The document discusses the composition of matter on Earth and in the solar system. It describes how Earth is composed of different layers including the core, mantle, and crust made up of minerals and rocks. It explains how the solar system formed from a nebula of gas and dust according to the nebular hypothesis, resulting in terrestrial planets like Earth and gas giants like Jupiter. Key factors that influenced the evolution of planets included melting, impacts, volcanism, planetary mass, and distance from the sun.
This document discusses the composition and structure of Earth. It begins by explaining the three common states of matter and that materials can exist in different states or phases. It then discusses the composition of Earth, which is made up of layers including the core, mantle, and crust. The crust contains the most common elements and is where we find minerals and rocks. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks and have unique properties based on their crystal structure and composition. The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure. There are over 4,900 known mineral species, with silicate minerals making up over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals form through crystallization as ions come together and atoms arrange themselves in an ordered pattern. They can crystallize from magma or other melts as they cool, or form through precipitation from fluids. The scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy, which examines their chemistry, crystal structure, physical properties, origins, classification, and distribution. Key physical properties used to identify minerals include color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
The document provides information on the structure and composition of Earth. It describes the four main layers from outermost to innermost - crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust contains different rock types and is thicker under continents. The mantle is the largest layer and has three zones. The outer core is molten and generates Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is solid and dense. Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates consisting of crust and upper mantle. The document also discusses minerals that make up rocks and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
This document provides an overview of minerals and mining. It discusses the purpose of the lesson, defines what minerals are, and describes the various types of mineral deposits that can form through igneous, hydrothermal, metamorphic, sedimentary, weathering, and placer processes. The document also outlines different mineral classification systems and properties used to identify minerals such as streak, luster, crystal form, hardness, cleavage, and fracture. Mineral extraction methods and the economic and environmental impacts of mining are also summarized.
The document discusses minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic substances with distinct properties based on their atomic structure. There are over 2000 known minerals that form six major rock-forming groups. Rocks are aggregates of minerals and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through deposition and lithification of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress. The rock cycle describes how rocks continuously transform between these types through geological processes.
The document discusses different methods of classifying igneous rocks, including based on their chemical composition (e.g. silica content into acid/felsic, intermediate, basic/mafic, and ultramafic types), mineralogy (presence of saturated vs. unsaturated minerals), texture (phaneritic or aphanitic), and mode of occurrence (intrusive vs. extrusive). It also describes classification based on the proportions of light-colored minerals like quartz and feldspar versus dark-colored minerals like pyroxene and olivine.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses how Earth's early molten stage led to differentiation of the crust. It also explains that minerals have unique crystalline structures while rocks are aggregates of minerals. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic - are formed by different geological processes. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through compaction and cementation, and metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing rocks.
This is a powerpoint presentation that is about one of the Senior High School Core Subject: Earth and Life Science. It is composed of the definition and the properties of the different classification of minerals.
This document discusses the composition and structure of Earth. It begins by explaining the three common states of matter and that materials can exist in different states or phases. It then discusses the composition of Earth, which is made up of layers including the core, mantle, and crust. The crust contains the most common elements and is where we find minerals and rocks. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks and have unique properties based on their crystal structure and composition. The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure. There are over 4,900 known mineral species, with silicate minerals making up over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals form through crystallization as ions come together and atoms arrange themselves in an ordered pattern. They can crystallize from magma or other melts as they cool, or form through precipitation from fluids. The scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy, which examines their chemistry, crystal structure, physical properties, origins, classification, and distribution. Key physical properties used to identify minerals include color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
The document provides information on the structure and composition of Earth. It describes the four main layers from outermost to innermost - crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust contains different rock types and is thicker under continents. The mantle is the largest layer and has three zones. The outer core is molten and generates Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is solid and dense. Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates consisting of crust and upper mantle. The document also discusses minerals that make up rocks and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
This document provides an overview of minerals and mining. It discusses the purpose of the lesson, defines what minerals are, and describes the various types of mineral deposits that can form through igneous, hydrothermal, metamorphic, sedimentary, weathering, and placer processes. The document also outlines different mineral classification systems and properties used to identify minerals such as streak, luster, crystal form, hardness, cleavage, and fracture. Mineral extraction methods and the economic and environmental impacts of mining are also summarized.
The document discusses minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic substances with distinct properties based on their atomic structure. There are over 2000 known minerals that form six major rock-forming groups. Rocks are aggregates of minerals and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through deposition and lithification of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress. The rock cycle describes how rocks continuously transform between these types through geological processes.
The document discusses different methods of classifying igneous rocks, including based on their chemical composition (e.g. silica content into acid/felsic, intermediate, basic/mafic, and ultramafic types), mineralogy (presence of saturated vs. unsaturated minerals), texture (phaneritic or aphanitic), and mode of occurrence (intrusive vs. extrusive). It also describes classification based on the proportions of light-colored minerals like quartz and feldspar versus dark-colored minerals like pyroxene and olivine.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses how Earth's early molten stage led to differentiation of the crust. It also explains that minerals have unique crystalline structures while rocks are aggregates of minerals. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic - are formed by different geological processes. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through compaction and cementation, and metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing rocks.
This is a powerpoint presentation that is about one of the Senior High School Core Subject: Earth and Life Science. It is composed of the definition and the properties of the different classification of minerals.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
This document provides a review of minerals, rocks, and the processes involved in their formation. It defines key terms like monomineralic, polymineralic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Their texture depends on the cooling rate - slow cooling leads to large crystals and coarse texture, while rapid cooling results in small crystals and fine texture. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments transported by wind, water, or glaciers. They can also form through chemical or biological processes.
This document discusses the study of mineralogy and properties of minerals and rocks. It defines mineralogy as the study of minerals, which are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. It describes several physical properties used to identify common minerals such as luster, hardness, streak, cleavage, fracture and color. It also discusses the chemical composition of minerals and provides examples of important mineral resources in the Philippines. Finally, it classifies the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and provides brief descriptions.
