This document discusses sustainable pasture management. It covers grazing systems, pasture fertility, weed control, and maintenance. Well-managed grazing leads to improved soil fertility and health as livestock harvest excess forage. This closes nutrient cycles and supports a diverse plant community. The key is to see oneself as a grass farmer and use livestock to market the harvested forage over as much of the year as possible. Planning and goal setting are important to integrate crop and livestock enterprises sustainably.

1. Pastures:
ATTRA Sustainable Management
A Publication of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org
By Alice Beetz and Well-managed forage systems contribute significantly to the sustainability of a farm/ranch operation. This
Lee Rinehart publication addresses numerous aspects of sustainable pasture integration, grazing rotation strategies,
NCAT Agriculture and management options. It covers: grazing systems, pasture fertility, changes in the plant community
Specialists through grazing, weed control, and pasture maintenance. It also discusses planning and goal-setting,
© 2006 NCAT and offers an appendix item on trees in pasture settings.
Contents
Introduction .................... 1
Considerations for
Irrigated Pasture Systems
in the Western U.S. ........ 9
Summary ........................ 13
References ...................... 15
Resources ....................... 16
Appendix: Trees in
Pasture Systems ........... 18 NCAT photo.
Introduction cycles of annual weeds and other
M
crop pests are interrupted during
anagement is the key to healthy, pro-
ductive pastures. Controlled, rota- the pasture years of the rotation.
tional, or management-intensive • Soil health improves as the content
grazing has increased forage production for of organic matter increases under
many producers. Skillfully using livestock to good grazing management.
harvest forages leads to improved soil fertil-
ity, a diverse, dense, and useful pasture ecol- • Soil structure improves over time
ogy, and an extended grazing season. Fertile as compaction and hardpan is
soil and productive pastures, in turn, support reduced.
healthy animals. • Ruminants (cattle, sheep, deer,
Well-managed forage systems contribute goats) thrive in a better balanced
to an operation’s sustainability in several agro-ecosystem and produce milk,
ATTRA–National Sustainable important ways: meat, and fi ber from grasses that
Agriculture Information Service
is managed by the National Cen- cannot be digested by humans.
• Lands most susceptible to erosion
ter for Appropriate Technology
(NCAT) and is funded under a (or otherwise unsuitable for annual Livestock eat excess plant materi-
grant from the United States
crops) can be maintained as perma- als while animal wastes contribute
Department of Agriculture’s
Rural Business-Cooperative Ser- nent sod. nutrients for plant growth.
vice. Visit the NCAT Web site
(www.ncat.org/agri. • Land used for row crops benefits • Marketing meat, milk, fi ber, and
html) for more informa-
tion on our sustainable from a year or more in pasture as other animal products can diversify
agriculture projects. part of a crop rotation plan. The life producer income.

2. In the not-too-distant fertility requirements than do most dair-
past, farmers more fully ies. Consistent production of high-quality
integrated crop and forage under current management makes a
livestock enterprises dairy or stocker enterprise an option to con-
as a matter of course. sider. Otherwise, a different class of cattle,
Gra i n produced i n sheep, or other ruminant (either alone or
field rotation was either in a multispecies system) may be more
sold or fed to livestock, suitable to your specific site and manage-
©2005 clipart.com
depending on market ment capability.
conditions. Cropland
The sun is the source of energy for the entire planet was rotationally seeded In setting production goals for any livestock
and much of this energy is captured and stored by enterprise, consider the economic return
plants. Plant fibers that are otherwise unusable by to forages, usually for per acre rather than production per animal.
humans are eaten and converted into a new form several years. Land not
of stored energy by domestic ruminants, such as suitable for crop pro-
This is a change from traditional thinking.
cattle, sheep, and goats. Producers can then mar- Compare pounds produced per acre or per
duction was grazed.
ket this animal meat, milk, and fiber. In a very real dollar invested rather than weaning weights
sense, annual crop and livestock systems constitute Animals also foraged or shipping weights. This type of analysis
a harvest of the sun and a new source of wealth. And after-harvest crop resi-
the most efficient system to convert the sun’s energy dues and the remains shows actual profitability more clearly. (See
to money is likely to be the most profitable. A dense enclosed article by Doug Gunnink for tools
and diverse forage community offers an excellent of failed crops. These to analyze profitability.)
opportunity for livestock managers who can harvest time-honored strategies
and market it. are not totally absent
from today’s agricultural landscape; how- Renovating Pastures vs.
ever, a better integration of crop and live- Establishing New Ones
stock enterprises is a necessary step toward Planting a new pasture offers the oppor-
the goal of sustainable pasture lands. tunity to choose forage species and variet-
ies suited to the livestock type adapted to
Planning and Goal-Setting the soil and climate. Efficiency is further
In analyzing your pasture systems, think of enhanced by matching the season of maxi-
yourself as a grass farmer, and the livestock mum forage production to the period when
as a means to market the forage. It doesn’t livestock can best use it or most need it.
matter whether the grass is produced on Further, planting a diverse mixture of for-
permanent pasture, on marginal land, ages with differing maturities provides a
or on crop land in the pasture years of a high-quality, longer grazing season.
rotation. An excellent goal is to produce
enough good-quality County or state Extension personnel are
ATTRA has developed several sustainability forage to sustain live- often good sources of information about for-
checksheets for educators and producers to stock over as much of age varieties adapted to an area or even to a
use in evaluating any operation that includes specific site. The Natural Resources Conserva-
the year as possible.
a grazing system. Each is designed to make tion Service (NRCS) is another good source of
the producer think about how different parts
Then choose the live- information on forage production practices
of the pasture-based enterprise relate to each stock that can best appropriate for particular grazing systems.
other. The checksheets were developed by use it. This agency has been given specific respon-
teams of producers and educators and have sibility for helping farmers improve the graz-
Of course, different ing lands of the United States. Most states
been tested in several locations. Checksheets
currently available include: livestock species and have at least one NRCS Grazing Lands Spe-
classes of livestock cialist to carry out this mandate. You can find
· Beef Farm Sustainability Checksheet
have different feed more information about this initiative at www.
· Dairy Farm Sustainability Checksheet
requirements and glci.org/.
· Small Ruminant Sustainability Checksheet
forage preferences.
Call ATTRA to request a printed copy of Most cow-calf opera- On the other hand, improving manage-
any of these checksheets, or download tions, for instance, ment of an existing pasture is usually pref-
them from our Web site at www.attra.org/
have lower forage erable to starting a new one. The cost to
livestock.html.
nutrition and soil seed, till, and control weeds for a new pas-
Page 2 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

