Podcast Lecture 6What words or phrases are ambiguousWhat ar.docx

Podcast Lecture 6
What words or phrases are ambiguous?
What are the value and descriptive assumptions?
I would like to continue our discussion of the analysis of an
argument by looking at two more important aspects of an
author’s written work. Chapter 4 in the ARQ text asks the
critical question, “What words or phrases are ambiguous?” and
Chapter 5 addresses the question, “What are the value and
descriptive assumptions?”
Before we can react to an author’s argument we must
understand the precise meaning of important words and phrases.
You cannot judge the strength of an argument if you do not
know for sure what the author means.
A word or phrase is ambiguous if the meaning is unclear. If an
alternative definition of a word or phrase would change the
meaning of the discourse that word or phrase is ambiguous.
Sometimes ambiguity is intentional. We see this in advertising.
Consider this add for an issue of “People” magazine. Read
“People” to find out about the years most intriguing
personalities. Intriguing personalities is an ambiguous term,
one that can have multiple meanings. Intriguing personalities
could refer to the year’s award winning authors. It could refer
to inventors, athletes, actors or numerous other individuals. As
a consumer you would want to know more about just what you
would find in the magazine before you could decide if you
should purchase it. The English language is full of abstract
terms that can be ambiguous. Terms such as best, worst, more,
less, happiness, freedom, obscenity and violence are some
examples. If an author uses terms such as these as a part of his

argument, it is his responsibility to define them adequately so
the reader can understand the precise meaning the author had in
mind.
It is also important to know how to find ambiguity in an
author’s argument.
One of the first steps you should take in determining ambiguity
is to look for key terms in the issue and reasoning structure. If
the ambiguity is not part of the argument (the issue, conclusion
and reasons) then it is not important and does not warrant
questioning or further investigation.
Look for the kind of abstract terms that were mentioned earlier.
These terms need further explanation and clarification.
Another strategy is to reverse role play. Ask yourself, how
would I define this term if I disagreed with the author’s
position.
Finally, look for instances when an alternative definition would
change the meaning of the discourse.
Once you have identified an ambiguity in an argument you must
then try to determine it’s meaning. The context in which the
word or phrase is used will by your guide. There are three
elements to consider when using context to help you clarify
meaning. First, think about the author’s background and how it
might influence the meaning assigned to the phrase. Next, take
into account the way the term is traditionally used in relation to
the controversy being discussed. And finally, consider the
statements surrounding the ambiguity for possible clues to the
intended meaning.
As you search for the meaning of terms to clarify possible
ambiguities you will probably come into contact with three

forms of definitions. Definitions can come in the form of
synonyms, examples and specific criteria.
For critical reading the best kind of definition will be the ones
that provide the specific criteria for usage. This will enable the
reader to determine the meaning intended by the author and use
that information to decide whether or not to accept or reject the
author’s position. If the author does not provide this criteria
the reader should ignore those reasons containing the ambiguous
terms.
The dictionary will often provide definitions in the form of
synonyms and examples and incomplete specifications of
criteria. Although dictionaries can be helpful they may not
provide an adequate definition appropriate for the argument
being made by the author.
While “welfare” may carry a negative connotation, “assistance
to the poor” seems like an honorable undertaking. Terms with
similar definitions can evoke different reactions from people.
Terms and phrases have both denotative and connotative
meanings. Denotative meaning refers to the agreed upon
explicit descriptive referents for use of the word, while the
connotative meaning refers to the emotional associations one
has to a term or phrase.
As a critical thinker you must be careful to examine all
ambiguous terms for both meanings and not be fooled into
accepting or rejecting an argument based on an emotional
reaction to the author’s language.
The next critical question that we will ask when critically
analyzing an author’s argument will be addressed in Chapter 5
of your ARQ text. What are the value and descriptive
assumptions?

