Given that people are basically complex, the best way to motivate/lead them is to understand their complexity and individual needs, and adapt one's leadership style accordingly. Effective leaders draw from a range of styles and select the approach most appropriate for each situation and individual.

1. Occupational Stress
Stress Management

2. Definition
Physical or psychological disorder associated with
an occupational environment and manifested
in symptoms such as extreme
anxiety, or tension, or
cramps, headaches, or digestion problems.
⚫Stress related to responsibilities associated
with work, corporate culture or personality
conflicts
⚫Can lead to physical as well as emotional
disorders
⚫May cause depression if left unattended

3. Effects of Occupational
Stress
Psychological and behavioral
problems
⚫Anxiety
⚫Irritability
⚫Alcohol and Drug Use
⚫Feeling Powerless
⚫Low Morale

4. Physical symptoms:
⚫ Fatigue
⚫ Headache
⚫ Stomach Problems
⚫ Muscular Aches and pains
⚫ Chronic Mild Illness
⚫ Sleep Disturbances
⚫ Eating Disorders
If exposure to stressors in the workplace is
prolonged, then chronic health problems can
occur including stroke.

5. Managing Occupational Stress
⚫New Technology
Stress due to introduction of new technology can
be greately reduced by training of the employees
in the new technology so that they are
comfortable and can easily adjust to the new
machines and work procedures
⚫Shift Work
Allocation of shifts to employees making sure that
all employees are awarded shifts in rotation to
avoid monotony in work timings and conditions

6. ⚫Longer Working Hours
Try not to work long hour and ask whether flexible
working hours are available. Enough sleep is
essential.
⚫Deadlines
Set realistic goals and targets which are
achievable in the given time frame with optimum
effort.
⚫Commuting to Work
Try to move in closer to workplace or find work
near to residence. Travel with a friend to work.

7. ⚫Working Conditions
Organizations need to provide with good
lighting, ventilation, washroom facilities, rest
rooms, first aid, canteen etc to ensure hygienic and
safe working conditions.
⚫Bad Communication
Improve communication skills, training can be
imparted to employees in work related
communication and interpersonal skills as well as
written communication.
⚫Accepting New Jobs
Moe on to next job once u learn the present job.

8. ⚫Being the Boss
Develop good rapport with employees and
subordinates, lead by example, have good clear
communication with them and always reason out
clearly and create a consensus for your decisions
⚫Queen Bee Syndrome
It is best to create a balance with fun, humor, and
compassion with your co-workers and intermingle
this with your enthusiasm of strong work ethics to
gain respect and guide others to mimic your
enthusiasm.
⚫Lack of Enthusiasm

9. ⚫Job Satisfaction
Try and identify what u like in your job and what you
don’t. Try and chalk out possible solutions. Talk to
superiors and try and change the characteristics of
the job to make it more satisfying.
⚫Job Security
The threat of losing a job makes life generally very
stressful. Workers also put up with more hassles just
to keep a job. Changing occupations is far more
common now days - this can be one of the most
stressful times in a persons life.
⚫Boredom

10. Occupational Stress and
Gender
According to a study conducted jointly by University of
the Witwatersand, South Africa, University of
Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology, U.K., Graduate Institute of Behavioural
Sciences, Taiwan and University of South
Florida, U.S.on the variations in effect of occupational
stress on males and females
⚫ Both males and females experience same amount of
stressors at workplace
⚫ But men experience less stress than women
⚫ Stressors at work have more effect on women as
compared to men.

11. Women and Occupational Stress
Causes of Stress
⚫Dual responsibilities of professional as well as family
life
⚫Decimation on basis of gender at workplace
⚫Inability to take up better or different jobs due to
family pressure
Symptoms of Occupational Stress in Women
Psychological problems
Depressive
symptoms, insomnia, dissatisfaction, irritability, rage,
anxiety, fearfulness, feelings of guilt and shame and

12. Physical problems
Coronary heart disease, changes in blood
pressure, body ache, tension headaches, digestive
problems and back pain
Dysfunctional behavioral manifestations
Sickness absenteeism, changing jobs
frequently, career interruption and job withdrawal
owing to negative job attitudes
Women have to develop a model of working which
enables them to keep a good balance between
professional and family life. They should not work the
same way as men as men have much lesser need to

13. Power &
Politics

14. Concept of
Power
Power - the ability to influence another
person
Influence - the process of affecting the
thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another
person
Authority - the right to influence another
person

15. Concept of
Power
Zone of Indifference - the range in which attempts
to influence a person will be perceived as
legitimate & will be acted on without a great deal of
thought
Zone of Indifference
Managers strive to expand the zone of indifference
Zone of Indifference

16. Sources of Organizational
Power Interpersonal
• Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the
rewards that the target wants
• Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an
unpleasant experience for a target
• Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that
agent has influential rights, based on position and
mutual agreement
• Referent Power-based on interpersonal attraction
• Expert Power - agent has knowledge target needs

17. EXPERT POWER!
Strong relationship
to performance & satisfaction
Transfers vital skills, abilities, &
knowledge within the organization
Employees internalize what they observe &
learn from managers they consider “expert”
Which Power is Most
Effective?

