The global economy is stuck in a low-growth trap characterized by subdued investment, trade, employment, wage, and productivity growth. Productivity growth has slowed and inequality has risen across advanced economies. Comprehensive and collective action is needed from governments to boost growth through increased public investment, structural reforms, and reducing the burden on monetary policy alone. Failure to escape the low-growth trap risks breaking promises made to citizens regarding opportunities for youth, adequate incomes for older populations, and returns for investors.

1. OECD ECONOMIC OUTLOOK
Senior Budget Officials Meeting
Stockholm, 9-10 June, 2016
Christian Kastrop
Director, Economics Department

2. Key messages
The global economy is stuck in a “low-growth” trap
•Growth in advanced economies is low and has declined in many EMEs
•Weak trade and sluggish investment continue
•Risks: Brexit, high credit growth and debt exposures in EMEs, volatile financial markets
Productivity growth has slowed and inequality has risen
•Prolonged demand weakness is damaging long-term growth prospects
•Productivity gains are not being widely shared
•Wage growth is even lower than productivity growth
Comprehensive and collective action is needed to keep promises
•Monetary policy alone cannot break out of low growth trap and may be overburdened
•Fiscal space is eased with low interest rates; use public investment to support growth
•Structural reform packages needed to boost productivity, wages and equality
2

3. Global GDP growth is low
Global GDP growth in
2016 projected to be
about the same as 2015;
2017 only a little stronger
Growth is flat in
advanced economies,
slower in many EMEs
Projections
Real GDP, Annual percentage changes
1. Moving nominal GDP weights using purchasing power parities. 2. Fiscal years starting in April.
Source: OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database.
GDP growth
2014 2015 2016 2017
World1
3.3 3.0 3.0 3.3
United States 2.4 2.4 1.8 2.2
Euro area 1.0 1.6 1.6 1.7
United Kingdom 2.9 2.3 1.7 2.0
Japan 0.0 0.6 0.7 0.4
China 7.3 6.9 6.5 6.2
India2
7.2 7.4 7.4 7.5
Brazil 0.1 -3.9 -4.3 -1.7
3

4. Global trade growth is weak,
particularly in Asia
Note: SE Asia includes Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
Euro area and SE Asia include intra-regional trade.
Source: OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database; OECD calculations.
Trade in goods and services
Real annual growth
A return to
pre-crisis trade
growth would
boost productivity
by 1 per cent on
average after
5 years
4

5. Rebalancing and on-shoring in China has
contributed to weak trade growth
Note: Manufacturing (secondary) includes construction and utilities.
Source: National Bureau of Statistics; General Administration of Customs.
Composition of growth in China The share of China’s processing
trade is declining
5

6. Weak exports and investment are
weighing on US growth
Contributions to quarterly US GDP growth
Source: OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database.
6

7. Labour markets are healing only slowly
Employment rateUnemployment rate
Note: Unemployment rates are 2016Q1 for Canada, Japan and the United States.
Source: Eurostat; OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database; OECD Labour Force Statistics; OECD Main Economic Indicators; United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
7

8. Risks
8

9. Some EMEs are vulnerable to exchange rate
shocks and high domestic debt
External liabilities
Per cent of GDP, 2015 Q3 or latest available
Note: Credit to non-financial corporations. For South Africa, 2008 Q1 instead of 2007.
Source: OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database; BIS; IMF; and OECD calculations.
Credit to corporations has increased
Per cent of GDP
9

10. Financial markets have been volatile
Source: Thomson Reuters.
Recovery only in US equity markets
compared with summer 2015
Volatility in asset markets has increased
Rolling 3-month standard deviations
10

11. Brexit would impose costs on the UK,
European and global economies
Source: Kierzenkowski et al. (2016), "The Economic Consequences of Brexit: A Taxing Decision", OECD Economic Policy Papers, No. 16, OECD
Publishing, Paris; OECD calculations.
Long-term effect of Brexit on the UK
Real GDP in 2030, difference from baseline
Short-term impact of Brexit
Real GDP in 2018, difference from baseline
11

12. Slowing productivity growth
and rising inequality
present significant challenges
12

13. Declining productivity growth is widespread
in advanced economies and some EMEs
Note: Annualised rate. Output per hour worked for OECD economies. For non-OECD economies, measured as output per
worker. Brazil is for 1991-2000.
Source: OECD National Accounts database; OECD Productivity database.
Labour productivity growth
13

