This document provides information about oncology and cancer including definitions of key terms, characteristics of benign and malignant neoplasms, cancer etiology, methods of detection and prevention, risk factors, and warning signs. It defines terms like alopecia, carcinogenesis, chemotherapy, and metastasis. Benign tumors are well-differentiated, slow growing, and localized while malignant tumors are undifferentiated, infiltrative, and can metastasize. Cancer prevention focuses on reducing risks through healthy behaviors and early detection through screening.

1. MEDICAL SURGICAL NURSING
ONCOLOGY
Prepared By:
Dr. Peter Jasper Youtham
Head of Department
Medical Surgical Nursing

2. TERMINOLOGY
Alopecia: Hair loss
Anaplasia: Cells that lack normal cellular characteristics and differ
in shape and organization with respect to their cells of origin.
Biological response modifier (BRM) therapy: Use of agents or
treatment methods that can alter the immunologic relationship
between the tumor and the host to provide a therapeutic benefit.
Biopsy: A diagnostic procedure to remove a small sample of tissue
to be examined microscopically to detect malignant cells.

3. Brachytherapy: Delivery of radiation therapy through internal
implants.
Cancer: A disease process whereby cells proliferate abnormally,
ignoring growth regulating signals in the environment
surrounding the cells.
Carcinogenesis: Process of transforming normal cells into
malignant cells.
Chemotherapy: Use of drugs to kill tumor cells by interfering
with cellular functions and reproduction.
Control: Containment of the growth of cancer cells.

4. Cure: Prolonged survival and disappearance of all evidence of disease
so that the patient has the same life expectancy as anyone else in his
or her age group.
Cytokines: Substances produced by cells of the immune system to
enhance production and functioning of components of the immune
system.
Dysplasia: Bizarre cell growth resulting in cells that differ in size,
shape, or arrangement from other cells of the same type of tissue.
Extravasation: Leakage of medication from the veins into the
subcutaneous tissues.
Grading: Identification of the type of tissue from which the tumor
originated and the degree to which the tumor cells retain the
functional and structural characteristics of the tissue of origin.

5. Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells of a tissue; most
often associated with periods of rapid body growth.
Malignant: Having cells or processes that are characteristic of
cancer.
Metaplasia: Conversion of one type of mature cell into another
type of cell.
Metastasis: Spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor to
distant sites.
Myelosuppression: Suppression of the blood cell–producing
function of the bone marrow.
Oncology: Field or study of cancer.

6. Palliation: Relief of symptoms associated with cancer.
Radiation therapy: Use of ionizing radiation to interrupt the
growth of malignant cells.
Stomatitis: Inflammation of the oral tissues, often associated
with some chemotherapeutic agents.
Staging: Process of determining the size and spread, or
metastasis, of a tumor.
Thrombocytopenia: Decrease in the number of circulating
platelets; associated with the potential for bleeding.

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF BENIGN AND
MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS
BENIGN MALIGNANT
Well-differentiated cells that
resemble normal cells of the tissue
from which the tumor originated
Cells are undifferentiated and often
bear little resemblance
to the normal cells of the tissue
from which they arose
Tumor grows by expansion and
does not infiltrate the surrounding
tissues.
Grows at the periphery and sends
out processes that infiltrate and
destroy the surrounding tissues.
Rate of growth is usually slow Rate of growth is variable and
depends on level of differentiation.

8. BENIGN MALIGNANT
Does not spread by metastasis Gains access to the blood and
lymphatic channels and
metastasizes to other areas of the
body
Is usually a localized phenomenon
that does not cause generalized
effects.
Often causes generalized effects,
such as anemia,
weakness, and weight loss
Does not usually cause tissue
damage unless its location interferes
with blood flow.
Often causes extensive tissue
damage as the tumor outgrows its
blood supply. may also produce
substances that
cause cell damage.

9. ETIOLOGY
Certain categories of agents or factors implicated in
carcinogenesis include:
 Viruses and bacteria - Epstein-Barr virus
Herpes simplex virus type II
Cytomegalovirus
 Physical agents - Excessive exposure to the ultraviolet rays
of the sun.
Exposure to ionizing radiation
 Chemical agents - Use of tobacco
Pesticides and formaldehydes

10.  Genetic or familial factors – Retinoblastomas
Nephroblastomas
 Dietary factors - Fats, alcohol, salt-cured
Smoked meats
Foods containing nitrates &
nitrites
 Hormonal agents - Oral contraceptives prolonged
estrogen replacement therapy

11. DETECTION AND PREVENTION OF CANCER
The American Cancer Society, the National Cancer Institute,
clinicians, and researchers have placed greater emphasis on
primary and secondary prevention of cancer.
Primary Prevention is concerned with reducing the risks of
cancer in healthy people.
Secondary Prevention involves detection and screening to
achieve early diagnosis and prompt intervention to halt the
cancer process.

12. PRIMARY PREVENTION
 Assisting patients to avoid known carcinogens is one way to
reduce the risk for cancer. Another way involves adopting
dietary and various lifestyle changes that epidemiologic and
laboratory studies show influence the risk for cancer.
 Nurses can use their teaching and counseling skills to
encourage patients to participate in cancer prevention
programs and to promote healthful lifestyles.

13. SECONDARY PREVENTION
 To provide individualized education and recommendations for
continued surveillance and care in high-risk populations.
 Nurses need to be familiar with ongoing developments in the field of
genetics and cancer.
 Public awareness about health-promoting behaviors can be increased
in a variety of ways.

14. RISK FACTORS: TAKING STEPS TO REDUCE
CANCER RISK
1. Increase consumption of fresh vegetables because studies indicate that
roughage and vitamin-rich foods help to prevent certain kinds of cancer.
2. Increase fiber intake because high-fiber diets may reduce the risk for
certain cancers (eg, breast, prostate, and colon).
3. Increase intake of vitamin A, which reduces the risk for esophageal,
laryngeal, and lung cancers.
4. Increase intake of foods rich in vitamin C, such as citrus fruits and
broccoli, which are thought to protect against stomach and esophageal
cancers.

15. 5. Practice weight control because obesity is linked to cancers of the uterus,
gallbladder, breast, and colon.
6. Reduce intake of dietary fat because a high-fat diet increases the risk for
breast, colon, and prostate cancers.
7. Practice moderation in consumption of salt-cured, smoked, and nitrate-
cured foods, these have been linked to esophageal and gastric cancers.
8. Stop smoking cigarettes and cigars, which are carcinogens.
9. Reduce alcohol intake because drinking large amounts of alcohol increases
the risk of liver cancer.
10. Avoid overexposure to the sun, wear protective clothing, and use a
sunscreen to prevent skin damage from ultraviolet rays that increase the risk
of skin cancer.

16. WARNING SIGNS OF CANCER
CAUTION
C Change in bowel or bladder habits
A A sore that does not heal
U Unusual bleeding or discharge
T Thickening or lump in a breast or else where
I Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing
O Obvious change in a wart or mole
N Nagging cough or hoarseness