3. The animals do not return to a paddock
GOAL OF GOOD GRAZING until the plants have recovered and regrown
MANAGEMENT: to the desired height for grazing (usually six
The maximum number of animals has plenty to eight inches). As a result, the plants have
of good quality forage to graze throughout time to recover, the roots maintain energy
as much of the year as possible. The needs reserves, and the livestock always have high
of the soil, the plants, and the livestock are quality forage.
balanced to achieve this goal.
Knowledge of forage plants and animal-
KEY TOOLS OF GRAZING pasture interaction is necessary to the suc-
MANAGEMENT: cess of this type of grazing plan—and fre-
• Stock density quent attention to both is essential. This is
• Frequency of moves why these programs are often referred to as
• Paddock rest
“management-intensive” grazing systems.
Controlled, intensive, and rotational grazing
are other terms loosely used for this type of
ture is expensive and must be considered.
grazing management. The subject of grazing
Additionally, a producer must consider the
management is covered more completely in
K
cost to keep livestock off the acreage dur- the ATTRA publication Rotational Grazing. nowledge
ing the establishment period. The risk of of forage,
erosion during this transitional period must Rotations can vary from once every cou-
ple of weeks to every 12 hours. Decisions pplants,
also be taken into account. In short, it may
be more economical, and less disruptive to about when to move livestock are based on and animal-pasture
the soil ecology, to improve an existing pas- the seasonal amount of forage available, the interaction is neces-
ture’s forage by introducing desirable spe- rate of forage growth, and the number and sary to the success
cies using no-till seeding methods. type of animals grazing the paddock. The
of a controlled
number and size of paddocks is also consid-
Many pasture problems—such as sparse plant ered. Typically, grazing animals are moved grazing plan.
cover, weed invasion, and slow growth—are quickly through paddocks during periods of
caused by poor grazing management. If this rapid plant growth. In the fall, quick rota-
is the case, establishing a new pasture will tions keep grasses from going to seed and
not solve the problem. Newman Turner, in preserve forage quality. This strategy can
Fertility Pastures and Cover Crops, observes delay for several weeks harvesting of forage
that good grazing management can trans- as hay, allowing for hay to be put up dur-
form poor grazing land into healthy, produc- ing a dryer time of the season. During other
tive pasture. On the other hand, newly re- seasons, the grazed area is usually rested
seeded pastures quickly become poor again long enough for plants to replace carbohy-
drate reserves and to regrow.
under bad management. (1) Thus, a careful
assessment of management practices is usu- A primary strategy of controlled graz-
ally the best place to begin to make forage ing is to use fencing
systems more profitable. and livestock move-
Profit is the difference between the cost of
ment as tools to man-
production and the price received for a prod-
Choosing a Grazing System age forage growth
uct. Most producers do not control the price
and protect it from
Many managers use controlled grazing plans they will receive for their livestock (though
overgrazing. If man- direct or cooperative marketing arrangements
instead of continuous grazing to increase aged well, these sys- provide a measure of control). Lowering the
forage utilization and profits. In a system tems produce more cost of production is a clear means to increase
of controlled rotations, pastures are subdi- forage and the ani- profit. Costs go down as less feed is purchased
vided into paddocks—fenced acreage of any mals always have and as animal health improves. The key to
given size. Livestock is moved between pad- access to tender, profitability is to emphasize a decrease in per-
docks at frequent intervals, giving animals high-quality vegeta- unit costs of production over a simple increase
access to a limited pasture area over a short tion that results from in production.
period of time. controlled grazing.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3

4. Many grazing managers—or graziers—claim becomes more diverse under this type of
that controlled rotational grazing improves grazing system. There is less competition
pastures and the profits to be made from for the same soil minerals, and plants thrive
them. Forage utilization improves even in the specific microclimates where they are
under high stocking rates when the animals best adapted. Producers report that native
are moved at the right times. Livestock grass species and many legumes spontane-
health improves because forage quality ously appear in their pastures as rotational
and quantity is better. Soil fertility is bet- grazing systems are adopted. In fact, many
ter because most nutrients cycle through the advise new graziers to “plant only fence
animals and remain in the paddocks. This posts” in the fi rst three years of intensive
can also reduce the need for purchased fer- rotational grazing, because the plant ecol-
tilizer. (See the ATTRA publication: Nutri- ogy will change—for the better.
ent Cycling in Pastures.) More and better for-
age means more animal production, which After three years of controlled rotational
should result in more profit per acre. grazing, analyze the results. Should new
forages be added to the pasture to meet
A change to controlled grazing involves a specific production or management goals?
A
fter three modest capital investment. (See ATTRA’s If a goal is to extend the grazing season to
Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems reduce feed costs, new species might be
years of
for Controlled Grazing.) This may include added to existing pastures. Special-use pad-
controlled buying and installing electric fence char- docks might also be considered. For exam-
rotational grazing, gers, high-tensile wire fencing, and systems ple, in southern pastures with cool-season
analyze the results. to provide water to each pasture subdivi- grasses, the summer slump is a time of low
sion. A simple system of temporary electric forage production and potential health prob-
fencing may suffice at the outset for many lems, especially from endophyte-infected
producers. Water can be delivered initially fescue. Native grasses or plantings of sum-
in above-ground, UV-stabilized pipe. With mer annuals can fi ll this gap in the grazing
experience, most graziers will settle on how season. In the Midwest, the grazing season
the permanent systems should be confi g-
may be extended into the winter by strip-
ured. For more information on controlled
grazing crop residue. Stockpiled fescue or
grazing call ATTRA at 800-346-9140
other grasses, if carefully rationed, can sup-
(toll-free), or visit the ATTRA Web site at
port several extra months of winter grazing,
www.attra.ncat.org.
even where there is some snow cover. Small
grains offer options for fall, winter, and/or
Changes in the Plant spring grazing, depending on regional cli-
Community mate conditions.
In a continuous-grazing system where ani-
mals are given free choice, they will elimi- Managing Fertility
nate the most nutritious or palatable plant Grazed pastures need less fertilizer than
species, because they graze them repeat- those that are hayed. Animals actually use
edly. Root reserves of these preferred spe- up very few of the nutrients from the plants
cies are eventually exhausted, and the they eat. Most minerals are returned in
plants die out. Fescue, bermudagrass, and animal wastes as part of a natural cycling
white clover persist under continuous graz- of nutrients. Phosphorus is excreted pri-
ing because their growing points remain, marily in manure, and nitrogen and potas-
even when the plants are grazed heavily. sium return in urine and manure. As long
In a controlled-grazing system, animals as wastes are evenly distributed throughout
don’t have access to all the plants in the the grazing area and biological agents such
pasture at one time. Plants are allowed suf- as earthworms, dung beetles, and soil bac-
ficient time to re-grow and restore their root teria are active, the system should be rela-
reserves. Eventually, the plant community tively stable.
Page 4 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

5. Good fertility management includes a regu- by the lab. For example, a recommenda-
lar walk through the paddocks to monitor tion may not be entirely accurate to pro-
pasture production and to see where spe- duce grazing forage if the lab doesn’t take
cific grasses and legumes thrive. Notice into account recycled nutrients by the graz-
that certain plants tend to thrive under cer- ing animals. Lab fertilization recommen-
tain soil moisture and fertility conditions. dations may be over- or underestimated,
The types and locations of weeds can also depending on whether forage is harvested
indicate how a fertility program is working and removed or grazed on site. Use com-
and help identify special situations such as mon sense to interpret soil tests, but keep
wet areas. (2) them to monitor changes in soil chemistry
and nutrient levels.
Conscientious grazing managers record
measurements or estimates of available A special test to determine micronutrient
pasture in each section. Using these fi g- levels may have to be requested. It is good
ures, they budget resources for the future, to check these levels, since they can be
taking into consideration the amount of rest critical to soil—and animal—health. When
needed before the next grazing period, as soils show deficiencies in essential micro-
A
well as the animals’ forage needs. nutrients, supplement either the animals
simple pH
and/or the soil.
Various plants contribute to soil fertility. adjustment
Legumes increase the total nitrogen content Soil organic matter (SOM) is monitored to can increase
of the soil (see discussion below). Deeply determine the general health of the soil
mineral availability
rooted plants such as alfalfa, warm-sea- and its biological residents. You may have
son grasses, trees, and some weeds bring to request and pay extra to include SOM in in most soils.
up other nutrients from deep in the sub- your soil test. On the soil test report, SOM
soil. These nutrients remain in the top lay- includes any living or partially decomposed
ers of the soil when the vegetation decays materials, as well as humus, the fi nal prod-
and then become available to other plants uct of biological activity. When SOM is
nearby. (See Trees in Pasture Systems in relatively high, it contributes nitrogen and
the Appendix for more about the benefits helps make other mineral nutrients more
and potential problems related to trees in available to plants. Adding composted ani-
pastures.) mal manure is one way to increase SOM.
Likewise, leaving a thin layer of organic
Periodic soil tests and forage analyses are
residue on the soil surface contributes to
tools to monitor a pasture’s status. Soil test
SOM, and it shades the soil and feeds the
results indicate the levels of mineral nutri-
soil organisms. (More about soil organic
ents in the soil. Forage analysis is a way
matter can be found in the section below.)
to test whether nutrients present in the
soil are actually being used by the plants. Some simple methods to assess soil char-
Many Extension offices offer forage analy- acteristics require just a shovel and a few
ses; when requesting this service be sure other widely available pieces of equipment.
to specify whether test results will be used The ATTRA publication Assessing the Pas-
to balance a feed ration or for soil fertil- ture Soil Resource describes several tests
ity decisions. Independent laboratories are that can be used periodically for a quick
available if your local Extension doesn’t assessment of the soil.
offer this service. The ATTRA publication
Alternative Soil Testing Laboratories is avail- Soil Amendments
able online or upon request.
Carefully consider whether purchased
Soil test results include fertilizer recommen- amendments are economically justified. If
dations based on information the farmer soils are the limiting factor, buying inputs
provides about field history and planned to improve the soil is a wise, long-term
use. Remember that these recommenda- investment. In such cases, improvement
tions can vary depending on assumptions in soil fertility is key to building a dense,
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5