18. Using Power
Ethically
Does the behavior produce a good outcome for
people both inside and outside the organization?
Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties?
Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and
fairly?

19. Two Faces of
Power
Personal Power
– used for personal gain
Social Power
– used to create motivation
– used to accomplish group goals

20. Successful Power
Users
belief in the
authority system
belief in justice
• Have high need for social
power; low need for affiliation
• Have these power-oriented
characteristics
preference for
work & discipline
altruism

21. Sources of Organizational
Power: Intergroup
• Control of critical resources
• Control of strategic contingencies - activities that
other groups need to complete their tasks
• Ways groups hold power over other groups
– Ability to reduce uncertainty
– High centrality - functionality central to
organization’s success
– No substitutability - group’s activities are
difficult to replace

22. Etzioni’s Power
Analysis
Type
of
Power
Type of Membership
Alienative Calculative Moral
Coercive
Utilitarian
Normative
Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations, 1964, pp..... 59-61. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

23. Kanter’s Symbols of
Power
 Ability to intercede for someone in trouble
Ability to get placements for favored
employees
 Exceeding budget limitations
 Procuring above-average raises for employees
 Getting items on the agenda at meetings
 Access to early information

24. Kanter’s Symbols
of
Powerlessness
First-line Supervisors
• overly close supervision
• inflexible adherence to rules
• do job rather than train
Staff Professionals
• resistance to change
• turf protection
Top Executives
• budget cuts
• punishing behaviors
• top-down communications
Any Level Employees
• passivity, overdependence
• frustration, disruptiveness
Key to overcoming powerlessness:
share power & delegate decision making

25. Korda’s Power
Symbols
Power - there are more people who
inconvenience themselves on your behalf than
there are people on whose behalf you would
inconvenience yourself
Furnishings
Time
# on Stand-by

26. Political Behavior in
Organizations
Organizational Politics - the use of
power and influence in organizations
Political Behavior - actions not
officially sanctioned by an organization
that are taken to influence others in
order to meet one’s personal goals

27. Effective Political
Characteristics

28. Influence
Tactics
Consultation Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals Ingratiation
Upward appeals Coalition tactics
Exchange tactics Pressure
Upward Influence the boss
Lateral Influence a
coworker
Downward Influence
an employee

29. Managing Political
Behavior
• Maintain open communication
• Clarify performance expectations
• Use participative management
• Encourage cooperation among work
groups
• Manage scarce resources well
• Provide a supportive organizational
climate

30. Managing Up: The
Boss
Make sure you understand your boss
and his/her context including
 Goals and objectives
 Pressures
 Strengths, weaknesses, blind spots
 Preferred work style

31. Assess yourself and your needs,
including
 Strengths, weaknesses, & blind spots
 Personal style
 Relation to authority figures
Managing Up: The
Boss

32. Develop and maintain a relationship that
 Fits both your needs and styles
 Is characterized by mutual expectations
 Keeps your boss informed
 Is based on dependability and honesty
 Selectively uses your boss’s time and resources
Managing Up: The
Boss

33. Sharing Power:
Empowerment
Empowerment:
sharing power in such a way
that individuals learn to believe
in their ability to do the job!

34. Empowerment’s
Dimensions
Meaning - fit between
the work role and the
employee’s values
and beliefs
Self-determination -
having control over
the way one does
one’s work
Impact - belief that
one’s job makes a
difference within the
organization
Competence - belief
that one has the
ability to do the job
well
E2

35. Guidelines for
Empowering
• Express confidence in employees
• Set high performance expectations
• Create opportunities for participative
decision making
• Remove bureaucratic constraints that
stifle autonomy
• Set inspirational and meaningful goals

36. Employee
Empowerment Grid
Point D
Mission Defining
Point B
Task Setting
Point E
Self-management
Point C
Participatory
Empowerment
Point A
No Decision
Imple-
mentation
Follow-up
Alternative
Choice
Alternative
Evaluation
Alternative
Development
Problem
Identification
Problem Alternative Alternative Alternative
Identification Development Evaluation Choice
Imple-
mentatio
Follow-u
Decision-Making Authority over Job Content
Decision-Making
Authority
over
Job
Context

37. Using Power
Effectively
 Use power in ethical ways
 Understand and use all of the various
types of power and influence
 Seek out jobs that allow you to develop
your power skills
 Use power tempered by maturity and self-
control
 Accept that influencing people is an
important part of the management job

38. 38
LEADERSHIP

39. 39
What is Leadership?
The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to the
effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.
Robert House (2004)
The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set
of goals.
Robbins & Judge (2008)

40. 40
History of Leadership Thought
Trait Theories ( -1940s)
Behavioral Theories (1940s-1960s)
Contingency/Situational Approaches (1960s- )
Contemporary
Transformational Leadership

41. 41
Trait Theories of Leadership
"GREAT MAN" Theories
Little agreement on leadership traits
Traits can be developed/improved
In isolation, narrow traits have little utility

42. 42
Trait Theories Today
CANOE Dimensions
Extroversion relates most strongly to leadership
Conscientiousness and openness to experience
strongly related to leadership
Charisma
Confidence
Credibility
Integrity
Track Record
Emotional Intelligence

43. 43
Self Awareness Social Awareness
(Empathy)
Self-Management Relationship Management
Recognition
of emotions
Regulation
of emotions
Self
(Personal Competence)
Other
(Social Competence)
Emotional Intelligence
Ability to detect, express, and manage emotion in oneself
and others.

