Exogenic processes are geological processes that occur on the surface of the Earth and involve interactions with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. They include weathering, erosion, deposition, and sedimentation. Endogenic processes are geological processes that occur underneath Earth's surface, within the lithosphere and asthenosphere. They include plate tectonics, mountain building, volcanism, and seismic and igneous activity. Endogenic processes are driven by internal heat from the Earth's core and mantle and shape the interior of the planet independently from surface influences. The key difference is that exogenic processes are surface processes influenced by external, near-surface factors like the atmosphere, while endogenic processes are internal processes within Earth driven

8. Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet"
due to the abundant water on its surface. Over
70 percent of the surface area of the earth is
covered by water. All the earth’s water, solid or in
liquid form, those that are contained in glaciers,
rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earth’s
hydrosphere.

10. Rivers
Glaciers.
Ocean.
Lakes

11. A very huge envelope of air that surrounds the
earth and pulled by the gravitational force of
the earth is called atmosphere. The earth’s
atmosphere is primarily composed of 78
percent nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen.

12. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium
and other inert gases make up the remaining
1 percent

13. The biosphere is where all forms of life exist.
Since life exist in the air, in water and on the
ground, its boundaries overlap other “sphere”
because life can be found everywhere on earth.
The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one
large ecosystem — a complex community of living
and nonliving things functioning as a single unit.

15. GEOSPHERE

16. ---describes all of the rocks, minerals and
ground that are found on and in Earth.
This includes all of the mountains on the
surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in
the mantle below us and the minerals and
metals of the outer and inner cores.

18. INNER PART OF THE EARTH
The planet Earth is made up of different
layers: the very thin, brittle crust, the mantle,
and the core; the mantle and core are each
divided into two parts. Although the core and
mantle are about equal in thickness, the core
actually forms only 15 percent of the Earth's
volume, whereas the mantle occupies 84
percent. The crust makes up the remaining 1
percent.

19. the outermost part of the earth and is very
thin compared to the other
layers. It is a part where the living
organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin
continuous layer that extends underneath
the ocean and continents.

20. 2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust
2. Oceanic crust

21. 1. Continental crust
is mostly composed of different types of granites.
Geologists often refer to the rocks of the
continental crust as “sial” which stands for silicate
and aluminum, the most abundant minerals in
continental crust

22. The oldest and most stable part of
the continental lithosphere and are
found deep in the interior of most
continents are called Cratons.

23. 2. Oceanic crust
is mostly composed of different types of
basalts. Rocks of the oceanic crust are
referred to as “sima” which stands for silicate
and magnesium, the most abundant minerals
in oceanic crust.

24. The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s
interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s
dense, super heated core and its thin outer
layer, the crust. It is made up of 1.silicates,
2.magnesium oxide, 3.iron, 4.aluminum,
5.calcium, 6.sodium, and 7.potassium.
The mantle is divided into two layers: the
upper mantle and the lower mantle.

25. Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of
superheated rock from the mantle.
Mantle plumes are the likely cause of
“hot spots,” volcanic regions not
created by plate tectonics.

26. The Core
It is the dense center and
hottest part of earth. The core is
made almost entirely of iron
and nickel.

27. The boundary between the core and the mantle is
called the Gutenberg discontinuity

28. The core is made of two layers:
Outer Core - borders the mantle.
Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the core.
Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The
temperature of the inner core is far above the
melting point of iron.

29. Bullen discontinuity is the boundary
separating these two layers

31. EARTHY MATERIALS
AND PROCESSES

32. ROCKS AND MINERALS
Objectives:
1. To identify common rock-forming minerals using
their physical and chemical properties
2. To classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic

33. Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of
one or more minerals.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of
rock.
The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are
determined by the manner in which the rock was
formed. Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a
compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74.3% of
the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with
other compounds in the rock.

34. Geological Classification of rocks according
to Characteristics such as:
1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. and particle size.

35. These physical properties are the end
result of the processes that formed the
rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can
transform from one type into another, as
des- cribed by the geological model called
the rock cycle. These events produce
three general classes of rocks : igneous ,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.