6. lush, and healthy pasture. Such pasture Another excellent resource to understand
provides good nutrition to grazing animals, fertility in grazing systems is Nutrient
and wastes contribute to further build the Cycling in Forage Systems, the proceed-
productivity of the land. ings of a 1996 conference in Missouri.
A simple pH adjustment can increase min- See Additional Resources (under Joost
eral availability in most soils. Legume and Roberts) for ordering information.
growth in mixed pastures that tend toward ATTRA also offers Sustainable Soil Man-
acidity will benefit, and in turn increase agement and Assessing the Pasture Soil
available nitrogen and add more organic Resource for more on pasture fertility and
matter to the soil. Lime is used to raise the monitoring.
pH, but also is an important source of
Building Organic
calcium. It is also less expensive than Organic Matter
Matter many other purchased fertilizers. The Some recent research has focused on the
ratio of calcium to magnesium and many organisms that make up a healthy soil
These items add potassium is important in itself. See ecosystem. Plant root systems work together
organic matter:
the enclosure “Lime, the Forgotten with tiny plants and animals underground
• Plant roots Fertilizer” for more information on in a complex, highly organized system very
• Plant residues this subject. similar to the one above ground. The soil
Composted animal manure might biological community includes large popu-
• Green manures
also be an excellent investment lations of many species of bacteria, fungi,
• Animal manures
because it adds fertility and benefits nematodes, mites, and other microscopic
• Other organic
soil microbes. However, if manure animals. Balances among the populations
“wastes”
is applied to the same pastures over are maintained by variations in the amount
• Hay and other feed many years, phosphorus can build up. of food available for each part of the sys-
brought in tem. Elaine Ingham, Ph.D, a soil micro-
Excessive phosphorus levels in soils
biologist, has named this system the Soil
These things destroy and the threat of phosphorus-satu-
Foodweb.
organic matter: rated soils leaching soluble phospho-
• Tillage and bare
rus are serious concerns in some parts Ingham offers a service to test soils for
ground of the country. See ATTRA’s Nutrient the presence of various organisms. (3)
Cycling in Pastures for details on the However, she says a grazier can moni-
• Some pesticides
phosphorus cycle and how graziers tor pasture soil health just by testing for
• Compaction can prevent phosphorus pollution of soil organic matter (SOM) content, which
• Continuous surface and ground water. includes carbon contained in living organ-
cropping isms, fresh plant and animal residues, and
One situation where fertilizer pur-
soil humus. This type of test measures the
chases are often appropriate is in
percentage of soil (by weight) that is SOM.
grass dairy operations. Because grass dair-
Because organic matter levels are harder to
ies compete with grain-fed systems, produc-
maintain in warmer, more humid climates,
ers must provide continuous access to the
what constitutes a “high” or “low” percent-
highest feed value forage available. Like-
age varies in different parts of the country.
wise, grass-fi nished meat animals should
Local Extension personnel or soil scientists
have plenty of high-quality pasture to gain
can help defi ne these relative values.
weight quickly and consistently during
the fi nishing period. Both of these enter- A single test establishes a beginning
prises have potential for good profitability point, and subsequent tests show whether
when well managed. Nevertheless, fertilizer soil organic matter is increasing. See the
inputs are justified only if existing pastures box Building Organic Matter for ways to
are under full use. The important point is increase soil organic matter, along with
to base decisions on an analysis that com- practices that decrease it. Avoid practices
pares input costs to the profits or overall that adversely affect the number of earth-
benefits that might be generated. worms in the soil. In fact, counting earth-
Page 6 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

7. worms in a shovelful of soil is an easy way have been planted.) Annual legumes that
for farmers to monitor soil health. Increas- do not produce hard seed must be man-
ing worm numbers indicates progress aged to allow some plants to go to seed
toward the goal of a healthy, biologically every year to keep them in the forage mix.
active soil. Beyond this, providing for the nutritional
and light needs of legumes, along with ade-
Legumes in the Pasture quate rest after harvest, should ensure their
Legumes increase soil fertility, improve persistence.
overall feed value of available forage, and If the legume is established and maintained
extend the grazing season. Bacteria that live at about a third of the total pasture, the
in nodules on the legume roots convert nitro- plants won’t need additional nitrogen fertil-
gen in the air to a form the plant can use. ization. Research at Michigan State Univer-
After the nodules separate from the roots sity shows that different combinations of four
or the plant dies, this nitrogen is available cool-season grasses with three clover spe-
to nearby plants. Even during the growing cies produce, on average, 14 percent more
season, dead leaves fall to the ground and forage than the same grasses grown alone
W
provide extra nitrogen to the pasture sys- and fertilized with 200 pounds per acre of hen
tem. Compared to grasses, legumes have nitrogen. The conclusion is that it doesn’t
higher digestibility and higher mineral and intro-
pay to apply nitrogen to pastures with 30
protein content. percent or greater mix of legumes. (4) ducing
However, it’s hard to estimate legume per- legumes into an
When introducing legumes into an estab-
lished grass pasture, fi rst be sure that mag- centage, because the leaf orientation makes established grass
nesium and potassium levels are suitable. it seem a higher percentage of total forage pasture, first be sure
Then graze the area heavily to set it back. than it actually is. To better estimate overall that magnesium
Many producers use a sod-seeder or other percentage, sample and weigh plants in an and potassium levels
no-till seed drill, but some have had luck area with a lot of legumes.
are suitable.
with frost seeding. This is the practice of Remember, hungry animals introduced to
broadcast seeding in very early spring into highly leguminous or wet legume pastures
areas where the ground alternately thaws may bloat. To prevent this problem, provide
and freezes. Timing must be good to take hay to animals before they access a legume
advantage of these temperature swings. pasture. Certain products on the market
These are conventional practices, and infor- protect livestock from this potentially deadly
mation is widely available about them. physiological condition. Since bloating is
For legumes to prosper in a pasture, the inherited, if you cull susceptible animals,
grass must be kept short enough that you may eventually reduce the problem in
they are not shaded out. Nitrogen fertil- your herd.
izer favors the grass, and you can inad-
vertently reduce the percentage of legumes Managing Weeds
in the pasture mix by adding it. Each In a controlled-grazing system, livestock can
species of legume thrives in a particu- help control tall weeds that re-seed them-
lar pH range, but maintaining it between selves. Because animals have access to a
six and seven favors most legumes. Some limited area for only a short period, they
legumes, such as lespedeza, tolerate more often become less selective in their grazing.
acid conditions. They tend to eat the same weeds—in young,
Many annual clovers produce hard seed tender growth stages—that they reject as the
and will persist in a pasture if allowed to go weeds mature. Many weeds provide good
to seed periodically. (It is this “hard seed” nutrition during this period of palatability.
that accounts for the legumes that seem to Mowing before weeds flower and produce
appear from nowhere in pastures where seed also helps to control them, although
management has changed, but no legumes the cost is higher.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7