44. 44
OHIO STATE STUDIES
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS:
1. Initiating structure:
The extent to which a leader is likely to define and
structure his or her role and those of subordinates.
2. Consideration:
The extent to which a leader is likely to build job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for
subordinates' ideas, and regard for their feelings.
Effective leaders achieve both.

45. 45
MICHIGAN STUDIES
LEADERSHIP TYPES:
1. Production Oriented Leaders:
Focus on the technical or task aspects of the job
See people as a means to goal accomplishment
2. Employee Oriented Leaders:
Emphasize interpersonal relations
Take a personal interest in subordinate needs
Accept individual differences
Effectiveness is associated with employee
oriented leadership behaviors.

46. Blake/Mouton LeadershipGrid
High
Low
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Production High
Low
1,9 Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to needs of
people for satisfying relationships
leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere &
work tempo.
9,9 Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people; interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust & respect.
5,5 Middle of the Road Management
Adequate organization
performance is possible through
balancing the necessity to get out
work with maintaining morale of
people at a satisfactory level.
9,1 Authority-Compliance
Efficiency in operations results
from arranging conditions of
work in such a way that
human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort
to get required work done is
appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
Concern
for
People

47. 47
Fiedler Leadership Model
Effectiveness depends on the match between the leader’s style and the
situation
Leader’s style measured with the LPC
Relationship oriented
Task Oriented
Style is fixed

48. 48
Fiedler Contingency
Dimensions
Dimensions define the key situational factors that determine leadership
effectiveness:
Leader-member relations (good or poor)
Task structure (high or low)
Position power (strong or weak)

49. 49
Findings from the Fiedler Model

50. 50
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Relationship
Behavior
(Supportive)
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able & Willing
(Confident)
Able but
Unwilling
(Insecure)
Unable but Willing
(Confident)
Unable &
Unwilling
(Insecure)
Task Behavior
(Guidance)
Low High
Ready
Unready
S3
Participating
S2
Selling
S4
Delegating
S1
Telling

51. 51
Leadership That Gets Results
Coercive
Demands immediate compliance
“Do what I tell you”
Negative affect on climate
Authoritative
Mobilizes people toward a vision
“Come with me”
Strongest positive affect on climate
Democratic
Forges consensus through participation
“What do you think?”
Positive affect on climate

52. 52
Leadership That Gets Results
Pace Setting
Sets high standards for performance
“Do as I do, now”
Negative affect on climate
Affiliative
Creates harmony and builds emotional bonds
“People come first”
Positive affect on climate
Coaching
Develops people for the future
“Try this”
Positive affect on climate

53. 53
BULLY OR VICTIM?
Was Hallums a bully? Or, was he a victim?
Why?
Have all the contingencies been taken into account?
Who were his followers?
Does it matter?
Was Hallums a good leader or a poor leader?
What can we conclude about leadership?

54. 54
BULLY OR VICTIM?
Conclusions
There is no one best style of leadership
Effective leaders possess and use more than one
style of leadership.
Effective leaders alter their task and relationship
orientation to fit the situation.
A small set of employee characteristics and
(e.g., ability, experience, need for independence)
Environmental factors are relevant contingencies
(e.g., task characteristics of autonomy and variety)
Consider Leadership that gets results (pp. 82-83)

55. 55
Leadership That Gets Results
Coercive
In a crisis or genuine emergency
Authoritative
Changes require a new vision;
Clear direction is needed
Not good if followers are more
experienced than leader
Democratic
To build buy-in or consensus; get
input from valuable/committed
employees
Leader is uncertain
Pace Setting
Get quick results from highly
skilled and self motivated
professionals
Affiliative
Heal rifts in a team or motivate
during stressful circumstances
Coaching
Help an employee improve
performance or develop strengths
Must want to improve

56. 56
COACH K AND COACH KNIGHT
A Tale of Two Coaches

57. 57
Given that people are basically
__________ the best way to
motivate/lead them is to __________
"Is it better to be loved than feared or
feared than loved?”
Machiavelli, The Prince
Two Universal Theories of
Motivation and Leadership

58. 58
Self Awareness
“Know thyself”
The Oracle at Delphi
“The unexamined life is not worth living”
Plato
“The root of leadership development is in self-
awareness….Very simply, authentic leadership
development occurs when the theory of
leadership—the implicit theory in one’s head—
is challenged.”
Avolio & Luthans, The High Impact
Leader