This document provides information about minerals and their properties. It defines minerals as naturally occurring solids with a crystal structure and definite chemical composition. Minerals form through crystallization as magma or solutions cool. They can crystallize on the surface through evaporation or underground as magma cools. The size of mineral crystals depends on the cooling rate, with slower cooling deep underground producing larger crystals. Minerals have many uses including in jewelry, metals, construction materials, and tools. Metals are extracted from ores through mining and smelting to remove the metal.
Geology 3: Notes on mineral composition, structure of crystals, and identifi...Robin Seamon
This document defines several key terms used in geology:
1) Organic materials contain carbon and are related to living organisms, while inorganic materials are related to non-living things. Minerals are naturally formed inorganic solids with a crystalline structure.
2) Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down further, while compounds are substances made of two or more chemically bonded elements like NaCl or H2O. Crystals are solid forms of minerals produced through repeating atomic patterns.
3) The document provides examples of silicate and non-silicate minerals and discusses their composition. It also defines properties of minerals like color, luster, hardness, streak, cleavage, and fluorescence.
Earth can be divided into layers based on both chemical composition and physical properties. Chemically, Earth consists of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid layer and is made up of silicates and aluminum. Below the crust is the mantle, made of hotter, denser rock rich in magnesium and iron. At the center is the core, mostly iron and nickel. Physically, Earth comprises the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, with the lithosphere forming the rigid outer plates and the inner core the solid center.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses the different types of minerals based on their physical properties like hardness, color, streak, luster, density and crystalline structure. It also describes different types of rocks like igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and how they are formed. The rock cycle shows how different rock types can be transformed into one another over geological time periods. The document also briefly discusses some valuable mineral deposits found in the Philippines.
This document provides information about minerals and rocks. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic solids that exhibit a crystalline structure and can be represented by a chemical formula. Minerals have specific physical properties like luster, color, streak and hardness. Rocks are natural substances made of aggregated minerals and other earth materials. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The document distinguishes minerals from rocks by stating that minerals have definite chemical compositions and colors while rocks do not and can contain fossils, unlike minerals.
Rocks and minerals for grade 11; Earth and life sciencesknip xin
please don't forget to like and leave your comments. this presentation is about rocks and minerals, grade 11, earth and life sciences; senior high school
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances that have a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure. They are the building blocks that make up rocks. There are several key physical properties used to identify minerals, including luster, hardness, crystal form, and color. Luster describes how light reflects off a mineral's surface, either with a metallic or non-metallic appearance. Hardness is a mineral's resistance to scratching, measured using the Mohs hardness scale. Crystal form refers to a mineral's characteristic crystal shape or habit. Color is also an identifying property but is not always diagnostic on its own.
This document discusses different types of rocks classified based on their geological formation, physical characteristics, and chemical composition. There are three broad classes of rocks based on geological formation - sedimentary rocks formed from sediment deposits, igneous rocks formed by cooling of magma, and metamorphic rocks formed from changes due to heat and pressure. Physically, rocks are classified as unstratified massive rocks without layers, stratified layered rocks, or foliated rocks with easily separable layers. Chemically, rocks are classified as siliceous rocks with over 50% silica, calcareous rocks with over 50% carbonates, or argillaceous rocks with over 50% clay.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
This document provides an overview of mineralogy, including definitions and classifications of minerals. It discusses that minerals are naturally occurring solid substances with definite chemical compositions and atomic structures formed through inorganic processes. Minerals are divided into rock-forming and ore-forming groups. Rock-forming minerals include primary minerals crystallized from magma/lava and secondary minerals formed through primary mineral alteration. Physical properties of minerals like color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and form/structure are also outlined. Different mineral groups to be studied in practical sessions are listed. Examples of specific rock-forming and ore minerals are given throughout.
This document provides an overview of economic geology and the classification of ore deposits. It discusses how ore deposits are formed and classified based on their origin as magmatic, hydrothermal, or surficial deposits. A simple classification scheme is presented that categorizes ore deposits as igneous, sedimentary/surficial, or hydrothermal based on their forming processes. Key terms related to the study and classification of ore deposits are also defined.
Minerals are naturally occurring substances that make up rocks and have distinct internal structures. Over 2000 minerals have been identified, though only a few make up most rocks. The physical and chemical conditions during formation determine a mineral's properties like color, hardness, crystal structure, luster and density. Minerals are classified as metallic, which include ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals, or non-metallic like mica, salt and limestone. Energy minerals used as fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Earth Science 1.3 : Formation, Mining, and use of Minerals.Chris Foltz
Minerals form in a variety of environments in the Earth's crust including evaporating salt water, metamorphic rocks, limestones, hot-water solutions, pegmatites, and plutons. Minerals are extracted through surface mining methods like open pits and quarries or subsurface mining methods when deposits are too deep. Responsible mining aims to reduce environmental impacts through reclamation and recycling to lessen our need for minerals. Metallic minerals have many uses in technology due to conducting properties while nonmetallics are useful as insulators in applications like glass and computer chips. Gemstones are valued for their beauty over function.
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the Earth's interior. It is composed of three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and exists in two types, oceanic and continental. The mantle is the thick middle layer, while the core is mostly iron and makes up a third of the Earth's mass. The layers are similar to an egg, with the crust as the shell, mantle as the egg white, and core as the yolk. The Earth also has 5 physical layers from the lithosphere to the inner core. Tectonic plates comprise the crust, which breaks into about 19 pieces that move atop the asthenosphere.
Granite is an igneous rock composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and usually hornblende. These minerals slowly crystallized as magma cooled below Earth's surface. Rocks are made up of minerals, which are natural solids composed of elements like oxygen and silicon bonded together. The character of a rock depends on the atomic structures and bonding of its minerals. Atoms are the basic building blocks of elements and can bond through ionic or covalent bonds to form minerals, rocks, and the continuous rock cycle.
Igneous rock forms when lava cools and hardens. There are two categories of igneous rock: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive rock forms deep underground, allowing slow cooling that results in large crystal formation. Extrusive rock forms on the surface through rapid cooling, preventing large crystals. The size of crystals determines whether the texture is rough from large crystals or smooth from small crystals.