14. Innovation and diffusion have slowed
Labour productivity
Note: Each line shows the average labour productivity (value added per worker). The “Top 5%” and “Top 100” are the globally most productive firms in each two-digit industry. “Non-frontier
firms” is the average of all firms, excluding the Top 5%. Included industries are manufacturing and business services, excluding the financial sector. The coverage of firms in the dataset varies
across the 24 countries in the sample and is restricted to firms with at least 20 employees.
Source: OECD preliminary results based on Andrews, D., C. Criscuolo and P. Gal (2016), “Mind the Gap: Productivity Divergence between the Global Frontier and Laggard Firms”, OECD
Productivity Working Papers, forthcoming; Orbis data of Bureau van Dijk.
14

15. Incomes are rising very slowly for
most workers, increasing inequality
Note: OECD is the unweighted average of the countries for which data are available.
Source: OECD estimations based on Kappeler et al. (2016), “Decoupling of Productivity and Median Wage Growth: Macro-Level Evidence”, OECD Economics Department
Working Papers, forthcoming; OECD National Accounts database; OECD Earnings database; OECD Income Distribution database; OECD calculations.
Wages growing less than productivity
Annualised real growth rates, per hour worked,
1990-2013
15
Inequality in income is increasing
Real household disposable income, total population

16. Productivity differences are correlated
with wage inequality
Wage inequality and productivity dispersion across firms
Note: Data are for 2013. OECD is the unweighted average of the countries for which data are available. The P90/P50 ratio is labour income or labour productivity of the firm at the 90th
percentile divided by the corresponding value of the firm at the median. Labour income is total compensation including taxes and the employer’s and employee’s social security contributions.
Source: OECD estimations based on Saia and Schwellnus (2016), “Decoupling of Productivity and Median Wage Growth: Micro-Level Evidence”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers,
forthcoming; Orbis.
Higher wage
inequality
Greater productivity
dispersion
16

17. Comprehensive and collective
policy action is needed
to deliver on promises
17

18. Failure to get out of the low-growth trap
means broken promises to the youth
Note: For LHS, OECD is the unweighted average of 34 OECD countries. 2013 for Chile and the United States. Youth aged 15-24 for Japan.
Source: OECD calculations based on national labour force surveys; OECD Short-Term Labour Market Statistics database.
Inactive and unemployed youth
Share of all youth (15-29 years old)
Change in OECD employment rate
From Q4 2007 to Q4 2015, % pts
Unemployment in
the first 10 years
of a worker’s
career
leads to large
differences in
life-time earnings
18

19. Keeping promises to older people is more
difficult with low returns and low growth
Policy reforms
become
more urgent,
including
extending
working lives
Falling retirement income for a given contribution
Note: The chart shows the impact of falling interest rates on real incomes in retirement for a defined contribution scheme. Annuity payments calculated for the same hypothetical
individual contributing 10% of wages over a 40 year period. The assets are invested in a portfolio comprising 60% of variable income (fixed return of 4.5%) and 40% of fixed income
(historical 10 year government bonds yields, kept to maturity) and used at retirement to buy an annuity with a life expectancy of 20 years at age 65 using actual government bond yields
for calculating the annuity premium. Constant annual inflation of 2 per cent and productivity growth of 1.5 per cent are assumed.
Source: OECD Business and Finance Outlook 2016 (forthcoming).
19
Year of retirement

20. Monetary policy is in unchartered waters
Negative central bank deposit
rates in a number of economies
Source: Thomson Reuters.
Central bank balance sheets
20

21. Relying on monetary policy alone risks less
effectiveness and harmful side effects
Some central banks are the
dominant holders of government bonds
Share of total government debt securities
Falling bank share prices
Per cent decline over the year to May 2016
Source: Central banks; Thomson Reuters; and OECD calculations.
21

22. Interest rates on sovereign debt are very low
Yield curves have fallen and flattened
Government bonds
Note: Bond yields are the average in May for the year shown.
Source: Bloomberg.
22
United States Euro area Japan

23. Fiscal policy: use the opportunity to lock-in
low borrowing costs and boost growth
Note: Simulation using the NiGEM model, based on a two-year increase in the level of government investment equivalent to
½ per cent of GDP per annum in all OECD countries. The euro area figures are a weighted average of Germany, France and Italy.
Source: OECD June 2016 Economic Outlook database; OECD calculations.
Collective
action should
focus on
quality public
investment and
pro-growth
structural
policies
1st year effects of a ½ per cent of GDP public investment increase by all OECD economies
Change from baseline
23

24. Structural policies to increase productivity
can also boost demand and employment
Note: EMEs include Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Turkey and
South Africa; Mexico and Turkey only prior to 2011. Advanced includes the rest of the OECD.
Source: OECD Going for Growth 2016.
Shift the composition of public spending to
investment
Encourage firm entry and investment in
service sectors
Reduce barriers to geographic and jobs
mobility
Package simultaneous labour and product
market reforms
Improve function of financial system and
access to credit
The pace of structural reform has slowed
Share of OECD Going for Growth recommendations implemented
Unique package for each country:
24

25. In the euro area, financial sector reforms are
a key priority
Speed up resolution of non-
performing loans: prudential tools
and asset management
companies can help
Complete banking union: set up a
common backstop to the Single
Resolution Fund and deposit
insurance at the European level
25
0
5
10
15
20
25
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015¹
France Germany Italy Spain Ireland Portugal
Non-performing loans (% of total)
1. Average of first three quarters.
Source: European Central Bank.

