The document provides a history of print and broadcast media. It discusses the earliest forms of print media including clay tablets in Mesopotamia and papyrus in Egypt. The printing press was invented in the 15th century by Johannes Gutenberg, rapidly spreading across Europe. Newspapers emerged in the early 17th century. Penny papers launched in the 1830s by selling for one cent. Radio was developed in the late 19th century through the work of scientists like Hertz and Marconi. Television was invented in the early 20th century by Philo Farnsworth and Vladimir Zworykin.

1. INTRODUCTION TO
JOURNALISM
BY NAFYAD BOJA

2. HISTORY OF PRINT MEDIA
 The earliest known product of Print media was a news sheet the
‘Acta Diurna’ which was circulated in the Ancient Rome
before 59 BC. Acta Diurna contained important daily events
such as public speeches and was published daily.
 During the Tang Dynasty in China a court circular called a
‘Bao’ or report was issued by the government officials.
Woodblock printing was used widely throughout East Asia. In
Europe, block printing was done on a cloth and was very
common by 1300.

3. CONT’D
 Book began with clay tablets, scrolls and sheets of papyrus. Clay
tablets were used in Mesopotamia in 3rd millennium BC. Sheets
of papyrus were used in Ancient Egypt and bird feathers were
used for writing.
 Books made with papyrus were in the form of scroll as several
sheets were pasted together. In East Asia before books, writing
news was done on shells, wood and silk, especially in China.

4.  Later papyrus sheets were replaced by parchment. The King of
Pergamon, Eumenes II is attributed to the invention of
parchment. The production of parchment began around 3rd
century BC.
 Parchment was made by using skins of animals like sheep,
donkey, antelope, etc. Parchment was costly because of the
rarity of the material and also the time required to produce the
parchment was long.

5. CONT’D
 Paper was invented in the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC - 9
AD) in China. Cai Lun who was a official attached to the
Chinese imperial court during Han dynasty is credited for the
invention of paper. He invented paper-making for the intention
of writing.
 The first movable printing press was invented by a German
goldsmith, Johannes Gutenberg. The Gutenberg Bible
published in 1455 is amongst the earliest press printed book in
Europe.

6.  Compared to woodblock printing the printing press was faster
and more durable. Printing press helped in creating newspapers
and other print media branches.
 The print revolution was not limited to Europe. The discovery
of sea routes to the west by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and
to the east by Vasco Da Gama in 1498 helped in spreading the
Gutenberg printing press to the rest of the world.

7.  The printing press rapidly spread across Europe which led to the
Renaissance first in Europe and later all around the world. As
the printing revolution started gaining rapid pace many
improvements were made to the printing method.
 The World Association of Newspapers considers the first
newspaper to be The Relation, which was published in Germany
in 1604.
 It was published regularly (weekly), disseminated to the public
and covered a range of news, from politics to entertainment.

8.  The Oxford Gazette was the first English paper to be published,
starting in 1665. It moved to London the next year and was
renamed the London Gazette. It is still published today as the
official publication of government news.
 Although the early American colonies published news sheets,
the first true newspaper was published in Boston in 1690.
Called Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic, it ran
into trouble for publishing political criticism.

9. Penny Press
 Penny press is a term used to express the newspapers that sold
for one cent.
 Benjamin Day was only 22 years old when he launched the
mass-appeal New York Sun in 1833. Days’ idea was to sell his
daily paper for a penny (a significant price reduction from the six
cents a copy for other big-city dailies)
 Moreover, the Sun contained local news, particularly those items
that featured sex, violence and human-interest stories. Noticeably
the absent were heavy political debates. Days’ gamble paid off as
the Sun attracted readers and the penny press was launched.

10. Cont’d
Then, other newspapers imitated the Suns’ success
James Gordon Bennett launched the New York Herald in
1835, which rapidly succeed even than the Sun.
Another pioneer named Horace Greeley also came up with the
New york Tribune established in 1841 and ranked third behind
the Herald and Sun in circulation.
Greeley used his editorial pages for crusades and its causes

11. The last of the major newspapers of the penny-press era that we
shall consider began in 1951 and, at this writing, is still
publishing. In this period the newspaper titled The New York
Times, which became a reason for the birth of objective
journalism.
The common feature the aforementioned newspaper share
commonly, was as soon as their penny papers succeed, they
doubled the price.