59. 59
PERSON STYLE SITUATION
Self-Awareness Self-Regulation Situation Awareness
“How we lead”
“Who we are” “Situation Demands”
Influences Influence
LEADERSHIP
STYLE
Basic Assumptions
About Human Nature
Personal Theories
Of Motivation
•Societal norms
•Organizational culture
•Task demands
•Subordinate needs
•Values
•Identity
•Character
•Life stories
•Personality
•Psychological maturity
OUTCOMES
Definitions of
Leadership
Effectiveness

60. 60
Key Leadership Success
Factors
Increasing your range of effective styles
Improving your self awareness
Increasing your self-regulation
Realistic assessment of the situation

61. 61
History of Leadership Thought
Trait Theories ( -1940s)
Behavioral Theories (1940s-1960s)
Contingency/Situational Approaches (1960s- )
Contemporary
Transformational Leadership

62. 62
Contemporary Theories
Leaders are individuals who inspire followers through their words, ideas, and
behaviors.
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership

63. 63
Transformational Leaders: Motivate followers to go beyond normal
expectations by pushing their comfort zone.
Transactional Leaders:Guide followers to accomplish established goals by
clarifying requirements and emphasizing extrinsic rewards.
Transformational Leadership

64. 64
Full Range of Leadership Model

65. 65
Transformational Behaviors
Modeling the way
Challenging the process
Enabling/empowering
Inspiring a shared vision
Encouraging the heart.

66. 66
IMPLEMENTATION
Lead rather than followed management practice
Establish a strong base (#1 or #2; workout) and
then builds and leverages (globalization; best-
practices, boundaryless)
Simultaneous emphasis on both hardware and
software (e.g., workout and globalization; A
players and dyb.com)
Deeply embedded operating system that
integrates visionary initiatives into strategic
plans, personnel reviews, and ongoing corporate
communications (see exhibit 10)

67. 67
IMPLEMENTATION
Takes broad concepts and operationalizes them in tools
and mechanisms that allows implementation (e.g.,
Speed, simplicity, and self confidence embodied in Work
Out)
Translates initiatives into specific targets (#1 or #2 in
world markets; six sigma)
Identification of champions (e.g. Fresco for Global; Reiner
for Six Sigma)
Insists on alignment and commitment (“participation is
not optional”)
Creating measures and aligning rewards (bonus for idea
sharing; 40% of bonus on Six Sigma)
Communicator: Articulates initial concept, emphasizes
need for alignment; spreads success

68. 68
JACK WELCH:
CONCLUDED
GE’s transformation led to a radical change in
its strategic portfolio, structural configuration,
management processes, and individual
attitudes and behaviors.
Shift in management focus from managing
capital: pulling information up to
Empowerment: developing people, knowledge
and expertise as scarce strategic resources.

69. 69
BEYOND A CONSTRAINING
DOCTRINE:
To a Liberating Philosophy
Strategy
The company as an economic
entity
Structure
The organization as an
aggregation of tasks and
responsibilities
Systems
Managing Personnel as
controllable costs and
replaceable parts.
Purpose
The company also as a social
unit
Process
The organization also as a set or
roles and responsibilities
People
Recognizing people as
organizational assets and
embodiers of knowledge

70. 70
CORPORATE TRANSFORMATION:
Beyond Restructuring & Reengineering
Restructuring tools change the organizational anatomy
Defining the allocation of assets and distribution of responsibilities
Reengineering exercises alter the organizational
physiology
Developing the organizational flows and interpersonal relationships
But the key task is to transform the organizational
psychology
Influencing the behavioral context that frames individual thought
and action
Requires modeling the way, challenging the process,
enabling/empowering, inspiring a shared vision, encouraging the
heart.

71. 71
CHALLENGE THE PROCESS
Constantly looking for new and better ways
Encourage innovation and risk taking
Balance the Paradox of Routines
"Routine work drives out non routine work and
smothers to death all creative planning, all
fundamental change in the university–or any
institution"
Bennis's First law of Academic Pseudo dynamics
Pull information up (e.g., Work out)
Use Outsight (e.g., Best practices)
Information sharing (e.g., Boundaryless)

72. 72
LEADERSHIP
“Great leaders are the ones who let others shine”
“People who never make mistakes never do anything”
Mansfred Kets de Vries

73. 73
Identify and appeal to a true common purpose and
ideal image of the future
Overhead Reduction Task Force
Martin Luther King
“Some men see things the way they are and ask why, I
see things as they could be and ask why not.”
Bobby Kennedy, 1961, Former Attorney General of the U.S
Intrinsically motivating
Martin Luther King Jr.
“Using dreams to set business objectives”
INSPIRE SHARED VISION

74. 74
MANAGEMENT VS.
LEADERSHIP
• Practices/Behaviors
• Commitment
• Do the right thing
• Change
• Long-term
• Ends
• Architects
• Inspiring/motivating
• Position
• Compliance
• Do things right
• Status quo
• Short-term
• Means
• Builders
• Problem solving