8. Conserved Forages vs.
Grazing
Providing good-quality forage throughout
the year saves considerably on feed costs.
Year-round grazing is possible in some parts
of the country and is a realistic goal in some
regions. Many producers, even those in
cold climates, report favorable experiences
with attempts to “outwinter” their livestock.
Adequate feed and shelter from wind and
Photo courtesy of USDA ARS.
moisture are critical. Reports indicate that,
under favorable conditions, animals seem to
Another weed management strategy is to prefer being outside where they can forage
graze different kinds of livestock together. at will.
Sheep will complement grass–eating cattle A sustainable pasture plan should be based
in the pasture by consuming broadleaves, on animals harvesting quality forage for
blossoms, and seeds, while goats prefer themselves as much as possible. Neverthe-
brushy vegetation high in cellulose. Infor- less, when spring pastures produce more
mation about animals’ nutritional require- than livestock can use, machine harvest is
ments and the nutrient content of various one strategy to ensure quality forage later in
forages is available from basic forage and the grazing season.
animal science textbooks. For more informa-
tion on the benefits and challenges of graz- Allan Nation, editor of The Stockman Grass
ing mixed livestock, request the ATTRA Farmer, is fond of questioning the econom-
publication Multispecies Grazing. ics of owning “heavy metal.” It is expen-
sive to maintain equipment and to harvest
A growing number of beneficial insects is forage for hay or silage, so it is sometimes
becoming commercially available to control more economical to buy hay or hire a cus-
thistles and some other perennial weeds. tom baler. However, it can be difficult to
These weed-eating insects are especially find someone to custom harvest and process
adapted to a perennial pasture where habi- spring growth at the optimal time.
tat is not destroyed or disturbed by annual
cultivation. If local sources are unable Another challenge to a spring hay harvest is
to help, ATTRA has information about the weather. A spell of good haying weather,
biological management tools and where if it comes at all, rarely arrives at the per-
to get them. fect time. One option in wet conditions is to
harvest, pack, and seal the excess spring
Tall perennial weeds that livestock do not grass in bunkers for fermentation. Live-
eat can be controlled with the judicious stock, controlled by a single wire of electric
application of a broad-spectrum herbicide, fencing, can then have direct access to the
such as Round-Up®. Hand-held sprayers silage bunkers.
will work, but a wick-type applicator places
the chemical on the targeted weed foliage Some producers advocate baling high-mois-
only. Hand-held wicks are available as well ture hay and wrapping it so that it will fer-
as equipment designed to be pulled behind ment. Baleage, as the product is called, is a
a tractor or four-wheeler. Also on the mar- high-quality feed when properly harvested
ket are backpack flaming devices that actu- and protected from air spoilage. This is one
ally burn the weeds and provide a non-toxic way to harvest on time in wet springs. How-
option to control difficult weeds. ATTRA ever, specialized equipment is expensive for
publications Flame Weeding for Agronomic one producer to own and operate, and rental
Crops and Flame Weeding for Vegetable Crops may not be available. Several producers in
provide more detail about this option. an area with similar needs might recover
Page 8 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

9. some costs through contractual arrange- • fertility
ments among themselves. The amount of • irrigation
plastic used to seal cut forage is a concern
for many farmers as well, since it must be • species selection
disposed of after use. For more information • grazing management
on grass silage or baleage, contact a local These factors can be managed.
Extension office or NRCS personnel.
In summary, conserving forages can help Fertility
manage fast-growing spring pasture, and hay Attention to soil fertility is critically impor-
or silage is useful to carry livestock through tant in irrigated pastures. Pasture establish-
some of the year in most parts of the coun- ment is a key time to ensure soil is ade-
try. However, the goal should be to directly quately fertile for the selected forage species
graze as much as possible to avoid the costs to become established and remain produc-
to harvest and store forage. Custom harvest- tive. During secondary tillage, rock miner-
ing or even buying good hay may be cheaper als, composted manure, or commercial fer-
than maintaining a tractor and implements. tilizers can be incorporated into the soil. In
S
(See the enclosed article by Jim Gerrish on the intermountain regions, it is important ome nutrients
the true cost of hay.) to ensure adequate phosphorus and potas- do leave the
sium before planting, but nitrogen should
pasture sys-
be applied early the second spring. Cool,
Considerations for dry springs are difficult on grass seedlings, tem in the form of
Irrigated Pasture Systems and nitrogen applied at this time may be meat and milk.
appropriated by weeds.
in the Western U.S.
Many regions in the western United States, Apply nitrogen only after the grass stand
including intermountain valleys of the is successfully established. If the stand has
Rocky Mountains, the prairies of the north- a legume component, limit the use of syn-
ern Great Plains, and certain arid regions thetic nitrogen fertilizers. In general, nitro-
of the desert Southwest, experience short gen fertilization favors grass growth, and
grazing seasons due to high elevation, lim- phosphorus fertilization favors legumes.
ited moisture, or a combination of both. Yearly applications of 20 to 50 pounds
Livestock producers in these regions fi nd per acre of phosphorus can significantly
it particularly important to manage forage increase alfalfa yields and stand persis-
and pasture in the most efficient way pos- tence in areas deficient in phosphorus. Soil
sible. By integrating irrigated pasture with tests are fairly reliable to gauge phospho-
dryland pasture, range, and hay aftermath, rus needs, but again, modern soil testing
the grazing season can be lengthened and assumes the forage will be harvested and
livestock provided with high yields of qual- fed on site. Don’t underestimate the utility
ity forage. of the mineral fraction of nutrients in the
soil, and the natural nutrient cycle that sup-
ports pasture ecology.
The Essentials
Conventional wisdom holds that one acre Whereas most soil nutrients are cycled back
to the soil in a grazing system, some nutri-
of irrigated pasture in most intermountain
ents do leave the pasture system in the form
valleys provides enough forage for twelve
of meat and milk. More information on fer-
cow-calf pairs for one month. But unpro-
tility and nutrient cycling can be found in
ductive irrigated pastures are more the
the ATTRA publication A Brief Overview of
norm, and few producers maintain pasture
Nutrient Cycling in Pastures.
to its full potential. Productive irrigated
pastures are usually the result of success- Irrigation can also have an effect on nutri-
ful management of several production fac- ent cycling. Coarse, porous soils do not
tors, including: retain water as readily as heavier soils, and
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9

10. heavy irrigation can leach nutrients into the Understanding the basics of soil-water
groundwater. If the pasture has any slope dynamics helps producers make deci-
to it, nutrients can leave in runoff. Ditches, sions on when to irrigate, especially in
dikes, and proper irrigation scheduling can areas where water is scarce or energy
alleviate this problem. costs for pumping are high. The Agrimet
system (see Web Resources) is an excel-
Grass-legume mixes provide good pasture
lent resource for producers making irri-
productivity and animal nutrition and aid
nutrient cycling and pasture fertility. Pas- gation scheduling decisions. In addition,
tures with a heavy clover component can the Natural Resource Conservation Ser-
produce up to 200 pounds of nitrogen per vice (USDA-NRCS) district offices have
acre per year, and can supply 6 to 12 per- access to each county’s soil information
cent of the nitrogen needs of companion and can assist producers to determine the
grass plants during the growing year. Given water holding capacity of soil types on
these prospects, a producer can optimize area farms. The Irrigator’s Pocket Guide,
the use of soluble and organic soil nutri- developed by NCAT for the NRCS, is an
ents by relying on plant species diversity excellent resource with timely information
on irrigation scheduling, system capacity,
N
and nutrient cycling from manure, urine,
ever and plant senescence to supply a large por- and general water management. It includes
irrigate and tion of pasture soil fertility. More detailed fi gures, forms, and tables to design and
graze at the information on this subject can be found manage water systems more efficiently.
in the sections Managing Fertility and The Pocket Guide has useful information
same time.
Organic Matter. for most areas. It can be ordered from
ATTRA by calling 800-346-9140. Other
ATTRA publications on irrigation include:
Irrigation Soil Moisture Monitoring: Low-Cost Tools
Efficient water use is crucial for sustainable and Methods and Measuring and Conserv-
irrigated pasture management. Irrigated ing Irrigation Water.
pastures require about 24 inches of water
per growing season. What is not supplied Always remember to irrigate a pasture
by precipitation needs to be made up with immediately after the livestock have been
efficient irrigation. Grasses and legumes moved, and never irrigate and graze at
require about 0.20 and 0.25 inches of water the same time. Hoof action on wet soil can
per day respectively throughout the growing destroy its structure, resulting in compac-
season. So, frequency of irrigation depends tion and decreased soil productivity for
on soil texture and, in turn, on water hold- years to come.
ing capacity of the soil.
Heavier (clay) soils hold more water, up to Species Selection
2.5 inches per foot of rooting depth, and The importance of choosing the right
coarser (sandy) soils hold less water, around plants to use in an irrigated pasture
0.75 inches per foot. Pastures have an effec- cannot be overstated. The high cost of
tive moisture depletion allowance of about irrigation, including initial equipment
65 percent, which means plants begin to purchase, energ y, and maintenance
suffer stress after 65 percent of the soil’s demand that a producer select the most
water-holding capacity has been depleted. productive plant species for the region.
For example, pasture soil with a water hold- In some situations, short season prob-
ing capacity of 1.5 inches per foot, and a lems and low yields can be addressed
rooting depth of four feet, can hold a total of though proper species selection. Choose
six inches of water. At a 65 percent deple- long-lived, winter-hardy forage plants
tion allowance, 3.9 inches remains available adapted to your specific soil type. Plants
to the plants. If the plants use 0.25 inches should be capable of high yields and have
per day, an irrigation event that saturates the genetic potential to withstand grazing
the soil will last about 15 days. and regrow quickly.
Page 10 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