12. Generally, from 1833 to 1860 basically there were four major
changes occurred.
1. The basis of economic support for newspapers
Before the penny press, most of a newspapers’ economic support came from
subscription revenue. Then after that large circulation of the penny papers made,
advertisers realize that they could reach a large segment of potential buyers by
purchasing space.
2. The pattern of newspaper distribution
Older papers were distributed primarily through the mails, then become street sales
3. The definition of what constituted news
Newspapers changed their emphasis from the affairs of the commercial elite to the
social life of the rising middle classes.

13. 4. The techniques of news collection
 News became more of a commodity, something that had value. And, like many
commodities, fresh news was more valuable than stale news. Any scheme that would
get the news into the paper faster was tried. All in all, the penny papers increased the
importance of speed in news collection.
The Golden age of journalism
The 1880s and 1890s were the golden age of journalism according to writers and
owners of newspapers in England, Europe and U.S.A.
In 1815 press freedom in Europe was an agenda
By 1881, it had become an enduring institution its most admired text enshrined in
the French press law passed in July of that year.

14. A new libel law which freed newspapers from the fear of prosecution for
criminal libel was passed .
• Newspapers become big business.
Thus, the “inverted pyramid” style of reporting was developed.
Joseph Pulitzer: he was successful because he stressed accuracy
He also introduced practices that appealed to advertisers. Moreover, he
aimed his paper at the large population of immigrants then living in New
York by stressing simple writing and many illustrations.
Pulitzer reintroduced the sensationalized news format of the penny press.
The new york world's pages carried stories about crime, violence and
tragedy.

15. Yellow journalism
A journalism in which exaggerated, untruth and unethical information have been
disseminated.
Hearst, like Pulitzer before him, when invaded the big league – New York City. In
1895, he bought the New York Journal.
• Soon, Pulitzer and Hearst were engaged in a fierce circulation battle as each paper
attempted to outs nationalizes the other. As one press critic put it, the duel between
these two spread “death, dishonor and disaster” all over page one.
 Sex, murder, self-promotion and human-interest stories filled the two papers.
This type of reporting became known as Yellow Journalism, and whatever its
faults, it sold newspapers. The battle between Pulitzer and Hearst reached its
climax with the Spanish-American War in 1898.
 Although; the period of yellow journalism was not the proudest moment in the
history of American newspaper, some positive features did emerge from it.

16. In the first place, it brought enthusiasm, energy and verve to the practice of
journalism, along with aggressive reporting and investigative stories.
• Second, it brought wide exposure to prominent authors and led to some fine
examples of contemporary writing.
Further, yellow journalism helped popularize the use of layout and display
devices – banner headlines, pictures, color printing – that would go on to
characterize modern journalism.

17. HISTORY OF BROADCAST MEDIA
Radio
 In 1887, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, successfully sent
and detected radio waves.
 Guglielmo Marconi used Hertz’s efforts to build a wireless
communication device that could send Morse code – dots and
dashes – from a transmitter to a receiver.
 Marconi started a wireless telegraphy company that would play
an important part in early radio’s development.

18.  Reginald Fessenden and Lee De Forest provided the
breakthroughs that would make broadcasting – as opposed to
sending dots and dashes – possible. Fessenden, with the help of
the General Electric (GE) Corporation, built a high-speed,
continuous-wave generator that could broadcast the human voice
and music.
De Forest invented the vacuum tube, originally called the audion,
which made it much easier to receive radio signals. Despite the
efforts of Fessenden and De Foerest, it was hard to envision that
broadcasting news and entertainment to the general public could
make money.

19.  In the mid-1930s, Edwin Howard Armstrong, a noted
inventor, demonstrated frequency modulated radio, or FM.
The most significant development in radio during the 1970s
and 1980s was the successful emergence of FM.
 The period following WWII was marked by great changes in
both the radio and recording industries, changes that
ultimately drove them closer together. The development of
early radio was hampered by legal battles over patent rights
to various inventions.