75. Without it,
you travel
alone.*

76.  In his classic Functions of the Executive: The pioneering
theorist, Chester Barnard, was the first to develop the idea of
the central, important role communication plays in the
organization.
 He was convinced that communication is the major shaping
force of the organization.
 According to him: “The absence of a suitable technique of
communication would eliminate the possibility of adopting some
purposes as a basis of organization. Communication technique
shapes the form and the internal economy of organization.”
Background of the Role of Communication

77. Figure 1.2
(Managerial communication
model: How managers
communicate)
Humanistic
interactor
Formal
controller
Mechanistic
isolate
Informal
developer
Source: Fred Luthans, and Janet K. Larsen, “How Managers Really Communicate,” Human Relations, Vol. 39, No. 2, 1986, p. 175.
Modern Perspective

78.  Communication: The transference and understanding of meaning.
 Most definitions of Communication used in Organizational Behavior
literature stress the use of symbols to transfer the meaning of
information.
 Also, Communication is a personal process that involves the
exchange of behaviors.
Figure 1.3 (The continuum of communication in organizational behavior)
Communication: Defined
Communication
Media & Technology
Interpersonal
Communication
Nonverbal
Communication

79.  Control member behavior
 Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that
employees are required to follow.
 Foster motivation for what is to be done
 Supervisors need to clarify to employees what is to be done, how well
they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance if it’s
subpar.
 Provide a release for emotional expression
 Many employees feel that their work group is a primary source of social
interaction.
 Provide information needed to make decisions
 Communication provides the information that individuals and groups
need to make decisions by transmitting the data to identify and
evaluate alternative choices
Functions of Communication

80. The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the
transference and understanding of meaning.
The Communication Process

81. Key Parts of Communication Process
initiates message
translating thought to message
what is communicated
the medium the message travel through
the receiver’s action in making sense of the message
person who gets the message
things that interfere with the message
a return message regarding the initial communication

82. The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the
receiver.
Communication Channels
 Formal Channels
Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to
the professional activities of members.
 Informal Channels
Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization. These
informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual
choices.

83. Direction of Communication

84.  The purpose of the Downward Communication: Katz and Kahn identified five
(5) general purposes of top-to-bottom communication in an organization:
1. To give specific task directives about job instructions
2. To give information about organizational procedures and practices
3. To provide information about the rationale of the job
4. To tell subordinates about their performance
5. To provide ideological information to facilitate the indoctrination of goals
 As Katz and Kahn points out: “If people know the reasons of their
assignment, this will often insure they are carrying out the job more
effectively; and if they have an understanding of what their job is about in
relation to their subsystem, they are more likely to identify with
organizational goals.”
Downward Communication

85. Downward Communication
 Ways to Improve Downward Communication
 Quality and richness
 People should start using useful information and ignore useless
information.
 The use of the communication technology
 Do not ignore the importance of the receiver.
 If managers understand the impacts of communication on
subordinates and start to do something about them,
communication can become more effective.

86.  The upward process of communication is non-directive in nature.
 The following are some possible ways to promote more effective
upward communications:
1. The grievance procedure. This allows employees to make an
appeal upward beyond their immediate manager.
2. The open-door policy. The manager’s door is always open to
employees.
3. The use of e-mail. The use of e-mail today eliminates much of
the intimidation of communicating upward.
4. Counseling, attitude questionnaires, and exit interviews.
Upward Communication

87. 5. Participative techniques. This can generate a great deal of
communication. This may be accomplished by either informal
involvement of employees or formal participation programs.
6. An empowerment strategy. This involves giving employees
not only the authority to make decisions, but also the
resources, especially information, to get the job done and
satisfy customers.
7. The ombudsperson (also called ombud). The concept has been
used primarily in Scandinavia to provide an outlet for persons
who have been treated unfairly or in a depersonalized manner
by large, bureaucratic government. If set-up and handled
properly, it may work where the open-door policy has failed.
Upward Communication (cont’d)

88.  The best and simplest way to improve upward communication is
for managers to develop good listening habits and systems for
listening.
 Here are some practical guidelines to facilitate active listening:
1. Maintaining attention
2. Using restatement
3. Showing empathy
4. Using probes to draw the person out
5. Encouraging suggestions
6. Synchronizing the interaction by knowing when to enter a
conversation and when to allow the person to speak.
How to Improve Upward Communication

89.  The purposes and methods of Interactive Communication:
1. Task coordination. The department heads may meet monthly
to discuss how each department is contributing to the
system’s goal.
2. Problem-solving. The members of a department may
assemble to discuss how they will handle a threatened budget
cut; they may employ brainstorming techniques.
3. Information sharing. The members of one department may
meet with the members of another department to give them
some new data.
4. Conflict resolution. The members may meet to discuss a
conflict inherent in the department or between departments.
Interactive Communication In Organizations

90. Advantages: Speed and feedback
Disadvantage: Distortion of the message
Advantages: Tangible and verifiable (documented)
Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback
Advantages: Supports other communications and provides
observable expression of emotions and feelings
Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures
can influence receiver’s interpretation of message
Interpersonal Communication