Assumptions are the underlying unstated ideas or beliefs of the
author that support the explicit reasoning. These are the ideas
that hold the argument together. You can not fully understand
the argument until you identify the underlying assumptions.
During our analysis of an argument we will be looking at two
kinds of assumptions. The first is the value assumption and the
second is the descriptive assumption. Both types of
assumptions have certain qualities. Assumptions are: unstated
ideas, taken for granted, ideas that influence the conclusion, and
necessary for the reasoning to make sense.
A list of common values includes concepts such as generosity,
honesty, justice, tolerance, and wisdom. These are examples of
abstract ideas that someone believes are worthwhile and strives
to achieve. They represent standards of conduct that one
endorses and expects people to meet, and they are beliefs that
greatly effect ones opinion on ethical issues. Many people
share these values. To find an author’s value assumption you
must determine the relative intensity with which the author
holds specific values. A value assumption is an implicit
preference for one value over another in a particular context.
We use value preferences and value priorities as synonyms.
There are many situations in which pairs of values collide or
conflict. When you encounter one of these controversies you
will be confronted with a value conflict.
For example consider the question: Should you tell your parents
about your brother’s drug habit? Inherent in this controversy is
the value conflict of loyalty vs. honesty. If you are aware of
the problem and your brother has asked you to keep his
confidence, you may think that loyalty to your brother is the
most important value. However, if you believe that your
parents’ help is needed to solve the problem and that they have
a right to know you may believe that honesty is the best policy

in this situation.
Controversies such as Do you support the grading system? And
Should divorces by easily available represent the value conflicts
of competition vs. cooperation and tradition vs. novelty
respectively. To take a stand on any of these issues you must
make a value judgment. In other words, you will uphold one
value while depreciating the other. When you recognize an
author’s value preference you have found the value assumption
in his argument.
When reading arguments dealing with controversial issues you
will need to ask yourself what does the author value or think is
important, and what does the opposition value or think is
important. Once you have identified the value conflict you can
determine the author’s value preference based on the position he
takes. This is a challenging step in the analysis process because
the author does not state the value conflict or his value
preference. You will not find this written in the argument. You
will have to infer it from the reasoning and conclusion
provided.
The following are some clues to help you identify value
assumptions.
Think about who the author is and what he thinks is important.
Consider similar situations and the values present in those
situations. Ask yourself what values are important to the
opposition, and refer to your list of common value conflicts
provided in your text for ideas.
Recognizing the author’s value assumptions will help you to
understand the author’s perspective and see all the dimensions
of the argument. It is also a legitimate reason to accept or
reject an argument depending on whether or not your values and
the author’s values are compatible.

Reasons alone do not support the conclusion unless they are
connected or relevant to the conclusion. To find that
connection or link is to locate assumptions. Assumptions are
ideas that, if true, enable us to say that certain conclusions are
supported by the reasons provided. When these ideas are
descriptions of how the world is, they are called descriptive
assumptions..
Sometimes descriptive assumptions come from ambiguity in an
argument. This kind of descriptive assumption is called a
definitional assumption. A definitional assumption is when the
author takes for granted that a term which can have multiple
meanings will mean the same thing to all people.
Now that you know what a descriptive assumption is, how are
you going to find them in an author’s argument?
The first strategy is to keep thinking about the gap between the
conclusions and the reasons. Ask yourself, “If this reason is
true, what else must be true for the conclusion to follow?
“Suppose the reasons were true, is there any way in which the
conclusion nevertheless could be false?
Consider this example:
You will learn a lot from Professor Star.
His students all rave about his lectures.
The conclusion in this argument is that you will learn a lot from
this teacher. The reason given to support the conclusion is that
the students all rave about his lectures. In order for this reason
to logically support this conclusion the author must make a
couple of assumptions. Let’s look at the reason in the
argument: the students all rave about his lectures. If this were

true could the conclusion still be false? What if the students
were raving about his lectures because they are very short and
he dismisses class early every week? Or what if the students
all rave about his lectures because they are hysterically funny
(but not necessarily on point)? In these cases the reason could
be true but would not necessarily support the conclusion. For
this argument to make sense the author must assume that the
students rave about the lectures because they are informative
and engaging. He must also assume that to learn a lot means to
absorb material from a lecture, since no other aspects of the
course or teaching style is mentioned.
Another strategy is to identify with the writer by imagining that
you were asked to defend the conclusion based on the reasons
provided. What would you be thinking? Or identify with the
opposition by thinking about why someone might disagree with
the argument.
A third strategy is to learn more about the issue. The more that
you know about the subject the easier it will be to recognize the
author’s perspective and that of the opposition.
Finally, ask yourself, what must the author believe for the
argument to make sense?
Consider this example:
We need to increase the money spent on AIDS education.
If we do so, it will greatly reduce the number of cases of AIDS.
What will need to happen for additional funds to help reduce the
incidence of AIDS? How must the money be spent? What
groups of people should be targeted for education? What must
be true about the targeted population? These are the questions
that you will need to ask yourself to determine the author’s

