This document discusses several theories related to English language literacy development. It covers Piaget's theory of cognitive development and how it relates to four stages of reading development. It also discusses maturation theory, Holdaway's theory of literacy development, stage models of reading including pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, full alphabetic and consolidated alphabetic phases. Additionally, it covers emergent literacy theory and family literacy theory, both of which emphasize the importance of early literacy experiences at home.

1. ENGLISH LANGUAGE LITERACY
DEVELOPMENT

2. 1. Foundations of literacy
• What is it?
The Roots of Learning to Read and Write:
Acquisition of Letters and Phonemic
Awareness in English Language Learner
and English only.

3. Reading: connecting speech and print
• Essential task in reading is to connect word
pronunciations with written representations
of those words
– Necessary for comprehension to get a
pronunciation of a word

4. Speech and print
• Learning these associations/connections
between sounds in speech and graphemes in
print is decoding:
• To help the child make these connections:
– Speech sounds - phonological/phonemic
awareness knowledge/instruction
– Graphemes - letter names/sounds
knowledge/instruction

5. What makes speech easy makes
reading hard
• In speech, sounds are interleaved and
overlapped (coarticulated)
– Speeds speech processing and lowers cognitive
demand
• In reading, must unconnect these sounds in
somewhat artificial manner
– phonemic awareness

6. A few misunderstandings
• English, while more variable than other
languages, is largely systematic in phoneme-
grapheme correspondences
• Learning to read is somewhat of an
“unnatural” process

7. Phases in learning the speech to
print connection (Ehri, 1999)
• Pre-alphabetic
• Partial alphabetic
• Full alphabetic
• Consolidated alphabetic

8. Pre-alphabetic
phase (pre-k - grade 1)
• Lack letter knowledge and phonemic awareness
• Children resort to use of visual or contextual cues
– McDonalds sign, Pepsi label
• Do not have word awareness as shown by fingerpoint reading
• Characteristic of children with limited informal and formal
experience with the alphabet (preschool to grade 1 range)

9. Partial alphabetic
phase (pre-K - grade 1)
• Know some names/sounds and have some phonemic
awareness
• Form partial connections between speech and print
– /jp/ for “jump”
– Very evident in writing
• Initial and final sounds more salient
• Characteristic of preschool middle class and children with
extensive informal and formal PA and alphabetic experiences

10. Full alphabetic phase
(k- grade 2)
• Know how to segment and blend
• Know major vowel and consonant phoneme-
grapheme relationships
• Have both PA and alphabet knowledge
• Characteristic of first grade children with rich PA and
alphabetic instruction

11. Consolidated alphabetic phase (Grades
1-3)
• Know larger spelling patterns
– Silent e
• Acquiring extensive sight vocabularies (pronunciation and
word spelling glued together in memory)
• Accuracy and speed in decoding are important
• Characteristic of grade 2 children with extensive reading and
good fluency

12. 4I
Emergent Literacy
Begins at Birth
• Emergent literacy is the developmental process
that begins at birth whereby children acquire the
foundation for reading and writing.
• “The term ‘emergent literacy’ is used to denote
the idea that the acquisition of literacy is best
conceptualized as a developmental continuum,
with its origins early in the life of a child, rather
than as an all-or-none phenomenon that begins
when children start school” (p. 848).
• Emergent literacy IS NOT teaching babies how to
read independently

13. 4J
Emergent Literacy is
Appropriate for all Children
• Disability, as well as the reactions of others to
disability, can result in fewer opportunities for
children to experience literacy.
• Children with disabilities, including children with
visual impairments, can and do experience
literacy success when provided with appropriate
support and modifications.

14. 4K
Family Literacy
• Families are essential to emergent literacy
development.
• Reading and writing are usually first introduced to
children in the home.
• Researchers have repeatedly found that the home
literacy environments of toddlers and
preschoolers have measurable effects on later
literacy skills.