26. Summary
Diagnosis: Low-growth trap
•Subdued investment, trade, employment, wage, and productivity growth
Risks: Substantial downside
•Brexit, EME financial vulnerabilities, increased financial market volatility
Consequences: Broken promises to young, old, investors
•Slowing productivity, reduced long-term growth prospects, rising inequality
Recommendations: Comprehensive, coherent, collective action
•Quality public investment, country-specific structural reforms, reduce
burden on monetary policy
Outcome: A high-growth path that keeps promises
•Stronger investment, trade, employment, consumption, productivity, equity26

27. Designing the public finances to
promote growth and equity
27

28. Average annual growth of GDP per capita and household disposable income (1995-2011)
Why focusing on inclusive growth ?
%
Gains in household disposable incomes have been
stronger in the upper half of the distribution
 The design of the public finances matters for28

29. Redistribution mainly occurs via transfers
Reduction in the GINI coefficient due to taxes and transfers, %
Source: OECD Income distribution data base29

30. The structure of spending has remained fairly stable
Average across OECD countries, % of potential GDP
Public investment Public investment Public investment
Education Education
Education
Health
Health
Health
Old-age and survivor
pensions
Old-age and survivor
pensions
Old-age and survivor
pensions
Sickness and disability
Sickness and disability Sickness and disabilityUnemployment benefits
Unemployment benefits Unemployment benefitsFamily and child
Family and child Family and child
Wages and intermediate
consumption - other
purposes
Wages and intermediate
consumption - other
purposes
Wages and intermediate
consumption - other
purposes
Subsidies
Subsidies
Subsidies
Other primary expenditure
Other primary expenditure
Other primary expenditure
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
2001 2007 2013
30

31. Design of public spending, growth and inequality
Key issue: Sustain long-term growth while addressing inequality.
 Design of public finance matter as the effect of type of spending
and tax on growth and inequality likely differ.
Empirical set-up:
Growth: Neoclassical convergence model
Inequality: Empirical framework estimates the impact of the mix of
spending along the distribution of household income.
Insights:
• Effect of the size and the mix of public spending on growth and
inequality31

32. Main results of public spending reforms on growth
and inequality
Policy Growth Equity
Countries with the most
room for growth gains
Decrease in the size of
the government
Low to moderate
government effectiveness
+ -
BEL, CZE, FRA, GRC,
HUN, ITA, POL, PRT, SVNHigh government
effectiveness
n.s. -
Increasing government effectiveness + + FRA, GRC, HUN, ITA, SVN
Increasing education outcomes + 0/+ CHL, GRC, MEX, PRT, TUR
Increasing public investment + n.s.
BEL, DEU, GBR, IRL,
ISR, ITA, MEX, TUR
Reducing pension spending + n.s.
AUT, DEU, FIN, FRA, GRC,
ITA, JPN, POL, PRT, SVN
Increasing family benefits n.s. + CHE, ESP, GRC, PRT
Decreasing public subsidies + - BEL, CHE
32

33. Government effectiveness and growth
The adverse effect of government size on potential GDP
decreases with government effectiveness
GDP gain of one spending point increase of public spending, in per cent
Perception of government effectiveness
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Finland,
Sweden,
Denmark,
Norway
33

34. Illustrative gains from reducing government size on
poor, average and rich households
Note: In countries where the size of government is above the average level of that of countries in the bottom half of the sample, the
government size will gradually converge to this level (36% of GDP).
 Rich and average households tend to gain from a reduction of
government size, while the effect on the poor depends on
Effect of a reduction in government size on household disposable
income
34

35. Decreasing returns to public investment?
The effect of public investment on potential GDP
decreases with the level of capital stock
The analysis suggests that all OECD countries, except Japan,
have room for additional public investment.
GDP gain of one spending point increase of public investment, in per cent
Public capital stock, per cent of potential GDP
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20 40 60 80 100 120
United States,
Luxembourg,
Iceland
Japan
35

36. In recent years, public investment has decreased in
some OECD countries
Public investment, % GDP
 Countries under market pressure have cut public investment
substantially to help meet their fiscal consolidation needs.36
0
2
4
6
8
Per cent of GDP 2007 2009 2012

37. Thank you
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