11. Species diversity is also important, as was excellent sources of information for anyone
discussed in detail earlier. Greater produc- growing pastures and forages in the inter-
tivity and increased biodiversity are fostered mountain West or northern Great Plains. A
through grass-legume mixes. A grass com- list of forage species for Montana and Wyo-
ponent in a legume pasture can also mini- ming—widely adapted to irrigated pastures
mize health problems associated with bloat. in many western states—is enclosed.
Some non-bloating legume species include
cicer milkvetch, sainfoin, and birdsfoot tre- Forage Cropping Systems to
foil. For the intermountain West, a mixture Extend the Grazing Season
of two grasses and one legume provide as
many, or more, benefits to pasture produc- Many western ranchers grow alfalfa hay to
tivity as do more diverse pastures in higher provide high quality feed to late-gestation
and calving cows in the winter. Most alfalfa
rainfall areas.
fields remain productive for six to eight
Choose the right species for the mix, how- years in the intermountain West. As sward
ever, because species that mature at dif- density diminishes, the stand is generally
ferent times can result in low quality for- terminated and placed into small grains for
age. Creeping foxtail and timothy are both a year or two. This rotation has its benefits.
excellent irrigated pasture grasses, but fox- Tillage and crop differentiation allows the
tail matures several weeks before timothy. producer to break the pest cycle. And ter-
Red clovers and vetches usually do not per- mination of an alfalfa field offers an oppor-
sist as well as alsike clover, white clover, tunity to augment ranch forage assets with
and alfalfa in the intermountain regions. quality pasture while extending the grazing
Some good substitutes for alfalfa in irri- season as well.
gated pastures are sainfoin and birdsfoot For example, a producer might terminate
trefoil, which, unlike alfalfa, are tolerant of the alfalfa and plant winter wheat in the
high water tables. A very common seed mix fall, and then overseed the field with annual
for irrigated pastures in the intermountain ryegrass in the spring. The wheat can be
West is meadow brome, orchardgrass, and taken as grain, silage, or hay in the sum-
alfalfa. mer, allowing the ryegrass to grow for late
Warm-season grasses are sometimes a good summer and fall grazing. The same can be
choice for the Southwest and Great Plains, done with spring-planted barley. The result
and can result in substantial livestock gains
and milk production when managed inten-
sively. Warm-season annuals such as sor-
ghum and sudangrass are good choices for
rotational or strip grazing, and are very
good if the pasture is used in a crop rota-
tion. Cool-season grasses such as brome,
ryegrasses, timothy, and cereals are often
higher in digestibility and crude protein,
and are more adapted to intermountain,
inland Pacific Northwest, and Great Plains
regions.
Check with your local county Extension
office or conservation district for recommen- Photo by Lee Rinehart
dations on forage species particular to your
area. For general purposes, please refer to
Fertility and species selection are important. But the single most important factor
the Alberta Forage Manual and the Inter- to increase production on irrigated fields is a workable grazing management sys-
mountain Planting Guide cited at the end tem that meets the nutritional needs of livestock and maintains the pasture sward
of this publication. These two guides are in the vegetative stage throughout the grazing season.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11

12. of this cropping system is a high quality pas- However, for the producer who wishes to
ture that can be intensively managed with scale back on hay production, the irrigated
high stocking rates, thereby resting native meadows can be used for grazing during
pastures that might otherwise be grazed the the growing season, and upland meadows
same time each year. that consist of bunch grasses like Altai
Other systems that work well to extend the wildrye can be stockpiled for winter feed.
grazing season: Altai wildrye typically remains a high qual-
ity forage well into the dormant season, and
• Stockpiling perennial grass or large bunch grass type holds up well under
legume forage for fall grazing. a snowload.
• Early season grazing of winter wheat Producers who choose to develop a rotational
and subsequent grain harvest. grazing system on their irrigated meadows
• Planting perennial grass pastures for can realize better animal gains per acre and
use as winter standing forage, e.g., reduced feed costs associated with feeding
Altai wildrye, which maintains qual- the cow herd in the winter. See the ATTRA
ity well when dormant and stands up publication Rotational Grazing for a general
under a snow load. introduction to this type of grazing system.
For most cool-season bunchgrass species,
Grazing Management 18 to 27 days rest is adequate for substan-
Complementary grazing is a system in which tial regrowth without allowing the plants
livestock are grazed in annual or perennial to become too mature. A problem that can
seeded pastures in the spring and fall, and occur in short-season regions is forage matur-
are taken to native range in the summer ing in the last pastures to be grazed before
when the native grasses are in their prime. the livestock get to it. To deal adequately with
This system uses each pasture when it is at this situation a producer might turn livestock
its peak in quality and quantity, and it is in to the first pasture early, maintain a quick
commonly used in western states to supple- rotation, and then slow it down as the season
ment range and extend the grazing season. progresses. A good formula to estimate an
Within this context, western producers are initial pasture stocking rate is:
familiar with continuous grazing. The size number of animals =
and scope of grazing units, coupled with Pasture size (ac) x pasture yield (lb/ac)
the use of public grazing allotments, often 0.036 x avg. animals wt(lbs) x grazing season (days)
preclude fencing and other necessary infra-
structure to support intensively managed For example, assume a producer has a 50-
rotaional grazing. In addition, most produc- acre irrigated pasture of orchardgrass,
ers who graze irrigated meadows also hay meadow brome, and alsike clover. A reason-
them once or twice during the growing sea- able expectation of dry matter yield in the
son, and only graze intermountain West is 2.5 tons per acre, or
them for hay after- 5000 pounds per acre. If the producer wants
math. For this rea- to graze 800-pound yearlings for 90 days,
son, irrigated mead- the calculations to figure the stocking rate on
ows tend not to be an early turn-out to maximize irrigated pas-
managed intensively ture use is:
for grazing, as they number of animals =
are seen to be more 50 acres x 5,000 lb/ac
valuable for winter 0.036 x 800 lbs x 90 days
feed than for sum-
mer grazing. After Again, a rapid grazing rotation during the
all, that is what the early season is important to consider. At
Photo courtesy of USDA, NRCS
mountain meadows higher elevations, spring temperatures can
are for. dip to freezing each night, slowing grass
Page 12 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