91.  Non-verbal communication – sometimes called as the “silent
language”; defined as “non-word human responses (such as
gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of
the environment through which the human verbal and non-verbal
messages are transmitted.”
 Body Language and Paralanguage
 Body Language – Body movements convey meanings and
messages. This includes facial expressions and what people
do with their eyes, feet, hands, and posture.
 Paralanguage – This include things such as voice
quality, tone, volume, speech rate, pitch, non fluencies
(saying “ah”, “um”, or “uh”), laughing, and yawning.
Non-Verbal Communication

92. Nonverbal Communication
 Unconscious motions that provide meaning
 Shows extent of interest in another and relative perceived status differences
 The way something is said can change meaning
 Show emotion
 Depends on cultural norms
 Can express interest or status

93.  Here are some suggestions to improve non-verbal communication:
1. Look at what is happening in the situation.
2. Consider the discrepancies between the non-verbal behavior and the
verbal statements.
3. Watch for subtleties in the non-verbal behavior.
 Cultural differences must also be recognized in non-verbal communication.
 The following are a few guidelines affecting communication in various
cultures:
 Expect more physical closeness in Latin America;
 the use of “thumbs up” is fine almost anywhere except, Australia;
and
 take your hands out of your pockets when meeting with Japanese.
Improving Non-Verbal Effectiveness

94. Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks
Chain:
Rigidly follows the
chain of command
Wheel:
 Relies on a central
figure to act as
the conduit for all
communication
 Team with a
strong leader
All Channel:
 All group
members
communicate
actively with each
other
 Self-managed
teams

95. Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria

96. Three Main Grapevine Characteristics
1. Informal, not controlled by management
2. Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal
communications
3. Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it
Results from:
 Desire for information about important situations
 Ambiguous conditions
 Conditions that cause anxiety
Insightful to managers
Serves employee’s social needs
The Grapevine

97. The Grapevine (cont’d)
Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, “Managing Rumors,” in L. Hirshhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54-56. With
permission.
Suggestions to Reduce Rumors
1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.
2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive.
3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and
future plans.
4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they are almost never as anxiety-
provoking as the unspoken fantasy.

98. Communication Media & Technology
Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for distribution
Disadvantages:
Messages are easily and commonly misinterpreted
Not appropriate for sending negative messages
Overused and overloading readers
Removes inhibitions and can cause emotional responses and flaming
Difficult to “get” emotional state understood – emoticons
Non-private: e-mail is often monitored and may be forwarded to anyone

99. Communication Media & Technology
Forms of “real time” communication of short messages that often use
portable communication devices.
Explosive growth in business use
Fast and inexpensive means of communication
Can be intrusive and distracting
Easily “hacked” with weak security
Can be seen as too informal
Instant Messaging: Immediate e-mail sent to receiver’s desktop or device
Text Messages: Short messages typically sent to cell phones or other
handheld devices

100. Communication Media & Technology
Linked systems organically spread throughout the nation and world that can
be accessed by a PC:
Includes:
Social networks like Twitter® and Facebook®
Professional networks like Zoominfo® and Ziggs®
Corporate networks such as IBM’s BluePages®
 Blogs: Web sites about a single person (or entity) that are typically
updated daily
 Videoconferencing: uses live audio and video Internet streaming to
create virtual meetings

101.  Information Richness can be defined as “the potential information-
carrying capacity of data.”
 If the medium conveys a great deal of information, it is high in
richness; if it conveys very little information, it is low in richness.
 Alternative media can have varying degrees of information richness.
 Information Richness can be measured by four (4) factors:
1. Feedback
2. Channel
3. Type of Communication
4. Language Source
The Matter of Information Richness

102. Table 1.1
Information
Richness
Medium Feedback Channel
Type of
Communication
Language
Source
High Face-to-face Immediate Visual, audio Personal Body, natural
High/Moderate Telephone Fast Audio Personal Natural
Moderate Personal
written
Slow Limited visual Personal Natural
Moderate/Low Formal written Very Slow Limited visual Impersonal Natural
Low Formalnumeric Very Slow Limited Visual Impersonal Natural
Source: Adapted From R. L. Daft And R. H. Lengel, “Information Richness: A New Approach to Managerial Behavior and Organization Design,” in
B. M. Staw And L. L. Cunnings (Eds.), Research n Organizational Behavior, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1984, P. 197.
Information Richness for Different Media

103.  The model of “media richness” helps explain an individual’s choice of
communication channel
Channels vary in their capacity to convey information
 A “rich” channel is one that can:
Handle multiple cues simultaneously
Facilitate rapid feedback
Be very personal
 Choice depends on whether the message is routine
 High-performing managers tend to be very media-sensitive
Choice of Communication Channel

104. Choice of Communication Channel
Source: Based On R.H. Lengel And D.L. Daft, “The Selection Of Communication Media As An Executive Skill,” Academy Of Management
Executive, August 1988, Pp. 225–32; And R.L. Daft And R.H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, And Structural
Design,” Managerial Science, May 1996, Pp. 554–72. Reproduced From R.L. Daft And R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt, 2001), P. 311.
Low channel richness
Low channel richness
High channel richness
High channel richness