The document discusses classifying objects as minerals or non-minerals. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystalline structure and definite chemical composition. The activity involves groups identifying objects like quartz, glass, wood, and plastic as minerals or non-minerals and justifying their classifications. The document also outlines key characteristics of minerals like their chemical composition and crystalline structure. It describes classifying minerals into groups based on their chemical makeup, including silicates, oxides, and sulfates.
Physical properties of crystals or minerals Pramoda Raj
This document discusses the important physical properties of crystals and minerals. It begins by defining a crystal as a solid bounded by geometrical surfaces called faces. Minerals occur naturally as crystals or crystalline aggregates with a definite atomic structure. The document then examines several key physical properties used to identify minerals, including crystal form, luster, color, streak, density, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and special properties like magnetism or double refraction. These properties reflect the internal atomic arrangement of the mineral and are useful for classification. The document concludes that physical properties differ between minerals due to variations in their internal structure and impurities.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
This document provides a review of minerals, rocks, and the processes involved in their formation. It defines key terms like monomineralic, polymineralic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Their texture depends on the cooling rate - slow cooling leads to large crystals and coarse texture, while rapid cooling results in small crystals and fine texture. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments transported by wind, water, or glaciers. They can also form through chemical or biological processes.
This document discusses the study of mineralogy and properties of minerals and rocks. It defines mineralogy as the study of minerals, which are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. It describes several physical properties used to identify common minerals such as luster, hardness, streak, cleavage, fracture and color. It also discusses the chemical composition of minerals and provides examples of important mineral resources in the Philippines. Finally, it classifies the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and provides brief descriptions.
This document provides information about minerals and their properties. It defines minerals as naturally occurring solids with a crystal structure and definite chemical composition. Minerals form through crystallization as magma or solutions cool. They can crystallize on the surface through evaporation or underground as magma cools. The size of mineral crystals depends on the cooling rate, with slower cooling deep underground producing larger crystals. Minerals have many uses including in jewelry, metals, construction materials, and tools. Metals are extracted from ores through mining and smelting to remove the metal.
Geology 3: Notes on mineral composition, structure of crystals, and identifi...Robin Seamon
This document defines several key terms used in geology:
1) Organic materials contain carbon and are related to living organisms, while inorganic materials are related to non-living things. Minerals are naturally formed inorganic solids with a crystalline structure.
2) Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down further, while compounds are substances made of two or more chemically bonded elements like NaCl or H2O. Crystals are solid forms of minerals produced through repeating atomic patterns.
3) The document provides examples of silicate and non-silicate minerals and discusses their composition. It also defines properties of minerals like color, luster, hardness, streak, cleavage, and fluorescence.
Earth can be divided into layers based on both chemical composition and physical properties. Chemically, Earth consists of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid layer and is made up of silicates and aluminum. Below the crust is the mantle, made of hotter, denser rock rich in magnesium and iron. At the center is the core, mostly iron and nickel. Physically, Earth comprises the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, with the lithosphere forming the rigid outer plates and the inner core the solid center.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses the different types of minerals based on their physical properties like hardness, color, streak, luster, density and crystalline structure. It also describes different types of rocks like igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and how they are formed. The rock cycle shows how different rock types can be transformed into one another over geological time periods. The document also briefly discusses some valuable mineral deposits found in the Philippines.
This document provides information about minerals and rocks. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic solids that exhibit a crystalline structure and can be represented by a chemical formula. Minerals have specific physical properties like luster, color, streak and hardness. Rocks are natural substances made of aggregated minerals and other earth materials. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The document distinguishes minerals from rocks by stating that minerals have definite chemical compositions and colors while rocks do not and can contain fossils, unlike minerals.
Rocks and minerals for grade 11; Earth and life sciencesknip xin
please don't forget to like and leave your comments. this presentation is about rocks and minerals, grade 11, earth and life sciences; senior high school
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances that have a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure. They are the building blocks that make up rocks. There are several key physical properties used to identify minerals, including luster, hardness, crystal form, and color. Luster describes how light reflects off a mineral's surface, either with a metallic or non-metallic appearance. Hardness is a mineral's resistance to scratching, measured using the Mohs hardness scale. Crystal form refers to a mineral's characteristic crystal shape or habit. Color is also an identifying property but is not always diagnostic on its own.
This document discusses different types of rocks classified based on their geological formation, physical characteristics, and chemical composition. There are three broad classes of rocks based on geological formation - sedimentary rocks formed from sediment deposits, igneous rocks formed by cooling of magma, and metamorphic rocks formed from changes due to heat and pressure. Physically, rocks are classified as unstratified massive rocks without layers, stratified layered rocks, or foliated rocks with easily separable layers. Chemically, rocks are classified as siliceous rocks with over 50% silica, calcareous rocks with over 50% carbonates, or argillaceous rocks with over 50% clay.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
This document provides an overview of mineralogy, including definitions and classifications of minerals. It discusses that minerals are naturally occurring solid substances with definite chemical compositions and atomic structures formed through inorganic processes. Minerals are divided into rock-forming and ore-forming groups. Rock-forming minerals include primary minerals crystallized from magma/lava and secondary minerals formed through primary mineral alteration. Physical properties of minerals like color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and form/structure are also outlined. Different mineral groups to be studied in practical sessions are listed. Examples of specific rock-forming and ore minerals are given throughout.
This document provides an overview of economic geology and the classification of ore deposits. It discusses how ore deposits are formed and classified based on their origin as magmatic, hydrothermal, or surficial deposits. A simple classification scheme is presented that categorizes ore deposits as igneous, sedimentary/surficial, or hydrothermal based on their forming processes. Key terms related to the study and classification of ore deposits are also defined.
Minerals are naturally occurring substances that make up rocks and have distinct internal structures. Over 2000 minerals have been identified, though only a few make up most rocks. The physical and chemical conditions during formation determine a mineral's properties like color, hardness, crystal structure, luster and density. Minerals are classified as metallic, which include ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals, or non-metallic like mica, salt and limestone. Energy minerals used as fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Earth Science 1.3 : Formation, Mining, and use of Minerals.Chris Foltz
Minerals form in a variety of environments in the Earth's crust including evaporating salt water, metamorphic rocks, limestones, hot-water solutions, pegmatites, and plutons. Minerals are extracted through surface mining methods like open pits and quarries or subsurface mining methods when deposits are too deep. Responsible mining aims to reduce environmental impacts through reclamation and recycling to lessen our need for minerals. Metallic minerals have many uses in technology due to conducting properties while nonmetallics are useful as insulators in applications like glass and computer chips. Gemstones are valued for their beauty over function.
