PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of that DNA sequence. Kary Mullis developed PCR in 1983 while working at Cetus Corporation. PCR uses repeated heating and cooling of the DNA sample in the presence of primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides to selectively amplify the target DNA sequence. It is useful for applications like disease diagnosis, forensics, genetic testing, and basic research.
This presentation will give you an in-depth look at modern techniques and appliations of biotechnology. It will get you thinking about the potential for biotechnology to change your lives in the future. Please take Cornell Notes on the following slides.
Using methylation patterns to determine origin of biological material and ageQIAGEN
In this QIAGEN sponsored webinar, our guest speakers from the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) Crime Lab and Florida International University (FIU) discuss their research on the potential of epigenetic methylation as a procedure for body fluid identification and age estimation from DNA left at crime scenes. Several approaches have been studied, including an analysis of methyl array data and an initial validation of procedures such as pyrosequencing and real-time PCR. The presentation focuses on a number of tissue-specific epigenetic markers for body fluid and age determination with a promise of future integration of these markers into the forensic lab due to the simplicity of analysis and the ease of application.
Learn more about the Pyrosequencing technology and our solutions at
https://www.qiagen.com/resources/technologies/pyrosequencing-resource-center/
Describe in your own words the benefits, but also the problems of ha.pdfarenamobiles123
Describe in your own words the benefits, but also the problems of having the human genome
deciphered. Write several paragraphs.
Solution
The history of the human race has been filled with curiosity and discovery about our abilities and
limitations. As an egotistical creature with a seemingly unstoppable desire for new
accomplishments, we attempt feats with emotion and tenacity. People worldwide raced to be the
first to discover the secrets and the ability of flight. Enormous amounts of monies were spent on
sending people into space and the race to land on the moon. With the rapid growth of scientific
knowledge and experimental methods, humans have begun to unravel and challenge another
mystery, the discovery of the entire genetic make-up of the human body.
This endeavor, the Human Genome Project (HGP), has created hopes and expectations about
better health care. It has also brought forth serious social issues. To understand the potential
positive and negative issues, we must first understand the history and technical aspects of the
HGP.
History of the Human Genome Project
The HGP has an ultimate goal of identifying and locating the positions of all genes in the human
body. A researcher named Renato Dulbecco first suggested the idea of such a project while the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was also considering the same project because issues related
to radiation and chemical exposure were being raised. Military and civilian populations were
being exposed to radiation and possible carcinogenic chemicals through atomic testing, the use
of Agent Orange in Vietnam, and possible nuclear power facility accidents. Genetic knowledge
was needed to determine the resiliency of the human genome.
Worldwide discussion about a HGP began in 1985. In 1986, the DOE announced its\' Human
Genome Initiative which emphasized the development of resources and technologies for genome
mapping, sequencing, computation, and infrastructure support that would lead to the entire
human genome map. United States involvement began in October 1990 and was coordinated by
the DOE and the National Institute of Health (NIH). With an estimated cost of 3 billion dollars,
sources of funding also include the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Howard Hughes
Medical Institute (HHMI). Because of the involvement of the NIH, DOE, and NSF who receive
U.S. Congressional funding, the HGP is partly funded through federal tax dollars. Expected to
last 15 years, technological advancements have accelerated the expected date of completion to
the year 2003. This completion date would coincide with the 50th anniversary of Watson and
Crick\'s description of the structure of DNA molecule.
Human Genome Project Goals
The specific goals of the HGP are to::
Technical Aspects of the HGP
Mapping Strategies
To sequence the human genome, maps are needed. Physical maps are a series of overlapping
pieces of DNA isolated in bacteria. Physical maps are used to describe the DNA\'s chemical
characteristics..
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
This presentation will give you an in-depth look at modern techniques and appliations of biotechnology. It will get you thinking about the potential for biotechnology to change your lives in the future. Please take Cornell Notes on the following slides.