13. growth. Hitting the pastures too hard too Sustaining Excellent Pastures
early can impede the system’s ability to Maintaining a productive plant community
rebound and deliver good forage produc- that can profitably feed livestock requires
tion later in the summer. Another approach attention to the soil, the plants, and the live-
is to decrease the stocking rate until nights stock. Each of these alone contributes to
become warmer and forage production excellent pastures, but even more impor-
begins in earnest. Like any rotational graz- tantly, each affects the others. Too often,
ing system, controlled grazing in the West farmers attribute problems in a grazing sys-
requires observation, observation, and more tem to the wrong forage species or inade-
observation. The Chinese proverb holds true quate fertility, when poor animal-plant-soil
here: “The best fertilizer for the land is the management is the real culprit. Bringing in a
footprint of the farmer.” new species or adding fertilizer rarely solves
problems caused by an inattentive manager.
A Word about Dragging and How you manage your grazing livestock,
however, makes a big difference in pasture
Harrowing Pastures improvement. This improved pasture like-
C
Avoid using irrigated pastures to winter feed wise contributes to better health of those an you
hay unless you plan to renovate, drag, or same animals.
harrow in the spring. Feeding grounds are identify the
subject to soil compaction because of the If you don’t already know your soil, get maps plants in
and learn about soil types. Use soil test
large numbers of animals that congregate your pastures?
results to decide what amendments to apply.
there over the winter. Harrowing pastures to
Is your soil organic matter level high or low
distribute manure, although not always cost-
for your climate? Is it increasing under your
effective, is often recommended in short-sea- management?
son regions, at least once at the beginning
of the growing season. In cold regions with Can you identify the plants in your pas-
short growing seasons, nutrients cycle in the tures? Are they perennial or annual? Do you
soil at a much slower rate than in more tem- know how best to graze these plants? What
perate regions. Manure piles therefore tend are their soil requirements? How tall should
to break down slower, and dragging can they be when you begin to graze and at what
break them up, increasing surface area and, height should animals be removed?
it is thought, aiding in decomposition. How do your animals look and behave? Are
they alert with bright eyes and smooth coats?
Summary Are they skittish or calm? Can you move
Sustainable livestock production in the west- them without a lot of stress?
ern U.S., as in all regions, requires ranches Continually monitor your pastures. Are they
and farms to rely more on green growing lush and dense? Is there evidence of soil ero-
forages as the primary feed for the opera- sion? Are there many over-mature plants?
tion. Careful attention to fertility, efficient Have certain areas been grazed too short?
irrigation, and grazing season extension Is there some dead plant residue on the
through appropriate forage cropping sys- soil surface, but not too much? Is leaf color
tems are effective ways to lower production an even, strong green? Are there plenty of
costs, reduce off-farm inputs, and build soil legumes in the species mix (about 30 per-
resources. In addition, paying attention to cent by dry weight)? Does the soil feel soft
species selection and implementing a well- and springy underfoot? Do you have plenty
organized and suitable grazing management of feed for your animals throughout the graz-
system fosters continued resource use in per- ing season, or are there times (mid-summer?
petuity, aids in the financial well-being of the late fall?) when you need more?
operation, and ensures that ranching remains Good grazing management is different for
a viable livelihood for the next generation. each livestock operation. Stock density, fre-
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13

14. quency of moves, forage residual, and plant animals, and the plants can be useful later
resting periods are decisions that you make as you analyze records. For instance, when
based on goals and preferences. Watch and a particular weed species becomes unpalat-
record what happens as you change one of able or when clover begins to bloom may be
these factors. These observations will help valuable to know.
you, as time goes by, to become a better gra-
zier. Try to understand what causes changes Financial records further help you under-
that you see in the soil, plants, or the animals stand and improve the overall grazing sys-
in your pastures. Each constantly affects the tem. Keep track of how much fertilizer
others, and the more you learn about how you use, when it was applied, and how
they interact, the more control you will have much it cost. Are there application costs?
Putting it all together
over your pasture system. What other expenses are there? Veteri-
in a grazing system
narian bills, custom services, herbicides,
for your specific site As an example, according to Jim Gerrish, and mowing or dragging expenses should
is a challenge that stock density can be used to affect pasture be included in the record-keeping sys-
may take years of quality, to cycle nutrients, and to regulate tem. Were animals shipped or brought in?
observation and forage intake. One expected result of increas- When? And for how much?
creative problem- ing the stock density is that after the animals
solving. There is no leave a paddock, forage height will become Whether you use a shirt-pocket notepad
one way to do it. more uniform. or a computer program, these records are
Keep learning more central to understand and improve the effi-
Since many of the effects of individual deci-
about your forages
sions will not yield such obvious results, con- ciency and profitability of a grazing sys-
and livestock. Seek
tinually seek out more information about tem. However, as the manager, you must
ideas from other
intensive grazing. Excellent books, some take time periodically to analyze records.
innovators and test What have you done and when? How well
them. Implement periodicals, many workshops, and even local
field days can help you learn more. A list of has it worked? Were there unexpected out-
those that work. comes? Try to fi gure out what happened.
Keep fine-tuning written materials and electronic resources is
found in Resources. The best-laid plans will not be perfect—
the system. The
especially at fi rst. Outside factors such
result will be better Consult with another rancher or join a pro- as the weather and the markets further
pastures that better ducer group to learn more about grazing. complicate situations.
sustain your live- Many such grazier groups provide informa-
stock and you. tion and support to improve members’ sys- As has often been said, there is never an
tems. Typically, groups include beginners as average year. The most successful manag-
well as those with years of experience. Activ- ers are constantly on the alert, ready to
ities range from gathering periodically and identify problems as they develop—such
walking one another’s pastures, to meetings as thinning pastures or declining live-
with speakers, and seminars. See ATTRA’s stock health. Good managers are prepared
Grazing Networks for Livestock Producers for with a plan for every contingency: years of
further information about these groups and drought or flood, selling or retaining stock
how to start one. State forage specialists during different parts of the price cycles,
(either Extension or NRCS) should help you and the unexpected loss of labor. For exam-
locate a nearby group, if there is one. ple: When a drought sets in, will destock-
Photo courtesy
Keep records of grazing activities. Keep ing or buying feed best serve your goals?
of USDA ARS.
notes on how many and what types of Which animals should be culled fi rst, and
animals graze each paddock. Write how can they be marketed most profitably?
down when they enter and when they Are there steps you can take to reduce
leave. Notes about forage heights at entry the negative impacts of the drought?
and removal, as well as estimates of the Planning along these lines will be appre-
amount of forage consumed (pounds per ciated when the situation is at hand. See
acre or some other consistent measure), further information about drought man-
help determine overall forage produc- agement by searching on “drought” at the
tion. Other comments about the soil, the ATTRA Web site, www.attra.ncat.org.
Page 14 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

15. Related ATTRA Publications
Rotational Grazing Meeting the Nutritional Needs of Ruminants on Pasture
Grass-Based and Seasonal Dairying Multispecies Grazing
Dairy Farm Sustainability Checksheet Sustainable Soil Management
Sustainable Beef Production Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource
Beef Farm Sustainability Checksheet Nutrient Cycling in Pastures
Sustainable Sheep Production A Brief Overview of Nutrient Cycling in Pastures
Goats: Sustainable Production Overview Beef Marketing Alternatives
Small Ruminant Sustainability Checksheet Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems for Controlled
Grazing
Matching Livestock and Forage Resources in
Controlled Grazing Grazing Networks for Livestock Producers
References: Gerrish, Jim. 1999. Strategies for pasture improve-
ment. Forage Systems Update. January 1. p. 1-3.
1. Turner, Newman. 1974. Fertility Pastures Gunnink, Doug. 1993. Gross margin analysis helps
and Cover Crops. 2nd ed. Bargyla and Gylver show the way to grazing profits. The Stockman Grass
Rateaver, Pauma Valley, CA. p. 18. Farmer. April. p. 14-15.
2. Murphy, Bill. 1987. Greener Pastures On Your Holzworth, L., and J. Lacey. 1991. Species Selec-
Side of the Fence. Arriba Publishing, Colchester, tion, Seeding Techniques, and Management of Irri-
VT. p. 207-212. gated Pastures in Montana and Wyoming. p. 9-12. In:
3. Elaine Ingham Irrigated Pastures in Montana and Wyoming. EB 99.
Soil Foodweb, Inc. MSU Extension Service, Bozeman, MT.
980 Northwest Circle Blvd.
Corvallis, OR 97330 Hoveland, Carl S. 2001. Know your forages…clover.
541-752-5066 The Stockman Grass Farmer. January. p. 10-11.
www.soilfoodweb.com/
Joost, Richard. 1997. Pasture soil fertility manage-
4. Leep, Rich, and Doo-Hong Min. 2005. Clovers ment. p. 35-46. In: Gerrish, Jim, and Craig Roberts
beat commercial N in Michigan studies. The (eds.). 1997. Missouri Grazing Manual. University
Forage Leader. Spring. p. 11. of Missouri, Columbia, MO. 172 p.
5. Engle, Cindy. 2002. Wild Health: How Animals
Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn Martyn, Roger. 1994. Lime, the forgotten fertilizer.
From Them. Houghton Miffl in Company, The Stockman Grass Farmer. March. p. 14.
New York, NY. 276 p.
Mueller, Ray. 1999. Pasture fertilizing practices vary
Enclosures according to goals, needs.
Anon. 2001. The grass farmer’s bookshelf. The Sheath, G.W., R.J.M. Hay, and K.H. Giles. 1987.
Stockman Grass Farmer. June. p. 19–22. Managing pastures for grazing animals. p. 65–74.
Barnhart, Stephen K. 1999. Selecting Forage Spe- In: Livestock Feeding on Pasture, New Zealand Soci-
cies. University Extension, Iowa State University, ety of Animal Production Occasional Publication No.
Ames, IA. 4 p. 10. Private Bag, Hamilton, NZ.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15