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the Earth's interior. It is composed of three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and exists in two types, oceanic and continental. The mantle is the thick middle layer, while the core is mostly iron and makes up a third of the Earth's mass. The layers are similar to an egg, with the crust as the shell, mantle as the egg white, and core as the yolk. The Earth also has 5 physical layers from the lithosphere to the inner core. Tectonic plates comprise the crust, which breaks into about 19 pieces that move atop the asthenosphere.
Granite is an igneous rock composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and usually hornblende. These minerals slowly crystallized as magma cooled below Earth's surface. Rocks are made up of minerals, which are natural solids composed of elements like oxygen and silicon bonded together. The character of a rock depends on the atomic structures and bonding of its minerals. Atoms are the basic building blocks of elements and can bond through ionic or covalent bonds to form minerals, rocks, and the continuous rock cycle.
Igneous rock forms when lava cools and hardens. There are two categories of igneous rock: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive rock forms deep underground, allowing slow cooling that results in large crystal formation. Extrusive rock forms on the surface through rapid cooling, preventing large crystals. The size of crystals determines whether the texture is rough from large crystals or smooth from small crystals.
The document discusses classifying objects as minerals or non-minerals. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystalline structure and definite chemical composition. The activity involves groups identifying objects like quartz, glass, wood, and plastic as minerals or non-minerals and justifying their classifications. The document also outlines key characteristics of minerals like their chemical composition and crystalline structure. It describes classifying minerals into groups based on their chemical makeup, including silicates, oxides, and sulfates.
Physical properties of crystals or minerals Pramoda Raj
This document discusses the important physical properties of crystals and minerals. It begins by defining a crystal as a solid bounded by geometrical surfaces called faces. Minerals occur naturally as crystals or crystalline aggregates with a definite atomic structure. The document then examines several key physical properties used to identify minerals, including crystal form, luster, color, streak, density, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and special properties like magnetism or double refraction. These properties reflect the internal atomic arrangement of the mineral and are useful for classification. The document concludes that physical properties differ between minerals due to variations in their internal structure and impurities.
The document discusses petrology and igneous rocks. It defines petrology as the branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks, including their formation, classification, properties and structures. It describes igneous rocks as those formed from molten material (magma or lava) that has cooled and crystallized. Igneous rocks are divided into three types based on where they form - volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic rocks. Texture in igneous rocks is determined by the size, shape and arrangement of mineral constituents, and can be described based on crystallization, granularity, and fabric.
This document defines what a mineral is and describes its key properties. A mineral must be 1) naturally occurring 2) solid 3) have an orderly crystalline structure and well-defined chemical composition. Important identifying characteristics of minerals include crystal structure, hardness, color, streak, luster, fluorescence, and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified based on their main chemical elements, with silicates and carbonates being particularly important. Commercially valuable minerals can be extracted for metals, industrial uses, or as gemstones.
Physical properties of crystals minerals Pramoda Raj
This document summarizes important physical properties of crystals and minerals. It defines a crystal as a solid bounded by geometrical surfaces, and notes that most minerals occur as crystals or crystalline aggregates. The document then discusses several key physical properties used to identify minerals, including crystal form, luster, color, streak, density, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and special properties like magnetism or double refraction. It explains how these properties reflect the atomic structure and bonding within crystals. In conclusion, the document states that physical properties allow minerals to be classified into different groups based on their internal atomic arrangements and impurities.
This document provides an overview of minerals and their properties. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and ordered internal structure. Minerals are classified based on their major elemental compositions, which include silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates, and native metals. Their crystal structures and physical properties like crystal form, cleavage, luster, color, streak, hardness, density, magnetism, taste, feel, and acid reactivity enable their identification and classification. The document outlines these compositional categories and diagnostic physical properties of minerals in detail.
The document discusses minerals, defining them as naturally occurring inorganic solids with a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition. There are over 3,500 known minerals that make up Earth's crust. The majority of rocks are formed from combinations of just 20 minerals. Minerals have several physical properties that can be used to identify them, including color, luster, streak (powder color), and hardness on the Mohs scale. Silicates and nonsilicates are the two main groups of rock-forming minerals.
The document discusses the physical properties of minerals that are used to identify them. It defines a mineral and describes the key characteristics used in identification, including chemical composition, atomic structure, and physical properties like color, streak, luster, hardness, crystal structure, and cleavage. Several methods for studying minerals are outlined, such as examining physical properties, chemical composition, optical analysis, and X-ray diffraction. The importance of understanding rock-forming minerals for civil engineering applications is also mentioned. Minerals have unique combinations of physical properties that can be measured and compared to identify the mineral.
This document provides an overview of minerals, their composition and structure. It discusses that minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and ordered internal structures. It describes the basic building blocks of minerals including elements, atoms, and different types of chemical bonding. It also summarizes the different physical properties used to identify minerals such as crystal form, luster, color, cleavage, fracture and hardness. Finally, it outlines some of the major mineral groups found in Earth's crust including silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfides and others.
This document discusses minerals and their properties. It defines minerals as naturally occurring, inorganic solids that have a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition. It lists the nine main physical properties used to identify minerals, including hardness, crystal structure, color, streak, luster, cleavage, fracture, specific gravity, and others. It discusses how over 3,500 minerals are known and how 20 minerals make up 95% of rocks. The document emphasizes that chemical composition provides the most stable basis for classifying minerals. Students are assigned to identify minerals and their common uses based on relevant physical properties.
Minerals are the building blocks that make up rocks. They have distinct properties like color, hardness, and crystalline structure. Rocks form in three main categories - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, either below ground as intrusive or extrusive rocks at the surface. They are classified based on composition, texture, and features like the size of crystals. Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks also have distinct formation processes and characteristics.