descriptive assumptions. In this argument the author must
believe that the money will be spent in an effective manner with
the education reaching members of high-risk groups that are
uninformed. The author must also assume that the people who
are educated will be willing and able to respond to the
educational message.
When analyzing an argument, you want to use your energy to
focus on important aspects of the argument. For this reason, do
not waste time on the obvious assumptions that all author’s take
for granted. These include that the reasons are true, that the
reasons and conclusion are logically related, and that the reader
has sufficient background knowledge to understand the
terminology and logic of the argument.
Now let’s practice this new skill by reading the following
argument, identifying the reasons and conclusion and finding
the descriptive assumptions that link the two together.
Trials and executions should be televised. The public has the
right to know what is going on in our courts. Information about
the judicial system needs to be more widely disseminated.
The first step is to identify the argument. What is the main
point that the author is trying to make? How does the author
support this point? In this argument the author’s conclusion is
that Trials and executions should be televised. The reasons are
that the public has a right to know what is going on in our
courts and the information about the judicial system needs to be
more widely disseminated.
Now you must ask yourself, what must the author believe for
these reasons to logically support the conclusion? The
descriptive assumptions in this argument are: The public would
watch televised trials and executions and that the best way to
disseminate information is through television. If these two

things are not true the author’s argument doesn’t make sense.
Let’s try a second practice example:
All teenagers should have the Hepatitis B vaccination starting at
thirteen years old. Hepatitis B is a sexually transmitted disease
that can be fatal. It can also be transmitted through IV drug
use.
To identify the argument, you must ask the critical questions,
What is the author’s conclusion? and what are the reasons?
In this argument the author’s conclusion is that all teenagers
should have the Hepatitis B vaccination starting at age 13. The
author’s reasons are that Hepatitis B is a sexually transmitted
disease that can be fatal, and that it can be transmitted through
IV drug use.
What must the author believe for this reasoning to make sense?
The descriptive assumptions in this argument are: Teenagers
are at risk for being sexually active beginning at age 13,
teenagers are at risk for using IV drugs beginning at age 13, and
the vaccination will protect them from the effects of the disease.
These things must be true for the author’s conclusion to
logically follow from the reasons provided.
Podcast Lecture 5
ARQ Ch 2-3
What are the issue and the conclusion?
What are the reasons?
Today we will begin our discussion on how to analyze and
evaluate what we read. Before you can evaluate someone’s
reasoning you must first identify it. Chapter 2 in your text,

Asking the Right Questions, addresses the first step in this
process. We will begin our analysis by investigating the
appropriate use of the critical question, What are the issue and
conclusion?
First we must define these terms. As stated in your text, “An
issue is a question or controversy responsible for the
conversation or discussion. It is the stimulus for what is being
said.”
In your reading you will probably encounter two types of
issues: descriptive and prescriptive.
Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the
accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future. This
type of issue is commonly found in textbooks, newspapers, and
on the internet. These issues reflect our curiosity about patterns
in our world. Some examples include: What causes AIDS?,
Does TV violence increase violent behavior in children? Does
smoking pot lead to cocaine addiction?
Another type of issue is the prescriptive issue. These are
questions about what the author thinks is right or wrong or good
or bad. They are questions about how the world should be.
Many social controversies that you will encounter in your
reading will present prescriptive issues. Some examples
include: Should abortion be legal? Should the death penalty be
outlawed? Should marijuana be legalized?
Now that we know what an issue is, how do we find one?
Sometimes it is very simple to find the issue because the author
states it in his/her text, usually at the beginning of the piece, or
even in the title. However, in other cases the issue is not
explicitly stated and the reader must infer it from the
conclusion. In cases like this the next step is to identify the
conclusion.
The conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes
you to accept. The difference between a mere opinion on a
subject and a position or conclusion is the absence or presence

of support for the claim the author is making. An unsupported
point is an opinion, but a conclusion or position must be
supported by some evidence or belief.
The conclusion is necessary to continue your analysis and
evaluation. You must know what it is the author wants you to
accept before you can decide if the argument is logical and if
you want to accept or reject it based on the reasoning presented.
Some tips to help you find the conclusion are:
Look for the author’s response to the issue….if you know what
the issue is this will be an easy strategy to employ. Remember
that the issue is often explicitly stated at the beginning of the
text or in the title. If the issue is not explicitly stated you will
have to find the conclusion first.
Look for indicator words. These are words that signal the
reader that a conclusion will follow. Some examples are:
consequently, hence, thus, it follows that, as a result, therefore
and in conclusion.
Another strategy for finding the conclusion is to look in likely
locations. Many authors will state their conclusion in the
beginning of the piece and restate the conclusion at the end of
the piece. These are two likely locations for finding the
conclusion.
Remember that a conclusion is not an example, statistics or
evidence of any kind.
If you know something about the author’s background it may
give you some insight into the point of view that he/she may be
supporting. Always read any biographical information that is
provided about the author.
Once you have identified the issue and the conclusion the next