16. Resources Web sites also provide information useful to graziers.
Although these sites are constantly changing, and
The Stockman Grass Farmer (see Periodicals, below) is there are more each week, several are listed below.
an excellent monthly publication that covers alterna- Be sure to check the sites of nearby land-grant univer-
tive forages and innovative management. Many of the sities. Rotational grazing systems are becoming ever
articles are written by producers and contain practi- more accepted in the mainstream. Extension materi-
cal tested ideas. (Be warned: evaluate each new prac- als tailored to your state will contain information use-
tice before committing resources to it.) The commer- ful to both the beginner and the experienced grazier.
cial and classified ads offer services and supplies that
grass farmers need and that may be difficult to find Additional Resources
locally. A free sample issue is available to those who
call or write to request it. Books: Irrigated pastures in the western U.S.
Alberta Forage Manual. 1992. Print Media Branch,
Graze (see Periodicals, below) is another outstanding Alberta Agriculture, 7000-113 Street, Edmonton,
monthly that includes articles on all aspects of graz- Alberta, Canada. 86 p.
ing, pasture management, and marketing. In a regu-
lar feature, five or more “grazing advisors” answer a Heitschmidt, Rodney K., and Jerry W. Stuth. 1991.
question posed by the editor. These advisors, each an Grazing Management: An Ecological Perspective.
active grazing operation manager, represent a variety Timber Press, Portland, OR. 259 p.
of livestock types and geographical locations. Intermountain Planting Guide. USDA-ARS and Utah
Holistic Management® (formerly Holistic Resource State University Extension. AG 510. Contact USU
Management or HRM) is a decision-making process Extension for ordering information at 435-797-2251.
that was originally developed for livestock manage-
Books: General pasture management
ment on range. Currently, many farmers and ranch-
Ball, Donald M., Carl S. Hoveland, and Gary D. Lace-
ers use this model as a monitoring tool to evaluate
field. 1996. Southern Forages. Potash and Phos-
options when planning changes to their operations.
phate Institute and the Foundation for Agronomic
Contact the Center for Holistic Management for
Research, Atlanta, GA. 264 p.
information and referrals to state organizations and
regional representatives. The Center also offers a Barnes, Robert F., Darrell A. Miller, and C. Jerry
quarterly newsletter. Nelson (eds.). 1995. Forages: The Science of Grass-
land Agriculture. 5th ed. Vols. 1 and 2. Iowa State
The Allan Savory Center for Holistic Management University Press, Ames, IA. 516 p. and 357 p.,
1010 Tijeras NW respectively.
Albuquerque, NM 87102
800-654-3619 Bingham, Sam, with Allan Savory. 1990. Holistic
www.holisticmanagement.org/ Resource Management Workbook. Island Press, Cov-
elo, CA. 182 p.
Many electronic resources are now available to those Blaser, Roy E. 1986. Forage-Animal Management
with access to a computer. Of particular interest are the Systems. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station
interactive listserves used by various livestock ranch- Bulletin. Virginia Polytechnic University, Blacksburg,
ers. One that is not species-specific is the graze-l list- VA. 90 p. [This publication is out of print but is
serve. To subscribe, send a message containing the well worth the effort to locate at land-grant university
words “subscribe graze-l” and your e-mail address libraries or through Interlibrary loan.]
to listserv@taranaki.ac.nz. There are lists specific
to many grazing species as well. Beef-l, dairy-l, and Chessmore, Roy A. 1979. Profitable Pasture Man-
sheep-l sometimes address issues related to pasture– agement. The Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc.,
raised livestock. It is possible to ask questions and to Danville, IL. 424 p.
network with other producers through these and other Gerrish, James R., and Craig Roberts. 1999. 1997
lists. However, because details on individuals and their Missouri Grazing Manual. Forage Systems Research
specific situations may be lacking, advice received on Center Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
electronic lists should be carefully evaluated. Missouri. 163 p.
Page 16 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

17. Hodgson, John. 1990. Grazing Management: Science Savory, Allan, and Jody Butterfield. 1999. Holistic
into Practice. Longman Handbooks in Agriculture. Management: A New Framework for Decision Making.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 203 p. Island Press, Covelo, CA. 616 p.
Hodgson, J., and A.W. Illius (eds.). 1996. The Ecol- Turner, Newman. 1974. Fertility Pastures and Cover
ogy and Management of Grazing Systems. CAB Inter- Crops. Bargyla and Bylver Rateaver, Pauma Valley,
national, Wallingford, UK. 466 p. CA. 202 p.
Joost, Richard E., and Craig A. Roberts. 1996. Voisin, Andre. 1988. Grass Productivity (reprint).
Nutrient Cycling in Forage Systems. Proceedings of a Island Press, Covelo, CA. 353 p.
conference March 7-8, 1996, Columbia, MO. Potash
and Phosphate Institute and Foundation for Agronomic Wilkinson, J.M. 1984. Milk and Meat From Grass.
Research, Manhattan, KS. 243 p. Granada, New York, NY. 149 p.
Available for $15 from:
Potash and Phosphate Institute Periodicals
772 22nd Avenue S. The Forage Leader
Brookings, SD 57006 American Forage and Grassland Council
605-692-6280 P.O. Box 891
Georgetown, TX 78627
Langer, R.H.M. 1990. Pastures: Their Ecology and
800-944-2342
Management. Oxford University Press, New York,
NY. 499 p. Graze
Murphy, Bill. 1998. Greener Pastures on Your Side P.O. Box 48
of the Fence: Better Farming With Voisin Grazing Belleville, WI 53508
Management (4th ed.). Arriba Publishing, Colchester, www.grazeonline.com
VT. 379 p. $30 for 1 year subscription (10 issues)
Available for $30 from: Hay and Forage Grower
Arriba Publishing Webb Division
213 Middle Rd. Intertec Publishing Corp.
Colchester, VT 05446 9800 Metcalf
Nation, Allan. 1993. Grass Farmers. Green Park Overland Park, KS 66212-2215
Press, Jackson, MS. 192 p. The Stockman Grass Farmer
Nation, Allan. 1992. Pa$ture Profit$ with $tocker 282 Commerce Park Drive
Cattle. Green Park Press, Jackson, MS. 190 p. Ridgeland, MS 39157
800-748-9808 (toll-free)
Nation, Allan. 1995. Quality Pasture: How to Create www.stockmangrassfarmer.com
It, Manage It, and Profit from It. Green Park Press,
Jackson, MS. 285 p.
Electronic Resources: General pasture management,
Ness, Julia Ahlers (ed.). 1998. The Monitoring Tool southern and eastern pastures
Box. The Land Stewardship Project, White Bear [Note that these addresses change often.]
Lake, MN. 45 p. The Great Lakes Grazing Network
Available for $45 from: www.glgn.org/
Land Stewardship Project
2200 Fourth St. Cornell Forage-Livestock System
White Bear Lake, MN 55110 www.css.cornell.edu/forage/forage.html
651-653-0618
www.landstewardshipproject.org Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences
Publications
Nicol, A.M. (ed.). 1987. Livestock Feeding on Pas- http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/Subject.html
ture. Occasional Publication No. 10. New Zealand
Society of Animal Production. Private Bag, Hamilton, American Farmland Trust’s Grassfarmer Site
New Zealand. 145 p. http://grassfarmer.com
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17