The document discusses minerals and their properties. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, homogeneous, solid substance with a defined chemical composition and internal atomic structure. Minerals are building blocks of rock. The study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 4,900 known mineral species. Minerals form through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes. Their identification is important for civil engineering applications when evaluating rock properties. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties like color, streak, luster, hardness, crystal structure, cleavage and density, as well as their chemical composition.
Igneous rock forms when hot liquid rock called magma cools. When the magma cools below the Earth's surface it cools slowly forming large crystals and is known as an intrusive igneous rock e.g. granite (pictured to the right). When magma reaches the Earth's surface, usually through a volcano, it is called lava and it cools quickly, rocks formed by this process are known as extrusive igneous rock e.g. basalt.
Igneous rocks may have been metamorphic or sedimentary rocks before melted and reforming magma.
We have many granite bodies exposed at the surface in Ireland including the Leinster and Galway Granites. They formed below the surface of the earth but where brought to the surface either through erosion of the overlying material or due to the movement of faults.
The document discusses the composition and formation of rocks and minerals that make up the Earth's crust. It describes three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they are formed from the cooling of magma, consolidation of sediments, and alteration of existing rocks respectively. It also discusses the composition and properties of common minerals that form the building blocks of rocks.
Mineralogy is the study of minerals, their properties and formation. Key points covered include:
- Minerals have definite chemical compositions and crystalline structures which determine their physical properties.
- Minerals form under varying temperature and pressure conditions, and their crystal structures can allow for polymorphisms.
- Important physical properties used to identify minerals include crystal form, color, diaphaneity, luster, streak, hardness, cleavage and fracture. These properties are influenced by a mineral's chemical bonding and structure.
An atom consists of a central positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Atoms are the building blocks of elements, which make up minerals. Minerals have distinct physical properties like hardness, crystal structure, and color that allow them to be identified. The most common minerals that make up rocks include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, calcite, and dolomite. Minerals are important as they contain elements necessary for life and make up economically valuable resources.
The document discusses the key components that make up the Earth. It describes how the Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago from a supernova explosion. It then explains the three main parts of the Earth - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust contains four main components: minerals, rocks, soil, and water. Minerals are the basic building blocks and make up rocks through aggregation. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Soil is a complex mixture that is the foundation for ecosystems. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, with only 1.7% as groundwater. The document then discusses the 118 known chemical elements and the periodic table
This document discusses weathering and soil formation. It describes two types of weathering - mechanical and chemical - and their effects on breaking down rocks. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through processes like frost action and abrasion. Chemical weathering alters the chemical makeup of rocks through reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and acids. Over time, weathered rocks become soil. Mature soils have distinct layers called horizons that differ in composition and support plant growth. The texture and development of soil depends on factors like climate, rock type and landscape.
minerals and rocks in geological engineering course chapter two partsAyeleAdinew
The document provides an overview of engineering geology and focuses on minerals and rocks. It discusses the classification of minerals based on their chemical composition and physical properties. The key rock-forming minerals are silicates, which make up 95% of the earth's crust. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, formed from cooling magma; sedimentary, formed from lithification of sediments; and metamorphic, formed from changes to existing rocks by heat and pressure. Igneous rocks are either intrusive, formed underground, or extrusive, formed at the surface from lava. Sedimentary rocks result from consolidation of sediments and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's structure and composition. It describes Earth's distinct atmospheric layers and how pressure decreases with altitude. It also outlines Earth's internal layering, including the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is divided into continental and oceanic types based on differences in density and thickness. The mantle conveys heat via convection currents. The liquid outer core generates Earth's magnetic field through the geodynamo process.
This document summarizes the major human impacts on the Earth system, including population growth, resource consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and various forms of environmental degradation. It discusses how human activities have altered the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. In particular, it outlines the evidence that greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel burning are causing global climate change, and some of the potential environmental and societal impacts of a warming planet. The document concludes by considering options for mitigating or adapting to anthropogenic changes to the Earth system.
This document discusses nonrenewable resources including mineral and energy resources. It describes how mineral resources like metals and nonmetals are formed through geological processes and then mined. The impacts of mining include damage to the environment. Fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are discussed as the main current energy resources but also have environmental impacts. Alternative energy sources like solar, wind and nuclear are presented as important future options.
This document discusses populations, communities, and biodiversity. It defines a population as a group of the same species that interbreeds and shares genetic information. Populations can be affected by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. A community is a group of interacting species in the same environment, with competitive, exploitative, and mutualistic relationships. Biodiversity refers to the variety of species and is important for resilience. As human activity increases, biodiversity and natural habitats are under threat.
The document discusses energy and matter in ecosystems. It explains that ecosystems require a flow of energy and recycling of chemical elements. Primary producers convert energy and inorganic compounds into biomass through photosynthesis. Energy then moves through food chains and trophic levels in a food web. At each level, some energy is lost as heat. Decomposers break down waste biomass to recycle materials back into the system. Overall, the passage outlines how energy flows through, and matter is recycled within, ecosystems.
The document discusses Earth's climate system and the complexity of factors involved. It describes Earth's climate system as being driven by interactions between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and anthroposphere. It also discusses evidence of past climatic changes from various climate proxy records, including ice cores, tree rings, corals, and pollen. Examples are given of past climates such as the last glacial period and warm middle Cretaceous period. The causes of climate change are explained as being both external factors like solar variations and Milankovitch cycles, as well as internal factors involving feedbacks within Earth's climate system.
The document discusses the composition and evolution of Earth's atmosphere. It notes that early Earth had a reducing atmosphere composed of gases like methane and ammonia released from volcanoes. Through photosynthesis over billions of years, oxygen levels rose which allowed the development of more complex life. The atmosphere protects life and influences climate and weather patterns through greenhouse gases and the global circulation of air masses.
The document provides an overview of the world's oceans, including:
- The ocean covers 70.8% of the Earth's surface and is contained in three main basins: the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
- Ocean depths were originally measured with weighted lines but are now mapped in detail using echo sounders. The deepest point is the Mariana Trench at nearly 11km deep.
- Ocean water circulation is driven by surface currents from wind and thermal gradients, as well as deep water circulation from density differences. This drives global ocean conveyor belts.
- Other ocean phenomena discussed include waves, tides, coastal environments, and changing sea levels from glacial and climate influences.