step is to ascertain the author’s reasons. Chapter 3 of your text,
Asking the Right Questions, addresses the third essential
element of an argument – the reasons.
Reasonable people support their beliefs with evidence and
explanations. Identifying that support is an important part of
the critical thinking process. Before you can accept or reject a
conclusion you must be able to identify the author’s or
speaker’s rationale for their position.
You may be accustomed to hearing the word argument used to
refer to a disagreement or a verbal confrontation. We will not
be using the term in this manner. For our purposes, an
argument consists of a conclusion and the reasons that allegedly
support it. A written argument is intended to convince the
reader of certain things or to act in a certain way. Not all
arguments are equal in quality. Some arguments are weak and
some are strong depending on the strength of the reasons
offered as support. It takes critical thinking to determine the
relative strength or weakness of an argument.
You will find many different types of reasons used to support
different types of arguments. Some reasons will come in the
form of evidence. Evidence is the specific information used to
prove something. Other reasons may be general beliefs based
on the author’s experience or values.
Evidence can come in the form of examples, facts, research
findings, statistics, appeals to experts and authorities, personal
testimonials, metaphors and analogies. We will be talking
about each of these types of evidence in more detail later in the
semester. For now we just want to be able to identify the
author’s reasons….later we will learn strategies to help us
evaluate them. It is important to note that if a reason given as
support for a conclusion is weak, or if you do not agree with the
reason, that does not mean it is not a reason. Anything the
author offers as support for his conclusion is a reason. An
argument with many weak reasons will be a weak

argument…but an argument nonetheless.
Podcast Lecture 4
The Benefits and Social Aspects of Critical Thinking
There are many issues, which you will encounter in your
academic, professional and personal life, about which
reasonable people disagree. In order to form a personal position
on these issues you may look to experts in the field to get their
perspectives. However, experts can also disagree. So how can
you determine the right course of action or the right belief for
you as an individual? In your text, Asking the Right Questions:
A Guide to Critical Thinking, you will be introduced to a set of
critical questions that will help you to determine the worth of
the arguments and opinions put forth by others. In this way,
you will be able to come to a conclusion, solve a problem or
adopt a belief that is consistent with your values and world
view.
The questions that will lead you to a critical analysis and
evaluation of what you read or hear are presented in your text
one at a time. Ultimately, all of the questions will be used
together, but initially it may be easier to address them
individually. The first five chapters of your book will be the
questions that help you critically analyze what you read, by
identifying the author’s argument or position. Once you have
identified the argument, and some of its features, you will want
to evaluate its reasonableness. Chapters 6-13 will address an
evaluation of the argument or position.
There are two basic thinking styles for you to consider as you
read. They are the sponge approach and the panning for gold
approach. One is a more passive approach to the reading
process and one is a more active approach. I would like to
discuss the characteristics of each of these styles.
The sponge method, aptly named, refers to an approach to
thinking that focuses on absorbing information. The benefit of
this approach is that it takes little effort and allows the reader

to gain some new information. The drawback is that it does not
allow for reflective judgment. The student who employs this
method while reading may be able to underline and memorize
material, but he will not have made any judgments about what
material is important or relevant. This passive approach may be
problematic as diverse views are introduced and evaluation of
evidence is necessary.
The panning for gold approach focuses on finding the
information that is valuable. This approach requires the student
to make judgments and be actively involved in the reading
process. Students who employ this method will be reacting to
the reasoning of the text, forming personal conclusions and
asking critical questions. This interactive approach is the
preferred method.
You already have opinions on many social issues. You bring
these opinions with you to any discussion of these issues. You
can use your critical thinking skills to defend your current
beliefs or you can use them to evaluate your position as well as
alternative points of view. Weak sense critical thinking is used
to deny the possible value of any position different from your
own. Strong sense critical thinking is used to evaluate all
claims, including your own. This process may cause you to
revise your position or it may make your original convictions
even stronger. Using strong sense critical thinking will ensure
that you have reflected on the alternatives and made a conscious
decision regarding your point of view.
Your opinions are shaped by your experiences and your
interactions with other people. To be an effective critical
thinker you must learn to listen and consider the views of others
but to accept only those that are reasonable and well supported.
What you believe is reasonable will be determined by your
values. Values are the unstated ideas that people see as
worthwhile. They provide standards of conduct by which we
measure the quality of human behavior. Which values we think
are most important will determine our value priorities. We are
most comfortable with and generally more attracted to people