18. University of Wisconsin Forage and Extension Links AgriMet is a network of more than 90 automated
www.uwex.edu/ces/forage/links.htm weather stations that collect and telemeter site-
Forage Systems Research Center specific weather data. This information is trans-
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/Subject.htmlaes.missouri.edu/fsrc lated into crop-specific water use information.
The primary emphasis is on irrigation manage-
Tom Trantham’s Twelve Aprils Dairying ment and applying the right amount of water at
www.griffin.uga.edu/sare/twelve/trantham.html the optimal time.
Modern Forage Seeds
www.modernforage.com/clasroom.htm Electronic Listservers
Graze-L
Sustainable Farming Connection’s Grazing Page To subscribe send an e-mail to
www.ibiblio.org/farming-connection/grazing/home.htm majordomo@taranaki.ac.nz or listserv@taranaki.ac.nz.
In the body of the e-mail, type “subscribe graze-l”
Electronic Resources: Western irrigated
pastures The Grazer’s Edge
Holzworth, L., and J. Lacey. 1991. Species Selec- To subscribe send an e-mail to
tion, Seeding Techniques, and Management of Irri- grazersedge-subscribe@onelist.com.
gated Pastures in Montana and Wyoming. Montana In the body of the e-mail, type “subscribe
State University Extension. EB 99. 17 p. grazersedge.”
http://animalrangeextension.montana.edu/articles/
Forage/grasses/mteb99.pdf APPENDIX: Trees in Pasture Systems
Small Pasture Management Guide for Utah. USDA/ Trees in a pasture provide several services, but they
NRCS, Utah State University Extension, and Utah can also be challenging. They affect soil fertility, hold
State Conservation Districts. 11 p. http://extension.usu. surface soil in place, give livestock relief from the sun
edu/files/agpubs/Pasture.pdf and the wind, and change water relations. They can
supplement other feed sources, increase wildlife habi-
Interagency Forage and Conservation Planting Guide tat, and become an additional source of income.
for Utah. Edited by Howard Horton, USDA/ARS.
Utah State University Extension. AG-433. 79 p. Trees gather nutrients from a large area to sustain both
http://extension.usu.edu/files/agpubs/ag433.pdf above- and below-ground parts and deposit those nutri-
ents on the soil surface. Tree roots go deep into the soil
Lundin, F. 1996. Coastal Pastures in Oregon and and spread underground at least as far as the edge of
Washington. Oregon State University. the leaf canopy. When the leaves fall, the microorgan-
EM 8645. 8 p. isms in the top layer of the soil convert them into nutri-
http://eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/EM8645.pdf ent forms to be used again by the tree and by nearby
Frost, B. and M. Schneider. 1994. Establishing irri- forage plants. Tree roots continually grow and die. The
gated pasture at 4000- to 6000-foot elevations in Ari- dead roots are broken down in the soil and contribute
zona. Arizona Cooperative Extension. #194028. 6 p. directly to organic matter, increasing water retention
http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/natresources/az9428.pdf and improving soil structure.
Redmon, L. 2003. Forage Establishment, Manage- Shade trees in pastures can be a benefit, but they can
ment, and Utilization Fundamentals. Texas Coopera- also create problems. It is cooler under the trees, and
tive Extension. SCS-2003-07. 8 p. livestock tend to congregate there. These areas become
http://forages.tamu.edu/PDF/scs-2003-07.pdf nutrient sinks. That is, nutrients gathered during graz-
ing are later deposited under the trees as waste. This
Water Quality and Irrigation Management. Depart- nutrient transfer from open pasture to under the trees
ment of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences. reduces pasture productivity. These and other areas of
Montana State University.
high animal concentration or repeated use (like around
http://waterquality.montana.edu
water and minerals) also tend to accumulate parasites,
The Great Plains Cooperative Agricultural Weather which then reinfest the livestock. Livestock concentrat-
Network. U.S. Dept. of the Interior. ing around a tree can also lead to compaction around
www.usbr.gov/gp/agrimet/index.cfm the root zone and result in the loss of a tree.
Page 18 ATTRA Pastures: Sustainable Management

19. Although no studies have shown that providing shade
for livestock results in a production benefit, most pro-
ducers like to make it available for the comfort of the
animals. The “shademobile” is an innovative idea, pro-
moted by Joel Salatin, designed to use shade to con-
trol where nutrients will be redeposited. It is an open-
sided structure with a canvas or shade cloth cover that
is towed by a tractor from paddock to paddock. Moving
the shade around constantly changes the loafi ng area
and controls where manure is deposited, while prevent-
ing parasite build-up.
Windbreaks in or around pastures should be planned
to provide shelter from cold or hot, drying winds and
to protect newborns from harsh weather. Windbreaks ©2006 clipart.com
that include several species of shrubs and trees become
valuable wildlife habitat. The resulting wildlife create Although trees require additional care and manage-
an opportunity for spin-off enterprises such as lease ment, they can provide a long-term source of additional
hunting or bird-watching. income. With good management–particularly attention
Plants and animals make their homes in all levels of to marketing–both nuts and thinnings provide sources
tree canopies and understories. The birds help control of income before the final timber harvest.
insect pests, and some eat weed seeds. Larger pred- While the trees are still young, row crops may be grown
atory birds help control small-mammal populations. between them. When the canopy begins to close, and
Birds roosting in trees even add their phosphorus-rich light is inadequate for row crops, forage crops can be
droppings to the nutrient cycle. This biological diversity grown for hay. When the trees are large enough that
increases the stability of the ecosystem and mediates they can’t be damaged by livestock, the area can be
against the disasters that monocultures are subject to. directly grazed. This reduces mowing costs while con-
To avoid the problems associated with shade, some tributing to fertility for tree and forage growth.
farmers fence the tree area so that animals can’t use Small trees need protection from livestock and deer.
the area at all. Or you can remove trees’ lower limbs, Deer, like domestic livestock, browse on young tree
so the shaded area moves across the pasture as the sun growth and will eat any parts that they can reach,
crosses the sky, and animals must move to follow it. The threatening the survival of young trees. An alleyway
result is a more uniform pattern of waste distribution. with electric fencing on either side of seedling rows will
Trees can reduce erosion on hilly land. If planted in provide protection. You can buy plastic tubes that fit
strips along the contour, they create a natural terrac- around each sapling and guard the young tree from
ing effect. Over time, organic matter will accumulate grazing and wind. New tube designs with ventilating
along the line of trees, and the slope will become more holes to allow for air circulation prevent the increased
productive and stable. As an added advantage in dry pest and disease problems encountered with earlier
seasons, more water is stored underground in these ter- designs.
raced systems. Information on all types of agroforestry practices
On the other hand, when they are planted in wet areas, is available in the ATTRA publication Agroforestry
trees collect water in their extensive root systems Overview.
and “pump” it out through the leaves by transpiration. Many trees and shrubs produce seeds, leaves, or nuts
Poplars and eucalyptus have been used to reduce sur- that supplement existing forages and provide valuable
face salinity in areas where water lies too close to the feed during certain times of the year. Because trees
surface. and shrubs are perennials with long life expectancies,
Agroforestry is a term applied to farm systems that few annual costs are associated with their continued
intentionally integrate trees as an additional enter- productivity. Fodder trees—such as locusts, willows,
prise or for their environmental services. Nut trees or some poplars, leucaena, and tagaste—have potential
high-value timber are especially popular in pastures. for either seasonal or year-round browsing. In some
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19

20. cases, seasonal cutting back to the trunk will produce is used by the tree, but when the leaves die, they add to
tender shoots that are more palatable and easily acces- the total nitrogen in the pasture system.
sible to the animals that browse them directly, but if
animals have continuous access, they may exhaust Traditional beliefs hold that animals will select a diet
root reserves and kill the trees. In some regions, tree according to their needs, if they have access to a wide
fodder is considered an emergency feed for unusually variety of plants, including shrubs and trees in the pas-
dry seasons. ture or hedgerow. When appropriate species are avail-
Like forage legumes, leguminous trees such as black able, livestock may select them to self-medicate for their
locust and honey locust fi x nitrogen. Rhizobial bacteria health problems. Cindy Engel in Wild Health: How Ani-
live closely with their roots, converting nitrogen from mals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn
the air into a form that the trees can use. The nitrogen From Them (5) explores this idea in some detail.
Pastures: Sustainable Management
By Alice Beetz and Lee Rinehart
NCAT Agriculture Specialists
©2006 NCAT
Paul Driscoll, Editor
Amy Smith, Production
This publication is available on the Web at:
www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/sustpast.html
or
www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/sustpast.pdf
IP 284
Slot 51
Version 032306
Page 20 ATTRA