The document discusses the hydrologic cycle and water on Earth. It describes how water moves between various reservoirs in the cycle, driven by energy from the sun. The largest reservoirs are the oceans, polar ice sheets, and groundwater. Streams and drainage systems transport water across land surfaces and influence landscapes. Groundwater flows underground through porous rock and may discharge into springs, lakes, or streams. Water is essential for human and ecosystem needs but is increasingly threatened by pollution, overuse, and other impacts of human activities.
The document summarizes the rock cycle and how rocks are formed and changed over time through various geological processes. It describes how igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary and metamorphic rocks through weathering and lithification of sediments. Sedimentary rocks can then be changed into metamorphic rocks through heating and compression. Metamorphic rocks can partially melt to form new igneous rocks. All of these processes are interconnected and operate in a continuous cycle that is driven by tectonic activity and the interplay between internal and external forces shaping the Earth's surface.
The document discusses plate tectonics and the movement of tectonic plates. It describes how the theory of plate tectonics emerged over centuries through contributions from scientists like DaVinci, Hutton, Darwin, and Wegener. It explains key aspects of plate tectonics including seafloor spreading, plate boundaries, and the types of plate interactions that create different landforms. It also addresses how plate tectonics drives earthquakes and volcanic activity through the motions and collisions of lithospheric plates.
The document discusses the Earth system and energy flows within it. It covers:
1) Earth system science, which takes a holistic approach to studying the Earth as an interconnected system of reservoirs like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere.
2) The sources of energy that power the Earth system, including the sun which provides 99.9% of energy, as well as internal heat sources like radioactive decay.
3) How energy flows between reservoirs in the Earth system through natural cycles like the hydrologic and rock cycles, and how human activities are impacting these cycles through global changes.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
2. Outline
• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
3. Earth Materials
• The three common states of matter we
are familiar with are solid, liquid and gas
• Materials occurring in the same state
can still differ substantially
– For example, lava and water are both
liquids; one non-aqueous, one aqueous
– Both are very important in a wide variety of
Earth processes
5. Earth Materials
Matter can coexist in various states and phases. In (A), matter of uniform
composition (H2O) coexists in two different states (liquid and solid) and two
different phases (water and ice), separated by physical boundaries. In (B),
different phases coexist in the same state (oil and water, both liquids; different
types of beans, all solids). In (C), there is only one phase and one state, as is
always the case with gases.
6. Earth Materials
• Chemical elements are the most
fundamental substances into which
matter can be separated
– An atom is the smallest individual particle
that retains the distinctive properties of a
given chemical element
• Atoms are built of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus
7. Earth Materials
• The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom is called the atomic
number
• Electrons are considered mass-less
• The sum of the neutrons and the
protons in the nucleus is the atomic
mass
• Isotopes are atoms with the same
atomic number but different mass
numbers
– Some isotopes are radioactive, and can
be used in radioactive dating
8. Earth Materials
• An atom is electrically neutral because
the positive charge of the protons
balances with the negative charge of
the electrons
• An atom that has excess positive or
negative charge is called an ion
– A positive ion is a cation
– A negative ion is an anion
9. Earth Materials
• Compounds form when anions and
cations combine to form a bond
• The smallest unit that retains all the
properties of a compound is called a
molecule
10. Outline
• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
11. Organic Matter
• Possibly the most fundamental
compositional distinction is that of
organic and inorganic matter
– Organic applies specifically to compounds
consisting of carbon atoms bonded
together by covalent bonds
– In addition organic implies that the
compound is biotic in origin
12. Organic Matter
• A common characteristic of organic
compounds is their tendency to occur in
long chain-like structures called polymers
• Important biopolymers in the Earth system
– Proteins: chains of bonded amino acids
– Nucleic acids: (e.g. DNA) built of nucleotides
– Carbohydrates: the basis for most food we
eat, a carbon-hydrogen-oxygen compound
13. Organic Matter
• Lipids are another important family of
organic molecules, which are not
polymers and include
– Fats and oils
– Phospholipids
– Waxes
– Steroids
14. Outline
• Earth Materials
• Organic Matter
• Composition and Internal Structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
15. Composition and Internal Structure
of the Earth
• Earth inherited its overall composition
from its location in the solar nebula
• Earth has internal layering that
originated early in solar system history
due to chemical differentiation of the
partially molten planet
– Layers are distinguished by composition,
rock strength, and state of matter
16. Composition and Internal
Structure of the Earth
• There are three
major compositional
layers in the Earth
– Core: metallic iron
solid inner core and
liquid outer core
– Mantle: dense rocky
matter
– Crust: thin, less
dense rocky matter
17. Composition and Internal Structure
of the Earth
• The core and mantle have nearly
constant thicknesses, but the crust
varies in place to place by a factor of 9
• The average oceanic crust is 8 km thick
• The average continental crust is 45 km
thick, but ranges from 30-70 km
• The two crusts also differ fundamentally
in composition
18. Composition and Internal Structure
of the Earth
• Scientific reasoning, indirect sampling,
and indirect measurement provide
information about the core and mantle
that otherwise is inaccessible
• In addition to compositional layering,
the Earth contains layers with
differences in rock strength
19. Composition and Internal Structure
of the Earth
• Mesosphere: “middle sphere” within the
mantle
• Asthenosphere: “weak sphere” in the
uppermost mantle
• Lithosphere: “rocky sphere” the
outermost 100 km
20. Composition and Internal Structure
of the Earth
• Of the 92 naturally occurring chemical
elements, only 12 occur in Earth’s crust
• The crust is dominated by two elements
– Oxygen
– Silicon
• With the other ten elements, these are
responsible for the composition of all
common Earth materials
22. Outline
• Earth materials
• Organic matter
• Composition and internal structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
23. Minerals
• Minerals are the building blocks of the
geosphere, they are or have:
– Naturally formed
– Inorganic
– Solid
– Specific chemical composition
– Characteristic crystal structure
24. Minerals
• The two characteristics that best allow
the study of minerals are
1. Crystal structure: the way the atoms of
the elements are packed together
2. Composition: the major chemical
elements that are present and their
proportions
25. Minerals
• Because of their abundance, oxygen
and silicon form the basis for the most
common rock-forming minerals, and the
most common mineral group: silicates
• Other mineral groups include: oxides,
sulfides, carbonates, sulfates, and
phosphates
26. Minerals
• Silicates
– Built of the silicate
anion (tetrahedron)
– The anion joins
together by sharing
their oxygen atoms to
form chains, sheets
and three-dimensional
networks
28. Minerals
• Silicates are by far the most abundant
minerals in the continental crust, and
feldspars are the predominant variety
– Feldspars: 60% of minerals in Earth’s crust
– Quartz: 15% of minerals in Earth’s crust
– All silicates: 95% of minerals in the crust
• This limits non-silicates to only 5% of
the Earth’s crust!