Using methylation patterns to determine origin of biological material and ageQIAGEN
In this QIAGEN sponsored webinar, our guest speakers from the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) Crime Lab and Florida International University (FIU) discuss their research on the potential of epigenetic methylation as a procedure for body fluid identification and age estimation from DNA left at crime scenes. Several approaches have been studied, including an analysis of methyl array data and an initial validation of procedures such as pyrosequencing and real-time PCR. The presentation focuses on a number of tissue-specific epigenetic markers for body fluid and age determination with a promise of future integration of these markers into the forensic lab due to the simplicity of analysis and the ease of application.
Learn more about the Pyrosequencing technology and our solutions at
https://www.qiagen.com/resources/technologies/pyrosequencing-resource-center/
Describe in your own words the benefits, but also the problems of ha.pdfarenamobiles123
Describe in your own words the benefits, but also the problems of having the human genome
deciphered. Write several paragraphs.
Solution
The history of the human race has been filled with curiosity and discovery about our abilities and
limitations. As an egotistical creature with a seemingly unstoppable desire for new
accomplishments, we attempt feats with emotion and tenacity. People worldwide raced to be the
first to discover the secrets and the ability of flight. Enormous amounts of monies were spent on
sending people into space and the race to land on the moon. With the rapid growth of scientific
knowledge and experimental methods, humans have begun to unravel and challenge another
mystery, the discovery of the entire genetic make-up of the human body.
This endeavor, the Human Genome Project (HGP), has created hopes and expectations about
better health care. It has also brought forth serious social issues. To understand the potential
positive and negative issues, we must first understand the history and technical aspects of the
HGP.
History of the Human Genome Project
The HGP has an ultimate goal of identifying and locating the positions of all genes in the human
body. A researcher named Renato Dulbecco first suggested the idea of such a project while the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was also considering the same project because issues related
to radiation and chemical exposure were being raised. Military and civilian populations were
being exposed to radiation and possible carcinogenic chemicals through atomic testing, the use
of Agent Orange in Vietnam, and possible nuclear power facility accidents. Genetic knowledge
was needed to determine the resiliency of the human genome.
Worldwide discussion about a HGP began in 1985. In 1986, the DOE announced its\' Human
Genome Initiative which emphasized the development of resources and technologies for genome
mapping, sequencing, computation, and infrastructure support that would lead to the entire
human genome map. United States involvement began in October 1990 and was coordinated by
the DOE and the National Institute of Health (NIH). With an estimated cost of 3 billion dollars,
sources of funding also include the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Howard Hughes
Medical Institute (HHMI). Because of the involvement of the NIH, DOE, and NSF who receive
U.S. Congressional funding, the HGP is partly funded through federal tax dollars. Expected to
last 15 years, technological advancements have accelerated the expected date of completion to
the year 2003. This completion date would coincide with the 50th anniversary of Watson and
Crick\'s description of the structure of DNA molecule.
Human Genome Project Goals
The specific goals of the HGP are to::
Technical Aspects of the HGP
Mapping Strategies
To sequence the human genome, maps are needed. Physical maps are a series of overlapping
pieces of DNA isolated in bacteria. Physical maps are used to describe the DNA\'s chemical
characteristics..
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
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change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
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BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
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5. The Proble
m
How do we identify a
nd detect a specific
sequence in a genom
e?
6. The Proble
m:
How do we identify and dete
ct a specific sequence in a
genome?
• TWO BIG ISSUES:
– There are a LOT of other sequences in a geno
me that we’re not interested in detecting. (SP
ECIFICITY)
– The amount of DNA in samples we’re interest
ed in is VERY small. (AMPLIFICATION)
7. The Proble
m:
Specificity
How do we identify and dete
ct a specific sequence in a
genome?
• Pine: 68 billion bp
• Corn: 5.0 billion bp
• Soybean: 1.1 billion bp
• Human: 3.4 billion bp
• Housefly: 900 million bp
• Rice: 400 million bp
• E. coli: 4.6 million bp
• HIV: 9.7 thousand bp
8. The Proble
m:
Specificity
• The human genome is 3.4 B bp
• If the bases were written in standard 10-point ty
pe, on a tape measure...