who hold similar values to our own. However, it is very
important to work hard to understand the reasoning of those
whose value priorities differ from ours.
To value autonomy means to value independence, self-
sufficiency and self-reliance. However, in order to make the
best decisions to attain independence, one must be able to
choose from a wide array of possibilities. By considering
alternative points of view and listening carefully to those who
represent a different perspective than our own we can work
toward achieving autonomy.
Curiosity requires that you explore all possibilities and consider
alternative positions that meet the standards of sound reasoning.
Humility requires the recognition that our experience with
others can be a learning experience and enrich our lives with
diverse ideas.
Respect for good reasoning requires an understanding that not
all opinions or conclusions are equal. As you learn to evaluate
arguments this semester you will gain skills to help you decide
what reasoning to accept and what to reject. Changing your
mind because you become aware of an alternative position
supported by sound reasoning, is preferable to holding onto a
conclusion based on poor reasoning or emotional bias.
In our study of critical thinking we will be analyzing and
evaluating arguments. You may think of an argument as a
disagreement with a winner and loser. For our purposes an
argument is something altogether different than this view. An
argument is simply a conclusion and the reasons that allegedly
support it. When we interact with others to present our
arguments and listen to theirs it is important to be respectful
and avoid any personal attacks. The following are a few
strategies to use to engage in a productive interchange.
1. Try to clarify your understanding of what the other person
said by repeating it back to them.

2. Ask the other person whether there is any evidence that
would cause him to change his mind.
3. Suggest a time-out period in which each of you will try to
find the very best evidence for the conclusion you hold.
4. Ask why the person thinks the evidence on which you are
relying is so weak.
5. Try to come together. If you take that person’s best reasons
and put them together with your best reasons, is there some
conclusion that both of you could embrace?
6. Search for common values or other shared conclusions to
serve as a basis for determining where the disagreement first
appeared in your conversation.
7. Try to present a model of caring and calm curiosity; as soon
as the verbal heat turns up, try to remind yourselves that you
are learners, not warriors.
8. Make certain that your face and body suggest humility, rather
than the demeanor of a know-it-all.
As you learn from your interactions with others be sure to avoid
the dangers of “groupthink.” Only clear, sound reasoning should
influence your thinking about an issue, not peer pressure to go
along with the majority thinking.
Throughout the semester you will be learning to ask and answer
the critical questions presented in your text. By using the
strategies that we discussed for each stage of the reading
process, panning for gold as you read, and remaining open to
diverse points of view as you engage in social interactions with
others, you can become an effective critical reader and thinker.
Podcast Lecture 3

Understanding Critical Thinking
This week we will be exploring the different aspects of critical
thinking in an effort to better understand the process and to
develop our own definitions. We will investigate a model of
adult development, the cognitive skills involved in the critical
thinking process and the dispositions necessary to make critical
thinking possible.
An important aspect of critical thinking deals with your view of
the source and nature of knowledge. Some students believe that
knowledge comes to them from authorities, that there is a
definite right and wrong answer, and that it is their
responsibility to work hard and study to get this knowledge
from the authority. Others believe that authorities know the
facts, but that some areas are matters of opinion and that all
opinions are equally acceptable. Still others think that there is
no absolute truth and that we must always weigh and compare
information to construct knowledge for ourselves.
William Perry, an English Professor at Harvard University, who
was the director of the Harvard Study Center, did a longitudinal
study and came up with a model of adult intellectual
developmental levels. Perry’s theory assumes that development
occurs through interaction with others and is sequential,
hierarchical and irreversible. The Perry model has nine stages
which fall into the following four major categories: dualism,
multiplicity, relativism and commitment within relativism.
The first stage that we will discuss is called Dualism. Adults
operating at this stage believe that knowledge is quantitative.
In other words, they believe that how many facts they know
determines how smart they are. This semester we will be
attempting to move beyond this stage. As you acquire new
thinking skills you will be able to use the facts you learn to
construct knowledge for yourself.

