This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology concepts. It defines anatomy and physiology as the study of body structure and function. It describes how homeostasis is maintained through feedback systems and how the human body is organized in a hierarchy from cells to tissues to organs and organ systems. It then details each of the major human organ systems and their structures and functions. Finally, it discusses cellular transport and how substances move across cell membranes through passive and active transport mechanisms.

1. Unit 1: Introduction to P&A
I. Anatomy & Physiology
A. Anatomy - “structure” (morphology)
1.Definition: branch of science that
deals with the structure of body parts.
B. Physiology – “function”
1.Definition: branch of science that
deals with the function of body
parts.

2. C. Structure & function always relate
1.Example: Arteries have very
muscular walls to adequately
pump blood to all parts of body.

3. II.Homeostasis
A. Defintion: The tendency of the
body to maintain a constant
internal environment.
B. In order to survive, the body
needs to remain at homeostasis.
C. Homeostasis is regulated by
body systems.

4. 1. Negative Feedback
a.Definition: A system which
maintains deviations in a
normal range.
a.Example: Blood pressure-
If blood pressure goes up,
negative feedback slows
heart to return it to normal.

5. 2. Positive Feedback
a.Definition: A system which
encourages deviations from
normal ranges (homeostasis)
a.Example: Labor during
pregnancy. The woman’s body is
taken farther from normal
(homeostasis) to achieve a goal.

6. III.Body Organization (Humans are organized
in levels)
A. Cell
Defintion: basic structural and
functional unit of life.
Example: Skin cell
B. Tissue
Definition: a group of cells
working together to perform a
function.
Example: Epithelial tissue

7. C. Organ
Definition: A group of tissues
working together to perform a
special function.
Example: Skin
D. Organ System
Definition: A group of organs
working together to perform a
special function
Example: Integumentary

8. E. Organism
Definition: A group of organ
systems working together to
perform a function.
Example: Human body

9. IV.Human Organ Systems
A. Skeletal System
1. Structure: bones, ligaments,
tendons, cartilage, joints
2. Function: Support and
movement
B. Muscular System
1. Structure: Muscles
2. Function: Movement, posture,
heat production

10. C
C. Integumentary System
1. Structure: Skin, hair, nails,
sweat glands, oil glands.
2. Function: Protection,
temperature regulation,
synthesize (make) certain body
products (Vitamin D)

11. D. Digestive System
1. Structure:
Digestive tract: mouth,
esophagus, stomach, intestines
Accessory organs: tongue,
salivary glands, pancreas, liver
2. Function: mechanical and
chemical digestion, absorb
nutrients, eliminate wastes

12. E. Respiratory System
1. Structure: Lungs, nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi
2. Function: Exchange of gasses
(CO2 & O2 between blood and air.
F. Cardiovascular System/Circulatory
1. Structure: Heart, arteries,
veins, capillaries, blood
2. Function: Transport nutrients,
waste, gasses, hormones

13. G. Nervous System
1. Structure: Brain, spinal cord,
nerves, sensory receptors
2. Function: Regulate all body
functions, detect sensation,
control movement

14. H. Endocrine System
1. Structure: Endocrine glands:
pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, etc.;
hormones
2. Function: Regulates metabolism,
reproduction and other body
functions.

15. I. Urinary System
1. Structure: Kidneys, bladder,
ureters, urethra
2. Function: Removal of waste from
circulatory system; regulate blood
pH, ion content, water content

16. J. Lymphatic System
1. Structure: Lymph vessels, lymph
nodes, lymph, spleen, thymus gland
2. Function: Removal of foreign
substances in blood, combat
disease, fat absorption
K. Reproductive System
1. Structure: Gonads, accessory
structures, and genitals
2. Function: Process of
reproduction of life.

17. V. Anatomical Terminology
A. Position Terms
1. Superior – “above”
-- Head superior to neck
2. Inferior – “below”
-- Tibia inferior to femur
3. Anterior/Ventral – “front/belly-
side”
4. Posterior/Dorsal – “back”

18. 5. Medial – “toward midline”
-- shoulder medial to elbow
6. Lateral – “away from midline”
7. Proximal – “closer to point of
attachment”
-- elbow proximal to wrist
8. Distal – “further from point of
attachment”
9. Superficial – “near surface”

19. 10. Deep – “more internal”
11. Articulate – “to meet”
-- The femur articulates with the
fibia

20. B. Body Sections/Cuts/Planes
1. Sagittal
--lengthwise cut at midline
2. Transverse
--divides body in superior and
inferior portions
3. Frontal/Coronal
--Divides body in anterior and
posterior portions

22. C. Body Regions of the Abdomen
1. Epigastric
(Middle Upper)
2. L/R Hypochondriac
(Upper L/R)
3. Umbilical
(Middle)

23. 4. L/R Lumbar
(Middle L/R)
5. Hypogastric
(Low middle)
6. L/R Iliac
(L/R low)

25. D. Body (Major) Cavities
1. Cranial Cavity
-- nasal cavity
-- oral cavity
-- cranial cavity
2. Vertebral Cavity
-- spinal cavity
2. Thoracic Cavity
-- rib cage

26. 3. Abdominopelvic Cavity
-- stomach
-- pelvis
-- bladder
-- Split into abdominal and
pelvic cavities