29. Minerals
• Minerals are identified by their distinct
properties that result from their
composition and crystal structure
– Crystal form and growth habit
– Cleavage
– Luster
– Hardness and specific gravity
– Color
30. Minerals
• Crystal form and growth habit
– In 1669, Nicolaus Steno discovered that
the angle between mineral crystal faces is
constant and gives each a distinctive
crystal form
– He speculated this was due to ordered
particles, but proof by use of x-rays would
not arrive until 1912
– Crystals only form when a mineral can
grow freely in open space
32. Minerals
• Cleavage
– A mineral’s tendency to break in preferred
directions along weak planar surfaces
• Luster, Color and Streak
– The quality and intensity of light reflected from
a mineral surface is luster
– Color is often not a reliable means of
identification, as it can be determined by
chemical impurities in the composition
– Color in opaque minerals can be a property of
grain size, this can be resolved using the
mineral’s streak
34. Minerals
• Hardness
– This term refers to the relative resistance
of a mineral to being scratched
– This is governed by the crystal structure
and the strength of chemical bonds
– Hardness is classified using Moh’s relative
hardness scale, which has 10 hardnesses
that are not at equal intervals
36. Minerals
• Density and specific gravity
– Specific gravity is easier to measure, and
therefore more commonly used
– It is the ratio of the weight of the substance
to the weight of an equal volume of pure
water
– The densities of some minerals are
distinctive; such as gold and galena
37. Outline
• Earth materials
• Organic matter
• Composition and internal structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
38. Rocks
• A rock is any naturally formed,
nonliving, coherent aggregate mass of
solid matter that constitutes part of a
planet, asteroid, moon, or other
planetary object
• Minerals are the most common and
abundant building blocks of rocks
39. Rocks
• There are three families of rocks
– Igneous: formed from the cooling and
consolidation of magma or lava
– Sedimentary: formed from either chemical
precipitation of material or deposition of
particles transported in suspension
– Metamorphic: formed from changing a rock
as a result of high temperatures, high
pressures, or both
40. Rocks
• Earth’s crust is mainly igneous and
metamorphic rock, however, most of
the rock we see at surface is
sedimentary
41. Rocks
• The two main features that best classify
rocks are
– Texture: the overall appearance of a rock,
resulting from the size, shape, and
arrangement of its mineral grains
– Mineral assemblage: the kinds and relative
amounts of minerals present
45. Outline
• Earth materials
• Organic matter
• Composition and internal structure of
the Earth
• Minerals
• Rocks
• Regolith
46. Regolith
• Rock exposed at Earth’s surface is
susceptible to alteration by the action of
water, wind, and other agents that
physically and chemically break it apart
and alter it
• This broken-up, disintegrated rock
matter is called the regolith
47. Regolith
• Literally “blanket rock,” the regolith forms a
layer draped over most of Earth’s surface
• Three categories describe most of the
various materials of the regolith
– Saprolite: rock that is weathered in situ
– Sediment: loose rock and mineral particles
• Clastic sediment (broken particles)
• Chemical sediment (dissolved material)
– Soil: contains organic matter mixed with
minerals, can support rooted plants
50. Outline
• The Sun
• The Solar System
• Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Time and Change
51. The Sun
• Each visible point of light in the night
sky, except nearby planets, is actually a
sun or collection of suns
• Or rather, our Sun is an ordinary star
• The is dominated by hydrogen and
helium at 98% of its mass
• Of course, the Sun provides the light
and energy for life to exist on Earth
54. Outline
• The Sun
• The Solar System
• Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Time and Change
55. The Solar System
• Beyond the Sun, there are 8 planets in the solar
system, at least 5 dwarf planets and vast
numbers of asteroids, comets, meteoroids, and
moons
• The innermost planets are small, rocky, metallic,
and dense: terrestrial planets
– Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
• The outer planets are much larger, less dense
and gaseous: Jovian planets (gas giants)
– Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
56. The Solar System
• The early model of our solar system was
geocentric, meaning that people thought all
objects revolved around the Earth
• Today we know it is heliocentric, meaning that all
objects revolve around the Sun
• Any hypothesis for the origin of the solar system
must account for as many of its features as
possible:
– All solar system objects revolve in the same direction,
around the sun, moons around their respective
planets, and all on the same plane, consistently
58. The Solar System
• The origin of the Sun was probably
similar to the origins of billions of other
stars in the universe, so the prevailing
model for the origin of the solar system
is the nebular hypothesis
• This proposes that a huge swirling
cloud of cosmic gas and dust (a nebula)
formed the sun and planets
60. The Solar System
• Gravity pulled the slowly swirling cloud
of dust and gas inward, as this
happened the gar became hotter and
denser
• Eventually temperature and pressure
was high enough that nuclear fusion
started and a star was born: the Sun
• Surrounding the new Sun was a
flattened, rotating disc of gas and dust
61. The Solar System
• By the time the Sun started burning, the cooler
outer portions of the solar nebula had become
so compressed that solid particles and liquid
droplets began to condense from the gas
• These condensates, through accretion,
became the building blocks of the planets,
moons, and other objects in the solar system
• Distance from the Sun and condensation
temperatures explain the distinct materials of
the terrestrial and Jovian planets
62. The Solar System
• Space missions continue to provide
evidence indicating that all objects in
the solar system formed at the same
time from a single solar nebula
• Beyond the end of the nebular
hypothesis story, five key factors played
determining roles in the subsequent
evolution of the terrestrial planets
63. The Solar System
• Melting, impacts, and differentiation
– Colliding bodies convert kinetic energy into
heat energy
– As planetary accretion climaxed about 4.56
billion years ago, bigger collisions mean
more kinetic energy and more heat
– Terrestrial planets began to melt, at least
partially, and dense metallic liquids sank
while lighter materials floated
– Planetary differentiation by chemical
segregation
65. The Solar System
• Volcanism
– After partial melting, the interior of the
planets still remained hot because of
radioactive elements
