This document discusses memory and forgetting. It covers: 1. The dimensions (stages) of memory including encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processes like rehearsal and elaboration to convert information into a storable form. 2. Memory storage occurs in sensory memory, working (short-term) memory, and long-term memory. Long-term memory can be declarative (facts) or non-declarative (skills). 3. Retrieval is the process of accessing stored memories and bringing them into conscious awareness using cues. Forgetting occurs due to factors like decay, interference, or retrieval failure.

1. UNIT FOUR
MEMORY AND
FORGETTING
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2. 4.1. Memory
The Meaning of Memory
 Memory is an organism’s mental ability to receive, retain,
store and recall information over time
 everything we do or say depends on memory systems
 significant to put information into our mind and to retrieve to
perform all of our life’s activity
4.1.2. Dimensions (stages) of memory
 Memory is more than a single process and the corresponding
processes are encoding, storage and retrieval.
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3. I. Memory Encoding
 It is the process of converting information
into a form that can be stored in memory,
and it requires the following efforts:
Rehearsal- a conscious repetition of
information without imparting any meaning
deep processing- an intense and higher level
of information processing
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4. Encoding (contd)
elaboration- an extensive processing at any depth with
examples, concepts, and self-references
imagery- storing of information as verbal or as an image code
Organizing- an arrangement of information in some
retrievable manner such as alphabetical order, hierarchically,
or chunking
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5. II. Memory Storage
 is the process whereby an encoded information is
held/kept in memory system for future use
 memory storage can be distinguished by different time
frames and its contents
Time FrameTheory 0f Memory
This theory assumes that memory has three stages:
Sensory memory, working (short term) memory
(STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
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6. Memory Storage (contd)
1. Sensory Memory (very short) 0-25 seconds
2. Working (short term) Memory (STM)
 short span - about 30 seconds
 also known as working memory
 holds the data used for conscious cognitive activities
 is the problem-solving area
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7. Memory Storage (contd.)
some of STM contents are lost after 30
seconds, but some are converted to LTM
its capacity is 7±2 bits of information
contains input from two sources:
contents of sensory memory that we
are paying attention
information recalled from LTM for
retrieval
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8. Memory Storage (contd)
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) (potentially for a
lifelong)
 holds what we usually think
 limitless in capacity & duration but limited by encoding &
retrieval.
Memory’s contents
LTM contents are divided into 2 types: declarative & non-
declarative
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9. Memory Storage (contd)
1)Declarative ((or explicit) memories - memories that can
be consciously recalled and described information
This further subdivided in to semantic and episodic memory
 semantic memory - a person’s field of expertise,
academic knowledge about facts, meanings, figures,
concepts, places, persons and things
 episodic memory - events in the past that include
information about what happened along with when and
where it occurred
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10. Memory Storage (contd.)
Non-declarative ( (or implicit or procedural)
memories
 Are previous experience memories that can be
accessed without our conscious (or verbal)
involvement
 tell as how to perform particular activities
 their contents cannot easily describe in words,
hence, they are considered to be implicit memories.
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11. III. Memory Retrieval
 is the process whereby a stored memory is
brought in to consciousness through recall
 is the process of putting the contents of LTM
in to working memory
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12. …
some concepts used in retrieval
 Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT): is
characterized by being able to retrieve
quite a lot of information about the target
word without being able to retrieve the
word itself.You know the meaning of the
word.You may know how many syllables
the word has, or its initial sound or letter.
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13. …
 Serial position effect: is the tendency of a
person to recall the first and last items in a
series best, and the middle items worst.
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14. …
 Retrieval cues and retrieval tasks:
Retrieval cues are stimuli that help you
retrieve a certain memory. Learn more
about retrieval cues and retrieval failure
from examples, and test your knowledge
with a quiz.
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15. …
 Retrieval tasks is an information search
task that requires a ranked list of
information items that are relevant to a
specified.
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16. …
 Emotional memories: are the storage and
recall of events and details that are couple
with the physiological response that was
present when the event occurred.
I. Flashbulb memories is a detailed and vivid
memory that is stored on one occasion and
retained for a lifetime. Usually, such
memories are associated with important
historical or autobiographical events
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17. …
 II. Personal trauma. Trauma is often the
result of an overwhelming amount of
stress that exceeds one's ability to cope,
or integrate the emotions involved with
that experience. Disability Compensation for
Sexual or Personal Trauma. Print. Some veterans
(women and men) suffered sexual or other
personal trauma while serving on active military
duty.They might still struggle with fear, anxiety,
embarrassment, or profound anger as a result of
these experiences.
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18. 4.1.3. factors affecting
memory
August, 2005
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19. 4.2. Forgetting
Meaning and concepts of forgetting
 it s the apparent loss of information stored in LTM or
 it is the inability to retrieve and use information stored in
memory system
4.2.2. Reasons of forgetting (theories)
 Theory of Decay: fading with the passage of time
 Motivated Forgetting (Repression): pushing
information to the unconscious part of mind purposefully
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20. Reasons of forgetting (contd)
 Theory of interference: intervening activities
Retroactive interference - if a new learned material
disrupts recall of an older
Proactive interference - when an older memory
interferes with the recall (encoding) of newer
 Retrieval Failure: non-availability of appropriate events
for retrieval
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21. Reasons of forgetting (contd)td)
 Abnormal or pathological Forgetting: also called amnesia -
a complete block of memory as a result of damage of brain
beyond repair
it takes two forms:
1.anterograde amnesia - a memory disorder preventing
retention of new information
2.retrograde amnesia - memory loss for a segment of the past
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22. 4.3. improving memory
Improvement of memory
improvement can be achieved in two
ways: 1) by improving the health of
your brain, and 2) using memory
skills.These are easier to do than you
might think, but you have to make
the effort.
 A non-threatening atmospheres
free from cut throat competition
 Organization of the subject matter
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23. THE END
THANK YOU VERY
MUCH
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