20. Television
 The two men who developed television in the United States
could not have been more different.
 At the age of 16, Philo Farnsworth diagrammed his idea for a
television system on the chalkboard in front of his somewhat
amazed high school teacher.
 Farnsworth, an individualistic and lone-wolf inventor, worked at
developing his new device, which he called an image dissector
and eventually patented it in 1930.

21.  In contrast, Vladimir Zworykin was an organization man
working first with Westinghouse and then with RCA. By
1928, he had perfected a primitive camera tube, the
iconoscope.
 Picture quality of the early television systems was poor,
but technical developments during the 1930s improved
performance.
 NBC gave the first public demonstration of television at
the 1939 world’s fair. The initial public response to TV was
lukewarm. Sets were expensive and there were not many
programs for people to watch.

22.  WWII interrupted TV’s development. After the war, new
technology that had been perfected during the war greatly
improved TV reception and the working conditions of the
performers.
 The early TV industry was modeled after radio. Many
broadcast historians refer to the 1950s as golden age of TV.
Many shows aired during that decade became extremely
popular.
 By the early 1960s, TV had lost its novelty and became just
another part of everyday life. Television journalism came of
age during the 1960s.

23. CHAPTER TWO
Normative theories (Press theories)

24.  Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert,
Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their book
called “Four Theories of the Press”.
 At first the word “Normative Theory” was pronounced in USA
during the height of ‘cold war’ with communism and soviet.
Often it called as western theories of mass media.
 Normative theories are more focused in the relationship
between Press and the Government than press and the
audience. These theories are more concern about the
ownership of the media and who controls the press or
media in the country. Basically, there are four normative
theory of press.

25. 1. Authoritarian Theory
 Authoritarian theory of mass communication originated
from the philosophy of Plato (407-327 B.C.). The English
monarchs used this approach when the printing press was
invented by censoring, licensing, taxation and making laws.
 Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of
communications are under the control of the governing
elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats.

26.  The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the
country rather than any threats.
 The authorities have all rights to permit any media and
control it by providing license to the media and make certain
censorship.
 Here, the media cannot offend or go against the majority or
dominant groups.
 Media must remain subordinate to the authorities in
authoritarian theory. It is believed that state information,
when distributed, might put security at risk and cause to be a
national threat.

27.  If any media violate the government policies against license,
then the authority has all right to cancel the license and
revoke it. The government has all right to restrict any
sensitive issues from press to maintain peace and security in
the nation.
Examples: Nazi, Germany, Fascist, Italy, and etc.
Censorship:
 Censorship is a suppression of any communication which
may consider as harmful to the people, King, government
and its nation. Especially these censorship methods are
much familiar in press which against the freedom of speech
and freedom of expression.

28. Major Features of Authoritarian Theory of Mass Communication
 Media is under direct control of government and authorities
 Power exercised to control media
 Control by the powerful ruling minorities or a group of ruling
majorities
 Media has no power to criticize the government, its work,
decisions and policies
 Media cannot offend the ruling parties in any way
 Punishment and threats are given to the people who try to
offend the government and the powerful
 Ownership is mostly private

29. Strengths of Authoritarian Theory
This approach is sometimes better for resolving social and
cultural conflicts.
It is also better sometimes because it motivates media to
work for the country and its people.
This theory can act as a gatekeeper and prevent the media
that act irresponsibly.
The theory can be used for establishing propaganda.

30. Weaknesses of Authoritarian Theory
 Common people are taken as less intelligent and as an easy
target to manipulate.
 The ruling class uses the media only for their own benefits.
 The freedom of expression and information of normal people
is attacked.

31. 2. Libertarian Theory
 The theory is originally came from libertarian thoughts in
16th century in Europe.
 The libertarian theorists are against the authoritarian
thoughts.
 International trade and urbanization undermine the power
of a rural aristocracy which leads various social movements
raise includes the Protestants reformation, that demands
individual’s freedom and their own lives and free thoughts.

32.  Libertarianism is free from any authority or any control or
censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism and
limited government which is not harmful to another.
 Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and
judge good ideas from bad. The theory says people are
rational and their rational thoughts lead them to find out
what are good and bad.
 The press should not restrict anything even a negative
content may give knowledge and can make better decision
whilst worst situation.