The next stage is called Multiplicity. At this level diversity of
opinion is recognized, but no distinctions are made between
opinions. All opinions are deemed equally valid since no
known absolute answer exists. We will be striving to develop
the skills needed to evaluate diverse opinions and accept or
reject them based on evidence presented in reasonable
arguments.
In Relativism knowledge is viewed as relative, socially
constructed and determined by context. Opinions are viewed as
unsupported assertions of belief. These opinions are deemed
worthless. There will remain some matters about which
reasonable people will disagree. With support in the form of
argument, evidence, and consistent logic, opinions can become
“positions.” An individual is considered relativistic with
respect to a particular subject if they can articulate the
arguments for various positions but have not made a
commitment to a particular point of view.
The final stage is Commitment in Relativism. At this level
knowledge is viewed as qualitative and dependent on context.
Individuals who have reached this stage examine a question in
depth and eventually make a judgment about it. Although a
commitment is made the individual remains open to significant
new evidence that would constitute grounds for reexamining the
decision.
One of the goals for this week is to develop your own definition
of critical thinking. The CSUF Read 290 Faculty got together
and developed the following definition.
· Critical thinking is a sophisticated process which includes
skills, dispositions and metacognition. Specifically, critical
thinking is disciplined, self-directed, reasonable and reflective
thinking that one performs when deciding what to believe or do.

It is purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference as well as
advocacy of one’s position. It is the art of thinking about one’s
thinking in order to make it better, more clear, and more
accurate. Critical thinkers are open-minded, flexible, and
persistent. It is evidenced by the ability and disposition to
improve one’s thinking by systematically subjecting it to
intellectual self-assessment.
After some careful reading you will be developing your
personal definition of critical thinking.
Podcast Lecture 2
What is college reading?
I would like to take a few minutes to talk to you about college
reading. Many people believe that students, who have
progressed in their academic careers to the college level, are
proficient readers with all of the skills necessary to read and
understand complex material. If this were true, reading classes
at the college level would be unnecessary and inappropriate.
However, this is a very limited view of the reading process.
Reading is a complex cognitive process. It is also a
developmental process. Over 20 years ago, Jeanne Chall, a
Harvard professor, outlined the stages of reading development
from birth to college and beyond. By looking at this model of
reading development, you can build an awareness of the skills
necessary for success with the sophisticated and abstract
material which you will encounter in higher education.
Chall’s model of reading development has five stages.
Stage 0 begins at birth and lasts for the first 4-5 years of a
child’s life. During this stage the child is gaining control of
his/her oral language and building a vocabulary.

Stages 1 and 2 are when the child is learning the mechanics of
reading. This usually happens in the primary grades (K-3).
During these stages the child learns that letters represent sounds
and how the sounds blend together to make words. Decoding
skills and fluency are practiced.
Stage 3 is when the reader uses the skills acquired to learn new
information. In grades 4-8 students are exposed to a variety of
texts and must expand their vocabularies and reading strategies
to effectively process this new information.
In high school students are exposed to multiple points of view.
Stage 4 reading requires that students develop their reading
abilities to include critical analysis of these varying viewpoints.
Stage 5 reading is the type of reading that we will be engaged in
throughout this course. This is college or adult level reading.
Readers must construct meaning for themselves based on the
analysis and synthesis of ideas encountered in their reading and
their experience.
Chall describes this level of reading in the following manner.
“Reading is essentially constructive. From reading what others
say the reader constructs knowledge for himself. The process
depends upon analysis, synthesis and judgement.”
This type of reading involves being able to not only read the
words on the page, but to use that information, together with
your own knowledge to make inferences and construct new
knowledge. Your existing knowledge and the way that it is
organized is known as your schema. This is your understanding
of how the world operates. It is based on all of your past
experiences and background knowledge.
To demonstrate how your schema helps you to interpret what

you read I would like you to listen to the following paragraph
and try to determine what it is the four friends are doing when
they get together on Saturday nights. Be sure to have some
reasons to support your interpretation.
Every Saturday night, four good friends get together. When
Jerry, Mike and Pat arrived, Karen was sitting in her living
room writing some notes. She quickly gathered the cards and
stood up to great her friends at the door. They followed her
into the living room, but as usual couldn’t agree on exactly
what to play. Jerry eventually took a stand and set things up.
Finally they began to play. Karen’s recorder filled the room
with soft and pleasant music. Early in the evening Mike noticed
Pat’s hand and the many diamonds. As the night progressed,
the tempo of the play increased. Finally, a lull in the activities
occurred. Taking advantage of this, Jerry pondered the
arrangement in from of him. Mike interrupted Jerry’s reverie
and said, “Let’s hear the score.” They listened carefully and
commented on their performance. When the comments were all
heard, exhausted but happy, Karen’s friends went home.
One interpretation might be that the friends are coming together
to practice playing music together. To support this
interpretation your schema would have to include knowledge of
musical notes, music stands, tempo, musical arrangements, and
musical scores. You would also have to know that the recorder
was a type of instrument. If your background was consistent
with this knowledge this interpretation would make sense to
you.
Another interpretation could be that the friends get together on
Saturday night to play cards. To support this interpretation
your schema would have to include knowledge of different card
games and the scoring of card games, as well as the different
suits in a deck of cards namely, hearts, diamonds, clubs and
spades.

