 Table 2.8 Velocity (v) Item ft/s km/h m/s mile/h cm/s knot 1 ft per s 1 1.097 0.3048 0.6818 30.48 0.592 1 km per h 0.9113 1 0.2778 0.6214 27.78 0.5396 1 m per s 3.281 3.600 1 2.237 100 1.942 1 mile per h 1.467 1.609 0.4470 1 44.70 0.868 1 cm per s 3.281 ϫ 10–2 3.600 ϫ 10–2 0.0100 2.237 ϫ 10–2 1 0.0194 1 knot 1.689 1.853 0.5148 1.152 51.48 1
16 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book 2.3.9 Torque The basic unit of torque is the foot pound (ft.lbf) (in SI it is the newton metre (N m)). You may also see this referred to as ‘moment of force’ (see Figure 2.5) 1 ft.lbf= 1.357 N m 1 kgf.m = 9.81 N m 2.3.10 Stress Stress is measured in lb/in2 – the same unit used for pressure although it is a different physical quantity. In SI the basic unit is the pascal (Pa). 1 Pa is an impractically by small unit so MPa is normally used (see Figure 2.6). 1 lb/in2 = 6895 Pa 1 MPa = 1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.80665 MPa 2.3.11 Linear velocity (speed) The basic unit of linear velocity (speed) is feet per second (in SI it is m/s). In aeronautics, the most common non-SI unit is the knot, which is equivalent to 1 nautical mile (1853.2 m) per hour. See Table 2.8. 2.3.12 Acceleration The basic unit of acceleration is feet per second squared (ft/s2 ). In SI it is m/s2 . 1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2 1 m/s2 = 3.28084 ft/s2 Standard gravity (g) is normally taken as 32.1740 ft/s2 (9.80665 m/s2 ). 2.3.13 Angular velocity The basic unit is radians per second (rad/s). 1 rad/s = 0.159155 rev/s = 57.2958 degree/s The radian is also the SI unit used for plane angles. A complete circle is 2π radians (see Figure 2.7) A quarter-circle (90°) is π/2 or 1.57 radians 1 degree = π/180 radians
17Fundamental dimensions and units Force (N) Radius (r) Torque = Nr Fig. 2.5 Torque Area 1 m 2 1 MN Fig. 2.6 Stress 2 π radians θ Fig. 2.7 Angular measure
18 Table 2.9 Area (A) Unit sq.in sq.ft sq.yd sq.mile cm2 dm2 m2 a ha km2 1 square inch 1 - – – 6.452 0.06452 – - – - 1 square foot 144 1 0.1111 - 929 9.29 0.0929 – - – 1 square yard 1296 9 1 – 8361 83.61 0.8361 – – – 1 square mile – – – 1 – – – – 259 2.59 1 cm2 0.155 –

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