The document discusses learning and cognition. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. It outlines several types of learning, including motor learning, verbal learning, concept learning, discrimination learning, learning principles, problem solving, and attitude learning. Classical conditioning is discussed, including Pavlov's experiment which demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can produce a conditioned response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response. The four factors of classical conditioning are identified as the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

1. UNIT 1
LEARNING AND COGNITION

2. Learning is any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience -
Stephen P. Robbins

3. • From a psychological point of view, learning has
been explained as a stimulus-response process.
Some facts come before us relating to the learning,
such as-
(i) Learning is a process through which the
behavior of the child changes or modifies.
(ii) Learning is predicted on the basis of changes in
behavior.
(iii) These changes can be negative or positive.
(iv) The changes due to learning are permanent.
(v) Changes in the behavior are the results of
experiences.
(vi) Leaning can be termed as a mental process.

4. Characteristics of Learning
• Learning is the change in behavior.
• It is doing and practice.
• It is continuous process till death.
• It is goal directed i.e. to fulfill some basic needs.
• It is continuous reconstruction i.e. replacing the old
with the new experiences.
• It is the product of activity and Environment.
• It helps in proper growth and development.
• It is related to individual and social needs.
• It is transferable.
• Learning is a universal process.

6. TYPES OF LEARNING
• 1. Motor learning - most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities.
• The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running,
skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
• 2. Verbal learning - this type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We
use words for communication.
• 3. Concept learning- It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. We learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when
we see a dog and attach the term dog, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal.
• 4. Discrimination learning - Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate
response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles
like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
• 5. Learning of principles- Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics,
grammar, etc. In order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship
between two or more concepts. Example formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
• 6. Problem solving- This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful
to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people
• 7. Attitude learning- Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We
develop different
attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may
be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example attitudes of nurse towards her

7. • Animal learning: - Changes in the behavior of animals are
Animal learning.
• Human Learning: -The changes which occur in human
behavior is human learning or learning by a human.
• Motor Learning:
• This type of learning includes muscular activities. Motor
learning is also of two main types:
• (i) Sensory Motor Learning:
• Here person gain learning and simple habits through sense
organs,
• For example learning skills in the playground of nursery
schools.
• (ii) Perceptual Motor Learning:
• In this learning, the learner learns habits and complex skills.
• For example dancing, cycling, writing with hands, swimming,
playing some musical instrument, etc.

8. PROCESS OF CHILDREN’S LEARNING
MOTIVATION
GOAL
OBSTACLE
VARIOUS RESPONSES
REINFORCEMENT
INTEGRATION AND GENERALIZATION

9. BEHAVIORISM
• Behaviorism refers to the school of
psychology founded by John B. Watson
based on the belief that behaviors can be
measured, trained, and changed.
Behaviorism was established with the
publication of Watson's classic paper
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"
(1913).

12. PAVLOV’S THEORY OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

13. • CONDITIONING :- When an individual
responses on that stimulus over which the
individual generally does not react.
• STIMULUS :- The object or event over which
an individual can react is stimulus. OR A thing
or event that evokes a specific reaction in an
organ.
• RESPONSE :- A Reaction as that of an
organism or a mechanism to a specific
stimulus.

15. • 1. UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS /NATURAL
STIMULUS (US/UCS) :- The stimulus over which the
individual generally reacts like food, dangerous
animal etc.
• 2. CONDITIONED STIMULUS(CS) :- The stimulus
over which the individual is compelled to react, like
sound of bell, door, light etc.
• 3. UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE(UCR) :- The
unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus.
• 4.CONDITIONED RESPONSE :- The conditioned
response is the learned response to the previously
neutral stimulus.

19. • Stage 1: Before Conditioning:
• In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an
organism.
• In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the
environment has produced a behavior / response which
is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a
natural response which has not been taught. In this
respect, no new behavior has been learned yet. This
stage also involves another stimulus which has no
effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus
(NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.
• The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not
produce a response until it is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.

20. • Stage 2: During Conditioning:
• During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e.,
neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which
point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
• For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with
eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS)
might be associated with a specific person (CS).
• For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus
should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after
it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as
a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.
• Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on
a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place.
However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when
it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time
(such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much
alcohol).

21. • Stage 3: After Conditioning:
• Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been
associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
to create a new conditioned response (CR).
• For example, a person (CS) who has been associated
with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive
(CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a
person was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a
response of nausea (CR).

22. Classical conditioning: Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food)
produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does
not have an effect. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is
presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After
conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response
(salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

23. If we look at Pavlov’s experiment, we can identify the four factors of
classical conditioning at work:
The unconditioned response was the dogs’ natural salivation in
response to seeing or smelling their food.
The unconditioned stimulus was the sight or smell of the food itself.
The conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, which previously
had no association with food.
The conditioned response, therefore, was the salivation of the dogs in
response to the ringing of the bell, even when no food was present.
Pavlov had successfully associated an unconditioned response (natural
salivation in response to food) with a conditioned stimulus (a buzzer),
eventually creating a conditioned response (salivation in response to a
buzzer). With these results, Pavlov established his theory of classical
conditioning.