• ...The tape would stretch for 5,366 MILES!
• Identifying a 500bp sequence in a genome w
ould be like finding a section of this tape me
asure only 4 feet long!
Just How
Big Is 3.4
Billion?
9. The Proble
m:
Amplification
How many molec
ules do we need t
o be able to see t
hem?
• To be visible on an agarose gel, need around 10 ng
DNA for fluorescent stain (or around 25ng for Fast
Blast).
• For a 500-bp product band, weighing 660 g/mol.bp
, therefore need 10e-9 / (500*660) = 3.03e-14 mol
es.
• Avogadro’s number = 6.02e23.
• Therefore need 1.8e10 copies!
• In other words, to “see” a single “gene”, the DNA
in a sample of 100 cells would have to be multiplie
d 180 million times!!!!!
10. The Proble
m:
Specificity
Amplfication
• How do we identify and detect a specific s
equence in a genome?
• TWO BIG ISSUES:
– There are a LOT of other sequences in a geno
me that we’re not interested in detecting.
– The amount of DNA in samples we’re intereste
d in is VERY small.
PCR solves BOTH of thes
e issues!!!
11. So what’s P
CR used for
?
• Forensic DNA detection
• Identifying transgenic plants
• Detection and quantification of
viral infection
• Cloning
• Detection of ancient DNA
• Gene expression analysis
12. PCR History
The Inventi
on
In what has been called by some the greatest a
chievement of modern molecular biology, Kary
B. Mullis developed the polymerase chain re
action (PCR) in 1983. PCR allows the rapid synt
hesis of designated fragments of DNA. Using th
e technique, over one billion copies can be synt
hesized in a matter of hours.
PCR is valuable to scientists by assisting gene
mapping, the study of gene functions, cell iden
tification, and to forensic scientists in criminal id
entification. Cetus Corporation, Mullis' employer
at the time of his discovery, was the first to co
mmercialize the PCR process. In 1991, Cetus so
ld the PCR patent to Hoffman-La Roche for a pri
ce of $300 million. It is currently an indispensab
le tool for molecular biologists and the develop
ment of genetic engineering.
http://library.thinkquest.org/24355/data/details/1983a.html
13. Mr. PCR: K
ary B. Mulli
s
(1944 - )
The inventor of the DNA synthesis process known as the
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The process is an inva
luable tool to today's molecular biologists and biotechno
logy corporations.
Mullis, born in Lenoir, North Carolina, attended the Unive
rsity of Georgia Tech for his undergraduate work in che
mistry, and then obtained a Ph. D. in biochemistry from
Cal Berkeley.
In 1983, working for Cetus Corporation, Mullis develope
d the Polymerase Chain Reaction, a technique for the rap
id synthesis of a DNA sequence. The simple process invol
ved heating a vial containing the DNA fragment to split t
he two strands of the DNA molecule, adding oligonucleot
ide primers to bring about reproduction, and finally usin
g polymerase to replicate the DNA strands. Each cycle do
ubles the amount of DNA, so multiple cycles increase the
amount of DNA exponentially, creating huge numbers of
copies of the DNA fragment.
Mullis left Cetus in 1986. For his development of PCR, he
was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1993.
http://library.thinkquest.org/24355/data/details/profiles/mullis.html
14. The Inventi
on of PCR
The process, which Dr. Mullis conceptualized in 1983, is h
ailed as one of the monumental scientific techniques of th
e twentieth century. A method of amplifying DNA, PCR mu
ltiplies a single, microscopic strand of the genetic materia
l billions of times within hours. Mullis explains:
http://www.osumu.org/mu/events_lectures1b.htm
"It was a chemical procedure that would make the structures of the
molecules of our genes as easy to see as billboards in the desert an
d as easy to manipulate as Tinkertoys....It would find infectious dise
ases by detecting the genes of pathogens that were difficult or impo
ssible to culture....The field of molecular paleobiology would blosso
m because of P.C.R. Its practitioners would inquire into the specific
s of evolution from the DNA in ancient specimens....And when DNA
was finally found on other planets, it would be P.C.R. that would tell
us whether we had been there before."