This example shows that what you bring with you to the reading
experience has an effect on what you take away from the
reading. By using your prior background knowledge and
experience together with the information provided by the author
you have successfully constructed knowledge for yourself.
To engage in this type of reading you will need to develop some
high level thinking skills and attitudes. A study done by the
National Center on Post-secondary Teaching, Learning and
Assessment (Jones, 1996) identified the desired outcomes for
college reading. Adults or college level readers should be able
to understand the meaning and significance of a text. To
accomplish this they must have the ability to identify explicit
and implicit features, judge the credibility and strength of the
claims made, apply what is known to new information to draw
conclusions and solve problems, and monitor and correct their
own thinking when comprehension breaks down. The readers’
attitudes about the use of these skills will also be a factor in
their success as an effective college level reader. We will be
concentrating on the skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation
as we attempt to improve our reading and thinking this
semester.
In order to give you some tools to help you with this complex
process, we will examine the steps of the reading process
individually and discuss some strategies to use for each step.
The reading process is a 3 step process. The steps include pre-
reading (what you do before you read), active reading (what you
do while you read) and post-reading (what you do after you
read).
The first stage of the reading process that we will investigate is
the pre-reading stage. When you first learned to read your
teacher would walk you through this stage of the process by
introducing you to the text with pictures and discussion meant

to stimulate your thinking about the upcoming story and get you
interested in reading it. You will usually read things better that
you are interested in so one of the purposes of these pre-reading
activities is to get you interested. The strategy that we will
employ to this end is called previewing. When you hear the
term preview you probably think of a movie preview. The
purpose of a movie preview is to get you interested in seeing
the movie. The way in which this is accomplished is by
showing you scenes from the movie, introducing the characters
(actors), and revealing the genre (action , adventure, comedy,
science fiction, drama, musicals). The producers are hopeful
that having watched the preview you will be compelled to pay
for the full length feature.
Now let’s talk about a reading preview. Just like the movie
preview the purpose is to get you interested in what you are
about to read and to give you some information about it that you
may be able to relate to your experience or background
knowledge. The way to preview a reading selection is to look at
the title, subheadings, pictures, graphs, or anything that stands
out in the reading. In some cases you may need to read the first
paragraph and the first sentence of the subsequent paragraphs if
no sub-titles or pictures are provided. This is like viewing
some scenes from the reading. As you skim the text, ask
yourself questions, such as, What do I know about this topic?
And What might this be about? Be sure to hypothesize answers
to these questions as you proceed through the text. This
procedure will give you a purpose for reading and help keep you
focused on the text. You will be reading to see if your
hypotheses were correct or incorrect. If you guessed right about
the content of the piece or the author’s message you will be
confirming your hypothesis. If you guessed wrong you will
disconfirm your hypothesis. Either way, you will be focused on
the text and actively involved in the reading.
This brings us to step two-active reading.

You are now ready to read the text carefully and actively with a
pencil in your hand. This is the type of reading you will do
when you need to learn something from print. Annotating while
you read forces you to make choices about what you think is
important and to reflect on your understanding of the author’s
message.
During the preview you made some guesses/hypotheses about
the content of the text and your careful reading will help you to
confirm or disconfirm those hypotheses. As you read make
notes in the margin that reflect your thinking about the text. Do
you agree? Disagree? Have you had a similar experience or do
you know about something that reminds you of the concepts or
ideas that the author is discussing? Creating these notes will
help you to stay focused and reviewing them later can be a
helpful study resource.
Once you have finished reading the text it is a good idea to
participate in a post-reading activity to help you organize and
remember the ideas presented. Sometimes you will be asked to
answer questions about a piece of writing or you may be given
another assignment related to the reading. The post-reading
activity that I recommend is to create a summary. Ask yourself,
What was the point the author was trying to make? And How
did the author support that point? Once you have identified
these key ideas you should be better able to recall them when
needed to build on your knowledge base.
This semester you will be called on to read a variety of
materials. Now that you know a little bit about the complex
nature of the reading process at the college level, I hope that
you recognize the advantages to using the system described here
including all the stages of the reading process. If you get
comfortable with this process and adapt it to meet your
individual needs and learning styles you can become a better