105.  Daft and Lengel suggested that there are three (3) zones of
communication effectiveness:
1. Effective Zone – is the one in which the complexity of the problem
or situation is matched appropriately with the richness of the
medium.
2. Overload Zone – is one in which the medium provides more
information than is necessary.
3. Oversimplification Zone – is one in which the medium does not
provide the necessary information.
 Research studies* have revealed that media usage is significantly
different across organizational levels. Senior-level managers tend to
spend much more time in face-to-face meetings than do lower-
managers.
*Source: R. E. Rice and D. E. Shook, “Relationships of Job Categories and Organizational Levels to Use of Communication Channels, I ncluding
Electronic Mail: A Meta-Analysis and Extension,” Journal of Management Studies, March 1990, pp. 195-229.
The Issue of Complexity

106. Barriers to Effective Communication
A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably
by the receiver
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their
interests, background, experience, and attitudes
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing
capacity
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the
message is interpreted

107. Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)
Words have different meanings to different people
Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written
communication, or both
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s
processing capacity

108. Current Issues in Communication
Men talk to:
 Emphasize status, power, and
independence
 Complain that women talk on
and on
 Offer solutions
 To boast about their
accomplishments
Women talk to:
 Establish connection and
intimacy
 Criticize men for not listening
 Speak of problems to
promote closeness
 Express regret and restore
balance to a conversation

109. Politically Correct “PC” Communication
 Communication is so concerned with being
inoffensive that meaning and simplicity are lost or
free expression is hampered.
 Certain words do stereotype, intimidate, and insult
 In a highly diverse workforce this is problematic:
“Garbage” becomes “post-consumer waste
materials”
“Quotas” become “educational equity”
“Women” become “people of gender”
Such non-standard sanitizing of potentially
offensive words can reduce the clarity of
messages
Source: The Far Side By Gary Larson © 1994 Far Works, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Used With Permission.

110.  With globalization, the analysis and understanding of
communication across cultures become critical.
 Adler notes:
“Communicating effectively challenges managers world-wide even
when the workforce is culturally homogenous, but when employees
speak a variety of languages and come from an array of cultural
backgrounds, effective communication becomes considerably
difficult.”
Communication Across Cultures

111.  Cross-cultural factors increase communication difficulties
 Cultural Barriers:
Semantics: some words aren’t translatable
Word Connotations: some words imply multiple meanings
beyond their definitions
Tone Differences: the acceptable level of formality of language
Perception Differences: language affects worldview
 Cultural Context:
The importance of social context to meaning
Low-context cultures (like the U.S.) rely on words for meaning
High-context cultures gain meaning from the whole situation
Global Implications

112. 1. Perceptual Problems. This is simply portrayed as a person’s
interpretation of reality and is said to be learned. People are
taught to “see” things in a given way, and this will affect their
interpretation of reality.
2. Stereotyping Problems. The tendency to perceive another person
as belonging to a single class or category. This is a very
simple, widely used way of constructing an assumed overall profile
of other people. [See Table 1.4]
3. Ethnocentric Problems. Ethnocentrism refers to the sense of
superiority that members of a particular culture have. When
people interact with each other on an international
basis, ethnocentrism can cause problems.
Communication Breakdown Across Cultures:

113. TABLE 1.4
Culture Stereotyped Image
1. United States A. Demonstrative, talkative, emotional, romantic, bold, artistic
2. English B. Mañana attitude, macho, music lovers, touchers
3. French C. Inscrutable, intelligent, xenophobic, golfers, group-oriented, polite,
soft-spoken
4. Italians D. Conservative, reserved, polite, proper, formal
5. Latin Americans E. Arrogant, loud, friendly, impatient, generous, hardworking,
monolingual
6. Asians F. Arrogant, rude, chauvinistic, romantics, gourmets, cultural, artistic
Communication Breakdown Across Cultures (cont’d)

114. TABLE 1.4
Culture Stereotyped Image
E 1. United States A. Demonstrative, talkative, emotional, romantic, bold, artistic
D 2. English B. Mañana attitude, macho, music lovers, touchers
F 3. French C. Inscrutable, intelligent, xenophobic, golfers, group-oriented, polite,
soft-spoken
A 4. Italians D. Conservative, reserved, polite, proper, formal
B 5. Latin Americans E. Arrogant, loud, friendly, impatient, generous, hardworking,
monolingual
C 6. Asians F. Arrogant, rude, chauvinistic, romantics, gourmets, cultural, artistic
Communication Breakdown Across Cultures (cont’d)

115.  Learn about the culture of that country before going there.
Speaking their language correctly is not enough. Pronunciation and
accent are very important.
 Provide the trainee with educational background material on the
country, including social structure, religion, values, language and
history.
 A more recent training approach called “Skill Streaming” also
seems to hold promise for learning culture-specific communication.
Improving Communication Effectiveness Across Cultures

116. To reduce your chance of making a faux pas in another culture, err on
the side of caution by:
 Assuming differences until similarity is proven
 Emphasizing description rather than interpretation or evaluation
 Practicing empathy in communication
 Treating your interpretations as a working hypothesis
Improving Communication Effectiveness Across Cultures