– All planets are slowly cooling, larger
planets slower than smaller planets
– Volcanism is an indicator of high internal
temperature
67. The Solar System
• Planetary mass
– Determines the orbit of a planet, and how
many moons it captures
– Determines whether the planet has
sufficient gravitational pull to hold onto its
atmosphere
69. The Solar System
• Distance from the Sun
– Determines if water can exist as a liquid
• Biosphere
– Presence or absence of a biosphere plays
an essential role in the development of the
biogeochemical cycles that control the
composition of Earth’s atmosphere
71. The Solar System
• We do not know if any other terrestrial
planets have molten or partially molten
cores, which has provided Earth with a
strong magnetic field
• All terrestrial planets have experienced
volcanic activity, indicating an internal
heat source, and have been through
intense collisions
• Apparently unique to Earth is tectonic
activity
72. The Solar System
• The outer planets are shrouded by thick
atmospheres that have not escaped the
planets’ enormous gravitational pull
• Their bulk compositions are therefore
about the same as the nebula from which
they formed: Jupiter’s composition is
remarkably similar to that of the Sun
• Huge storm systems are common in the
gas giants’ atmospheres, and all probably
have rocky cores
74. The Solar System
• Moons
– The 19 largest moons are roughly spherical
in shape, the smaller ones can be extremely
irregular
– Some formed by coalescence from the same
mass as the solar nebula, others by
gravitational capture, and others by collision
– Earth’s moon is 1/4 the size of Earth, making
it the largest natural satellite in comparison
with its parent planet, it likely formed from a
catastrophic collision
76. The Solar System
• Asteroids and Meteorites
– Subplanetary objects orbiting the sun
– Commonly rocky and/or metallic
• Pluto and the Dwarf Planets
– Minor planets or small bodies that are
orbiting the sun, massive enough to be
spherical, but not massive enough to have
cleared its orbital path
– In addition to Pluto, are Eris, Haumea,
Makemake, and Ceres
78. The Solar System
• Comets, the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud
– The dwarf planets belong to a group that
includes thousands of other objects outside of
Neptune’s orbit called the Kuiper Belt
– Similar to the Asteroid belt in appearance, but
consists mainly of icey rather than rocky bodies,
akin to comets
– The Oort Cloud is further out still, and also
appears to be a store of cometary material
80. Outline
• The Sun
• The Solar System
• Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Time and Change
81. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Stars are classified by color and
brightness
– Color is an indication of temperature, blue
light comes from short wavelengths and is
hot, while red light comes from long
wavelengths and is cool
– Each color designates the star’s spectral
class, from 9 (hottest) to 0 (coolest)
83. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• A star’s brightness is a function of both the
star’s luminosity (energy emitted) and its
distance from the Earth
– This requires a normalization of star
distances, which is difficult to measure, but
can be done to 300 light-years
• Once temperature and luminosity are
known, they can be compared with values
on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
– White dwarfs, main sequence and red giants
85. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• The H-R diagram can be used to
explain the evolution of a star
– The smaller the star, the longer it can live
• For the lifetime of most stars, a balance
is reached between gravitational and
radiation forces, where it maintains the
stable luminosity and temperature of a
main sequence star
86. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• A star the size of our Sun will fuel
nuclear fusion for about 10 billion years
• When the hydrogen fuel is used up,
nuclear fusion ceases, gravity takes
control, and the helium-rich core
contracts
• As the core collapses, it heats up, and a
shell of hydrogen in the inner radiative
layer begins shell fusion, the star
expands, and becomes a red giant
88. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• The core continues to contract,
eventually becoming hot enough for
helium fusion to form carbon, the shell
slowly diminishes in size becoming a
white dwarf
• Eventually it loses its luminosity and
becomes a dead star known as a black
dwarf
89. Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Astronomers believe that 5-10% of the
200-400 billion stars in the Milky Way
have characteristics similar to those of
our Sun, and it is likely that they have
planetary systems like our own
• These planets are called exoplanets,
and as of June 2009, 353 exoplanets
had been found
90. Outline
• The Sun
• The Solar System
• Other Suns and Planetary Systems
• Time and Change
91. Time and Change
• Scientists estimate the age of the
universe by looking at the rate at which
objects are moving apart from each
other
• The hypothesis is that everything
originated at one location in an explosion
called the Big Bang
• The universe is 2 to 3 times as old as
the Sun and the solar system
92. Time and Change
• To deal with the ages of materials within
the Earth system and elsewhere in the
universe, scientists use two concepts of
time and age
– Relative age: refers to the order in which a
sequence of past events occurred
– Numerical age: is the actual time, in years,
when a specific event happened,
calculated using radioactive decay
94. Time and Change
• Using these tools and worldwide
comparison and correlation of rock
units, geologists have assembled a
geologic column that summarizes in
chronological order the succession of
known rock units
– Major divisions include the Hadean,
Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic
and Cenozoic Eons
96. Time and Change
• In the 17th and 18th centuries, people
hypothesized that all of Earth’s features
were formed by a few great catastrophic
events - this idea is catastrophism
• In the late 18th century, this idea was
tested with geological evidence
• James Hutton, with the use of the
scientific method, proposed a counter
theory called the principle of
97. Time and Change
• Hutton observed the slow, steady effects of
erosion
• Determined that mountains must slowly
weather away, that new rocks form from
the debris of erosion, and be thrust back up
into mountains
• Couldn’t explain what caused this to
happen, but reasoned that everything
moves slowly in repetitive continuous
cycles
98. Time and Change
• The principle of uniformitarianism, which
essentially states that “the present is the
key to the past,” indicates that the Earth
is incredibly old
• This concept is important to all branches
of science, but we also know that some
events are so large and damaging that
they can cause catastrophic change