15. Mr. PCR: K
ary B. Mulli
s "Take all the MVPs from professional baseball,
basketball and football. Throw in a dozen favor
ite movie stars and a half-dozen rock stars for
good measure, add all the television anchor pe
ople now on the air and collectively we have n
ot affected the current good or the future welfa
re of mankind as much as Kary Mullis." -- Ted
Koppel, on ABC's "Nightline"
archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/29/mullis/index.html
17. Uses of PC
R:
Forensics
PCR’s ability to amplify even the smallest
amount of DNA from samples collected at
a crime scene gives the method great pow
er when used in criminal forensics.
The DNA from body fluid, hair, or other tis
sue samples is amplified to create a nearl
y unique pattern for each individual. This
pattern can then be compared to suspects
in the case.
The infamous OJ Simpson case was the fi
rst one in which the technique of PCR bec
ame widely publicized.
18. Uses of PC
R:
GMO Food
Detection
Genetically-modified foods (GMO foods) a
re widely grown in the USA and other cou
ntries.
For various reasons, some countries requi
re exporters to indicate the percentage of
GMO content in grain and food shipments.
PCR can be used to accurately measure t
he exact quantity of genetically-modified f
ood in a shipment, by “looking” at the DNA
that makes up the food!
19. Uses of PC
R:
Paternity T
esting
PCR’s power at identifying individual gene
tic makeup has made it invaluable for use
in paternity testing.
By amplifying specific DNA fragments fro
m parents or close relatives, it is possible t
o reconstruct relatedness between individ
uals.
PCR can not only identify relationships be
tween people today, but can also be used
to identify historical family relationships!
20. Uses of PCR
:
Archaeology
PCR has been used for many scientific st
udes in the field of archaeology:
Reconstructing the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Identification of paint pigments in cave pai
ntings.
Determining relatedness between individu
als in ancient ossuaries.
Constructing dinosaurs from blood preser
ved in amber specimens. (!)
21. Uses of PCR
:
Disease
Diagnosis
PCR is now invaluable in modern disease
diagnosis.
PCR can identify disease-causing organis
ms much earlier than other methods, sinc
e it looks for the DNA of the organism itsel
f, not its proteins or its effect on our immu
ne system.
PCR has even been used to diagnose dis
eases of the past, by amplifying minute a
mounts of disease-related DNA in preserv
ed specimens.
22. Uses of PCR
:
Disease
Treatment
PCR can not only be used in disease diag
nosis, but also as an aid in the treatment o
f diseases.
For example, real-time PCR is used to dir
ectly monitor the amount of HIV virus in p
atients suffering from infection. By monito
ring the amount of virus present, the drug
therapy can be continually adjusted to ma
ximize virus suppression.
23. Uses of PCR:
Wildlife Cons
ervation
Because PCR can be used to identify not
only individuals, but also can differentiate
between species, it is often used in wildlif
e conservation research.
PCR can be used to monitor trade in prod
ucts made from endangered species.
PCR can be used to monitor ecosystems f
or the presence of certain species.
PCR can be used even to monitor and ide
ntify indvidual animals!
24. The Human Genome Project has identified ten
s of thousands of genes in the human genome.
A key questions is: what do these genes do?
Part of the answer comes from determining wh
en the genes are turned on and off, and what a
ffects the level of gene expression. Quantitativ
e PCR is a key component of determining the l
evels of gene expression, and is a critical tool i
n cancer research, disease studies, and devel
opmental biology.
DNA
RNA
Enzymes
GENEX Analysis
Biology
Uses of PC
R:
Basic Researc
h
35. PCR Reacti
on:
Buffer
• Water
• Buffer
– Stabilizes the DNA polym
erase, DNA, and nucleotid
es
– 500 mM KCl
– 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3
– Triton X-100 or Tween
36. PCR Reacti
on:
Template D
NA
• Water
• Buffer
• DNA template
– Contains region to be a
mplified
– Any DNA desired
– Purity not required
– Should be free of polym
erase inhibitors
37. PCR Reacti
on:
Primers
• Water
• Buffer
• DNA template
• Primers
– Specific for ends of amp
lified region
– Forward and Reverse
– Annealing temps should
be known
•Depends on primer le
ngth, GC content, etc.