117.  Simplify your Message: Napoleon Bonaparte used to tell his
secretaries, “Be clear, be clear, be clear.”
 See the Person: Become audience-oriented; people believe in great
communicators because great communicators believe in people.
 Show the Truth: First, believe in what you say. Second, live what
you say.
 Seek a Response: Every time you speak to people, give them
something to feel, something to remember, and something to do.
How to Become More Effective Communicator

118.  The less employees are uncertain, the greater their satisfaction; good
communication reduces uncertainty!
 Communication is improved by:
 Choosing the correct channel
 Being a good listener
 Using feedback
 Potential for misunderstanding in electronic communication is higher than for
traditional modes
 There are many barriers to international communication that must be
overcome
Summary

119. “Educators take something simple
and make it complicated.
Communicators take something
complicated and make it simple.”
-John C. Maxwell

120. Thank You!
Ü

121. Additional slides for further reading…

122. 7 Specific Communication Factors:
1. The channels of communication should be definitely known.
2. There should be a definite formal channel of communication to every
member of the organization.
3. The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible.
4. The complete formal line of communication should normally be used.
5. The persons serving as communication centers should be competent.
6. The line of communication should not be interrupted while the
organization is functioning.
7. Every communication should be authenticated.
LO-I
Barnard’s Contribution

123.  Interpersonal communication represents the middle ground between
communication media and technology and non-verbal communication.
 For the study of OB, interpersonal communication is the most relevant.
 In interpersonal communication, the major emphasis is on transferring
communication from one person to another.
 Communication is looked on as a basic method of effecting behavioral change
and it incorporates the psychological process (perception, learning, and
motivation) on the one hand and language on the other.
 However, it must be noted that the explosion of advanced technology is also
having an impact on this human interaction process.
 Thus, listening sensitivity and non-verbal communications are closely
associated to interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication

124.  The Director. This person has a short attention span, processes information
quickly, and interested only in the bottom line. So it is best to present a
bulleted list of conclusions and forget all of the background information.
 The Free Spirit. This manager is creative, big-picture type of person who likes
to consider alternative approaches to doing things, but is not very good on
follow-through. In communicating, it is best to be patient, and to be prepared
for changes in direction.
 The Humanist. This manager likes everyone to be happy and is very concerned
with the feelings of others. Any suggestions that are given to him or her will be
passed around the entire department for full consensus before any action is
taken.
 The Historian. This manager likes to know the whole picture and thrives on
details. This individual wants to be given a thorough analysis and background
information, especially if it is presented in linear fashion.
Importance of How to Talk with Others

125.  Table 1.2 summarizes some characteristics of effective and ineffective
feedback for employee performance. The following list explains these
characteristics in more detail:
1. Intention. Effective feedback is directed toward improving job
performance and making the employee a more valuable asset. It is not a
personal attack and should not compromise the individual’s feeling of self-
worth or image.
2. Specificity. Effective feedback is designed to provide recipients with
specific information so that they know what must be done to correct the
situation.
3. Description. Effective feedback can also be characterized as descriptive
rather than evaluative. It tells the employee what he or she has done in
objective terms, rather than presenting a value judgment.
The Importance of Giving Feedback

126. 4. Usefulness. Effective feedback is information that an employee can use
to improve performance. The guideline is that, if it is not something the
employee can correct, it is not worth mentioning.
5. Timeliness. As a rule, the more immediate the feedback the better. This
way, the employee has better chance of knowing what the supervisor is
talking about and can take corrective action.
6. Readiness. In order for feedback to be effective, employees must be
ready to receive it. When feedback is forced on employees, it is much
less effective.
7. Clarity. Effective feedback must be clearly understood by the recipient.
A good way of checking this is by asking the recipient to restate the
major points of the discussion.
8. Validity. In order for feedback to be effective, it must be reliable and
valid. It can lead to inappropriate corrective action and compounds the
problem if the information is incorrect.
The Importance of Giving Feedback (cont’d)

127. Table 1.2
Luthans and Martinko’s Characteristics of Feedback for Effective and
Ineffective Interpersonal Communication in Human Resource Management
Effective Feedback Ineffective Feedback
1. Intended to help the employee 1. Intended to belittle the employee
2. Specific 2. General
3. Descriptive 3. Evaluative
4. Useful 4. Inappropriate
5. Timely 5. Untimely
6. Considers employee readiness for feedback 6. Makes the employee defensive
7. Clear 7. Not understandable
8. Valid 8. Inaccurate
The Importance of Giving Feedback (cont’d)

128.  Choosing a Medium for Communication
Based on the report of the Wall Street Journal:
Telephone 51
E-mail 36
Voice mail 22
Postal mail 19
Interoffice mail 19
Fax 14
Post-itNotes 12
Telephonemessage slips 9
Pager messages 8
Cell phone 4
Overnight couriers or messengers 4
Express mail 3
Source: D. Clark, “Managing The Mountain,” Wall Street Journal, June 21, 1999, P. R 4.
Communication Media & Technology