reader and thinker and get the most out of your efforts in your
academic endeavors.
Guidelines for Paper 1 – Understanding Critical Thinking,
Critical Reading and Critical Action
The purpose of this assignment is to demonstrate your
understanding of the course readings and discussions by
defining critical thinking, critical reading and critical action.
To be successful on this paper you will need three well-
developed and thoughtful paragraphs (8-10 sentences) that
address the following topics.
1. What is critical thinking? In this paragraph be sure to
discuss:
The purpose and importance of critical thinking
The cognitive skills necessary for critical thinking
The dispositions (or attitudes) necessary for critical
thinking
Hint: Refer to the Facione article, Critical Thinking: What it is
and Why it Counts, and Chapter 1 in the ARQ text
2. What is critical reading? In this paragraph be sure to discuss:
College/adult level reading (Chall’s Stage 5 Reading)
Outcomes of stage 5 reading (How are these related to
critical thinking skills and dispositions?)
Analysis of reading materials
Hint: Refer to the What is College Reading presentation and
Chapters 2-5 in the ARQ text.
3. What is critical action? In this paragraph be sure to discuss:
Implementation of critical thinking and reading skills
Criteria used to determine if /what action is appropriate
(reliability of information)
Social transformation through critical action
Hint: Reflect on how critical thinking and reading skills can be
helpful in advocating for a position and taking action for
positive change.

Your paper should be double spaced and no longer than 1 ½
pages. You do not need to cite your sources since I have
provided them in the course materials. Your paper is worth a
maximum of 50 points and will be evaluated using the following
rubric.
Understanding Critical Thinking, Reading, Action
Assignment Rubric
Category
Above Standard
(20-18)
Meets Standard
(17-14)
Below Standard
(13-0)
Defining Critical Thinking
Definition includes most cognitive skills and dispositions
(attitudes), as well as, discussion of purpose and importance of
critical thinking. Paragraph is well developed and all sentences
are well constructed without errors in grammar, spelling or
punctuation.
Definition includes some cognitive skills and dispositions.
Purpose or importance of critical thinking discussed. Most
sentences are well constructed. Student makes 1-2 errors in
grammar, spelling or punctuation.
Definition does not include skills and /or disposition. Purpose
or importance of critical thinking not discussed. Most sentences
are not well constructed. Student makes numerous errors in
Defining Critical Reading
Definition includes discussion of college reading and stage 5
outcomes. Connection between critical thinking and critical
reading is clear. Steps in critical reading process are identified.
All sentences are well constructed and without errors in

Definition includes brief discussion of college reading or stage
5 outcomes. Connection between critical thinking and critical
reading is mentined. Some steps in critical reading process are
identified. Most sentences are well constructed. Student makes
1-2 errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation.
Definition does not include discussion of college reading or
stage 5 outcomes. No connection made between critical
thinking and critical reading. Steps in critical reading process
not identified. Most sentences are not well constructed.
Student makes numerous errors in grammar, spelling or
punctuation.
Above Standard
(10-9)
Meets Standard
(8-7)
Below Standard
(6-0)
Critical Action Reflections
Reflection demonstrates high level thinking. Connection
between critical thinking, reading and action is apparent.
Evaluation of information discussed. The paragraph is the
appropriate length (8-10 sentences). All sentences are well
constructed and without errors in grammar, spelling or
punctuation.
Reflection demonstrates some higher level thinking.
Connection between critical thinking, reading and action is not
clear. Evaluation of information is not discussed. The
paragraph is not the appropriate length (8-10 sentences). Most
sentences are well constructed. Student makes 1-2 errors in
Reflection demonstrates surface level thinking. No connection
is made between critical thinking, reading and action. The
paragraph is not the appropriate length (8-10 sentences). Most

sentences are not well constructed. Student makes numerous
errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation.
Sample Paper Format:
Please use this format for the heading of your paper.
Last Name, First Name
Greenbaum, JoAnne
READ 290 Sec ____
Date: _______
Title of Your Paper (Critical Thinking, Critical Reading,
Critical Action)
Begin Paragraph 1… (Critical thinking)
Begin Paragraph 2…. (Critical Reading)
Begin Paragraph 3…. (Critical Action)

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