– Length 15-30 nt
– Conc 0.1 – 1.0 uM (pMol/
ul)
38. PCR Reacti
on:
Nucleotides
• Water
• Buffer
• DNA template
• Primers
• Nucleotides
– Added to the growing cha
in
– Activated NTP’s
– dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP
– Stored at 10mM, pH 7.0
– Add to 20-200 uM in assay
39. PCR Reacti
on:
Magnesium
• Water
• Buffer
• DNA template
• Primers
• Nucleotides
• Mg++ ions
– Essential co-factor of DNA polymer
ase
– Too little: Enzyme won’t work.
– Stabilizes the DNA double-helix
– Too much: DNA extra stable, non-s
pecific priming, band smearing
– Used at 0.5 to 3.5 uM in the assay
40. PCR Reacti
on:
Polymerase
• Water
• Buffer
• DNA template
• Primers
• Nucleotides
• Mg++ ions
• DNA Polymerase
– The enzyme that do
es the extension
– TAQ or similar
– Heat-stable
– Approx 1 U / rxn
43. A Typical P
CR Reactio
n
Sterile Water 38.0 ul
10X PCR Buffer 5.0 ul
MgCl2 (50mM) 2.5 ul
dNTP’s (10mM each) 1.0 ul
PrimerFWD (25 pmol/ul) 1.0 ul
PrimerREV 1.0 ul
DNA Polymerase 0.5 ul
DNA Template 1.0 ul
Total Volume 50.0 ul
44. Mixing Commo
n Reagents Sa
ves Time
Component 1X 20X
Sterile Water 38.0 ul 760 ul
10X PCR Buffer 5.0 ul 100 ul
MgCl2 (50mM) 2.5 ul 50 ul
dNTP’s (10mM each) 1.0 ul 20 ul
PrimerFWD (25 pmol/ul) 1.0 ul 20 ul
PrimerREV 1.0 ul 20 ul
DNA Polymerase 0.5 ul 10 ul
DNA Template 1.0 ul --
Total Volume 50.0 ul 980 ul
Aliquot
49 ul
Add DNA
as last step
45. An Even Si
mpler Appro
ach:
Mastermix
MASTERMIX 19.6 ul
Sterile Water
10X PCR Buffer
MgCl2
dNTP’s
DNA Polymerase
Primers Fwd+Rev 0.4 ul
DNA Template 20.0 ul
Total Volume 40.0 ul
Sterile Water
10X PCR Buffer
MgCl2
dNTP’s
DNA Polymerase
Primer FWD
Primer REV
DNA Template
47. Typical The
rmal Cycler
Conditions
1. Initial Denaturation 95 C 3 min
2. DNA Denaturation 95 C 1 min
3. Primer Annealing 65 C 1 min
4. Primer Extension 72 C 1 min
5. Go to step #2, repeat 39 more times
6. End
49. PCR
Visualizing
Results
•After thermal cycling, tubes are take
n out of the PCR machine.
•Contents of tubes are loaded onto an
agarose gel.
•DNA is separated by size using an el
ectric field.
•DNA is then stained.
•PCR products are visible as different
“bands”.
53. PCR
Visualizing
Results
The final result of the traditional P
CR procedure is a gel with a series
of bands:
Bands can be compared against e
ach other, and to known size-stan
dards, to determine the presence
or absence of a specific amplificat
ion product.
54. Webinars • Enzyme Kinetics — A Biofuels Case Study
• Real-Time PCR — What You Need To Know
and Why You Should Teach It!
• Proteins — Where DNA Takes on Form and
Function
• From plants to sequence: a six week colleg
e biology lab course
• From singleplex to multiplex: making the m
ost out of your realtime experiments
explorer.bio-rad.comSupportWebinars