36. Igneous

37. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted
rock (either lava or magma) into solid form.
1.If the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive,
or plutonic, igneous rock.
2.If the cooling occurs on the earth's surface, the rock is an
extrusive or volcanic rock.
3.Molten material within the Earth is called magma;
it is “lava” once it has erupted onto the surface.

38. Metamorphic

39. Metamorphic
1.
rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to
intense heat and pressure, usually deep
below the earth's surface. These conditions
change the original minerals of the rock into
new minerals.

40. Sedimentary

41. Sedimentary rocks are
either detrital or chemical.

42. a. Detrital rocks are formed by
the compaction of separate
particles, or sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks
form from minerals that have
been dissolved in water and
precipitate out, forming a solid
rock.

43. Geologists describe sedimentary rocks
according to the size and
shape of the particles in them or
their mineral composition (in the
case of chemical
sedimentary rocks).

44. Oxygen (O) 46.6%
Silicon (Si) 27.7%
Aluminum (Al) 8.1%
Iron (Fe) 5.0%
Calcium (Ca) 3.6%
Sodium (Na) 2.8%
Potassium (K) 2.6%
Magnesium
(Mg) 2.1%
Table 1. The eight most
common
elements in the Earth’s
crust( by mass )

46. The rocks of earth's crust are
constantly being recycled and
changed into new forms through
geologic processes. This continual
transformation of rocks from one
type to another is called the rock
cycle.

47. How rock type
can be changed?

48. Rock can be changed through the
processes of
1.weathering,
2.heating,
3.melting,
4.cooling, and
5.compaction.

49. Any one rock type can be
changed into a different rock type
as its chemical composition and
physical characteristics are
transformed.

50. The minerals and metals found
in rocks have been essential to
human civilization.

51. Minerals
➢ Minerals are the fundamental components
➢ of rocks.
➢ They are naturally occurring inorganic
substances with a specific chemical
composition and an orderly repeating
atomic structure that
defines a crystal structure.

52. ➢ Silicate minerals are the most abundant components
➢ of rocks on the Earth’s
surface, making up over 90% by mass of the Earth’s
crust.
➢ The common non-silicate minerals, which
constitute less than 10% of the Earth's crust,
include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates
and salts. A few elements may occur in pure
form. These include gold, silver, copper,
bismuth, arsenic, lead, tellurium and carbon.

53. Although 92 naturally occurring
elements exist in nature, only
eight of these are common in the
rocks of the Earth's crust.
Together, these eight elements
make up more than 98% of the
crust (Table 1).

54. Rock Forming Minerals
The physical properties of minerals, such
as their 1.hardness, 2.lustre, 3.color,
4.cleavage, 5.fracture, and 6.relative density
can be used to identify minerals.
These general characteristics are
controlled mainly by their atomic structure
(crystal structure).

55. Common rock-forming minerals:
These are specimens of minerals from the
University of Auckland's collection. Along with
the common rock-forming minerals, including
apatite, corundum, diamond, fluorite, topaz and
talc to illustrate minerals used in Moh's Scale of
Hardness.

56. These are specimens of minerals
from the University of Auckland's
collection. Along with the common
rock-forming minerals,
including apatite, corundum,
diamond, fluorite, topaz and talc to
illustrate minerals used in Moh's
Scale of Hardness.

57. apatite augite biotite

58. calcite chlorite corundum

59. diamond

61. 12
Classification and Identification of Minerals
Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition.
• Definite fixed composition,
Quartz is always SiO2, and calcite is always CaCO3.
• Form both by inorganic and organic processes.
For example, calcite (CaCO3) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also a shell-forming material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin conforms to the above definition except for the req
• "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually classified as minerals. Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks a crystal structure due to its liquid state, and O
• Organic minerals is another unique category of minerals.
While this term is technically an oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral
requires it to be inorganic, there are several naturally occurring rare organic substances
with a definitive chemical formula. The best example of this is Whewellite.
reference guides and scientific sources make an exception to these substances
and still classify them as minerals.

62. Study Question:
What is the difference between exogenic and endogenic
process ?