33. For instance:
 Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or
restricted files in public space and especially classified
documents.
 These articles are providing brief knowledge about the
government and its activities which helps people to identify
what is happening in the society and its gives great choices
to elect a better president in future.

34. Strengths of libertarian theory
 Media can give true information without any control.
 There is no censorship.
 All individuals can express their opinions and thoughts in
the media openly.
 The theory encourages healthy competition among the
thoughts and ideas.
 Every work will be transparent to all.
 It checks the government and the state authorities and also
prevents corruption.
 It functions with democracy.

35. Weaknesses of Libertarian Theory
 Media might not always act responsibly.
 Individuals might not always have good intentions and
ethics.
 People cannot always make rational judgments.
 Freedom of different type of people, their ideas, opinions,
school of thoughts, and group objectives can be in a conflict.
 Media can misuse its power and harm other people’s privacy
and dignity.
 Media might defame, cause sedition, libel or slander, be
immodest, publish obscenity and cause trouble.

36. 3. Soviet Media Theory
 After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was
restructured with new political system based on the
Marxist-Leninist principles.
 The newly formed communist party by Lenin shows
much interest in the media which serves to the working
class in the country and their welfares.
 So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist
and Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel ideology is called “Soviet Media Theory”
is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”.

37.  The government undertakes or controls the total media and
communication to serve working classes and their interest.
 Theory says the state have absolute power to control any
media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private
ownership of the press and other media.
 The government media provide positive thoughts to create a
strong socialized society as well as providing information,
education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization.

38.  The soviet media theory describe the whole purpose of the
mass media is to educate the greater masses of working
class or workers.
 Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which
would able to create interests towards the media.

39. Critics of Soviet Media Theory:
 Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory
but the core part is different from each other.
 In authoritarian theory is a one way communication, there is
no feedback allowed from the public but in Soviet media
theory is a two way communication at the same time the
whole media is controlled or works under the leadership.
 Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press
without any restriction and it can serve people without any
authoritative blockades.

40. Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the
nation interest rather than personal.
Under communist theories like soviet media theory, the
journalist or press should support the leadership rather than
being a watchdog.
If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot.

41. 4. Social Responsibility Theory:
 In mid-20th century most of the developing countries and
third world nations have used this social responsibility theory
of press which is associated with “the Commission of the
Freedom of Press” in United States at 1949.
 In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert, Peterson and
Schramm) it’s been stated that “pure libertarianism is
antiquated, out dated and obsolete.” That paved way for
replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social
responsibility theory.

42.  Social responsibility theory allows free press without any
censorship but at the same time the content of the press
should be discussed in public panel and media should accept
any obligation from public interference or professional self-
regulations or both.
 The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and
libertarian theory because it gives total media freedom in
one hand but the external controls in other hand. Here, the
press ownership is private.

43.  The social responsibility theory moves beyond the simple
“Objective” reporting (facts reporting) to “Interpretative”
reporting (investigative reporting).
 The total news is complete facts and truthful but the
commission of the freedom press stated that “No longer
giving facts truthfully rather than give a necessary analyzed
or interpretative report on facts with clear explanations”.

44.  The social responsibility theory helped in creating
professionalism in media by setting up a high level of
accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of press
council also included some tasks based on social
responsibility of media, which are as follows:
 Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
 Improve the standards of journalism.
 Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
 Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of
conduct.

45. Strength of theory
Everyone to say something or express their opinion about
the media.
Community opinion, Consumer action and professional
ethics.
Serious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social
interests.
Private ownership in media may give better public service
unless government has to take over to assure the public to
provide better media service.
Media must take care of social responsibility and if they do
not, government or other organization will do.

46. Critics of Social Responsibility Theory:
 Avoids the conflict situation during war or emergency by
accepting the public opinion.
 Media will not play monopoly because the audience and
media scholars will rise questions if media published or
broadcast anything wrongly or manipulate any story.
 Media Standards will improve.
 Media will concern all class audience rather than focus on
higher classes in the society.
 Media may work autonomously but certain thing is
controlled by the government and other public organization.