27. E. Body Membranes
1. Pleural Membranes (lungs)
a. Visceral pleural (organ)
--membrane portion
covering organ
c. Pleural cavity – area
surrounding organ
- filled with fluid
b. Parietal pleural
--membrane portion attached

29. 2. Pericardial Membranes (heart)
a. Visceral pericardium
--membrane covering heart
itself
b. Parietal percardium
--membrane outside visceral
pericardium

30. 3. Peritoneal Membranes - abdomen
a. Visceral peritoneum
--membrane surrounding organs
b. Parietal peritoneum
--membrane attachment to
cavity wall

31. VI.Chemistry of Life
A. Atomic Structure
1. Nucleus
--most massive
--houses proton and neutron
2. Proton
-- (+) Positive charged
3. Neutrons
--Neutral

32. 4. Electrons
--(-) charged
--located in energy level shells/
clouds around nucleus
5. Energy levels
--levels/orbits around nucleus that
hold e- of certain energy
--each level holds specific number
of e- (1:2, 2:8, 3:18)

33. 6. Proton & electron # = in balanced
elements
7. Neutron # = mass number – atomic
number
8. Mass # = proton # + neutron #
9. Atomic # = proton #

34. 10. Ion
Definition: Element that has lost
or gained e- and therefore
received a charge.
a. Important to body
Example: Ca+ = bones, teeth, blood
clotting.
Fe+: Red blood cell
function/formation

35. B. Chemical Bonding
1. Ionic Binding
Definition: Occurs when atoms
gain or lose e- becoming
opposite charged and attract
Example: NaCl
2. Covalent Bonding
Definition: Occurs when two or
more atoms share electrons
Example: H2O

36. C. Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis – “build up”
--combining atoms – growth, repair
A + B – AB
2. Decomposition – “break down”
--molecules break apart – food
digestion
AB – A + B

37. 3. Exchange
--Decomposition + Synthesis
AB + CD -– AC + BD
4. Reversible
--End product may return to
reactants
A + B AB

38. D. Acid & Bases
1. Electrolytes
Definition: Substances that
release ions in water and therefore
conduct electricity.
2. Acids
--Electrolytes that release H+
into water
--pH: 0-6.9
-- red on litmus

39. 3. Bases
--Electrolytes that release OH-
into water
--pH: 7.1-14
--Blue on litmus

40. E. Major Body Organic Substances
1. Carbohydrates
Structure: Small to large molecules
of C, H + O (in ratio, Ch2O)
Function: Provide energy for body
a. Monosaccharides – simple sugar
(glucose, fructose, galactose)
b. Disaccharides – two simple sugars
(sucrose, lactose)
c. Polysaccharides – complex sugars
(glycogen)

41. 2. Lipids
Structure: Substances that do not
dissolve in H2O, mainly C, H, O
(includes fats, phospholipids,
steroids)
Function:
Fats: Break down for energy
phosopholipids: make cell
membranes
steroids: regulate body process
example: male/female

42. a. Glycerols + fatty acid = FAT
example: triglycerols = 3
glycerols + a fatty acid
3. Proteins
Structure: Molecules of C, H, O, N
-- Amino Acids: Building block of
protein
Function: regulate chemical reactions
--energy sources
--cell synthesis/make up cytoplasm
--protect from disease (antibodies)
--serve as enzymes

43. a. Hydrogen bonds
-- hold coil together
-- bonds may break by exposure
to access:
*heat
*radiation
*chemicals

44. Denatured Protein: protein with
hydrogen bonds broken or uncoiled due
to environmental factors. (example:
heat)
*** EGG EXAMPLE
4. Nucleic Acids
Structure: Large complex
molecules of C, H, O, N, P
--RNA, DNA
--Nucleotide: building block of

45. Function: --control cellular activities
--synthesize proteins (RNA)
--pass on genetic information

46. VII.Cellular Transport
*In order for the body to maintain
homeostasis, chemicals/substances/ions
constantly pass through cell membranes.
A. Passive Transport
1. Defintion: Movement of substances
across cell membrane from HIGH
concentration to LOW concentration
requiring no energy

47. 2. Types
a. Diffusion: movement of
substances from high to low
concentration
example: O2 from air diffuse into
blood and CO2 to air
b. Facilitated Diffusion: diffusion
with aid of a carrier molecule in
cell membrane “bussers”
example: glucose into cells

48. C. Osmosis: movement of WATER
across membrane from high
to low concentration
1. cells need EXACTLY right
amount of watery
environment or they will
shrink/swell

49. Types of Osmosis
1. Hypertonic – Hyper=more
a. More water than needed in the
cell, so net water LEAVES cell to
reach homeostasis
b. cell then SHRINKS
2. Hypotonic – Hypo=less
a. Less water than needed in the
cell, so water ENTERS cell to
reach homeostasis
b. cell then SWELLS
3. Isotonic
a. Homeostasis is reached

50. d. Filtration
1. movement of substances
across cell membrane due to
pressure
2. ex: blood pressure forces
water out of capillaries but
proteins are left in.

51. B. Active transport
1. Movement of substances across
membrane from LOW to HIGH
REQUIRING ENERGY!!
2. Types:
a. Pumps – carrier molecules
push ions low to high
1. Na/K pumps in cells
b. Endocytosis – engulfing of
particles by cells
1. pinocytosis – takes in
liquids
2. phagocytosis – take in
solids
a. ex:Phagocytes:engulf
bacteria