15. 4L
Family Literacy
Characteristics
Family and environmental characteristics that
are related to literacy include
• a variety of literacy activities in the home (e.g.,
many books and writing materials that are used
regularly),
• language and vocabulary used in the home,
• opportunities for children to learn about people
and activities, and
• high parental expectations for child literacy.

16. Why does Emergent literacy matter?
• The ability to read is critical to:
 Success in school
Life-long earning potential
 Contribution to our economy, our
community’s security and livability

17. Ready to Read
• Sharing books and stories
• Exposing children to print
• Singing and storytelling
• Learning through play
• Developing vocabulary

18. Societal Benefits
• Children who read on grade level by end of 3rd
grade are 4 TIMES more likely to graduate by
age 19 than those who read below grade level.
• Increasing literacy reduces poverty, lowers
crime rates, and improves general standard of
living for individuals and communities.

19. 2. Theories and Approaches of
Literacy
• What is a Theory?
A theory is an idealized representation of reality
that help us explain some natural phenomena.
 It is an idea or thought pattern about a particular
subject matter and how it should be perceived.
Campbell & Zazkis (2002) contended that
theories are like toothbrushes where everyone
has their own and no one wants to use anyone
else’s theory.

20. • There are a number of theories associated with literacy
development.
• These theories are based on people’s ideas about early
literacy development and how children learn.
• In trying to discuss the subject matter, we explore by
asking ourselves a number of questions such how our ideas
about early literacy have developed.
• What researchers and educators have influenced the way
reading and writing are approached today?
• It is important for teachers who work with young children
and their families to be familiar with the history of early
literacy as a foundation for current practices

21. • Theories of literacy development include the following:
 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Maturation Theory
 Theory of Literacy Development
 Stage Models of Reading
 Emergent Literacy Theory
 Family Literacy Theory.
• These theories help us explain how literacy
development in children is done in the early years of
education.

22. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
• The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget
contends that there are different phases of intellectual
development and each stage is associated with certain
behavioural activities.
• It is these activities that guide educators and theorists
in literacy on what is and what is not tenable.
• Educationalists using this theory believe that the
nature of content that is given to pupils for learning
must relate their level of intellectual development.
• In other ways, the emphasis is sequencing learner’s
activities based on their stages of intellectual
development.

23. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
• This position is based on Piaget’s theory that children’s
cognitive growth occurs in a sequential pattern through
four related stages.
• In this way, what and how a child learns is determined
largely by the child’s present stage of development.
• The Theory of Cognitive Development was conceptualized
by Jean Piaget in 1969 who is classified as both a
constructivist an a developmental theorist.
• It is one of the most famous theories used to explain
children’s overall cognitive development.
• It can be used by literacy educators to understand the
learning stages though which students’ progress as they
mature and their relationship to literacy achievement.

24. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
• Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes
the ways in which the quality of children’s thinking changes
over time based on their intellectual development.
• According to Piaget, there are four factors that affect the
quality of an individual’s thinking:
 biological maturation,
 activity,
 social experiences and
 equilibration.
All these factors are linked to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.

25. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Believed that all children develop according to four
stages based on how they see the world.
– He thought the age may vary some, but that we all go
through the stages in the same order.
1. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years)
2. Preoperational (~2-7)
3. Concrete operational (~7-11)
4. Formal operations (~12-15)

26. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years)
• Children use sensory exploration of the world:
 They do not use or have language skills and
are dependent on their senses.
Class activities for literacy development in this
stage include:
(i) Board books with brightly colored pictures
and
(ii) Books with sound, things to touch, or smell

27. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of
age)
• There is rapid language development skills in
this stage as children begin to categorize
things with words.
• Literacy activities in class include
(i) story book reading and
(ii) discussing the story

28. Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years of
age)
• In this stage of development, children use
concrete objects to begin to think about
abstract concepts.
• Activities for Literacy development include:
(i) Graphic Organizers {Venn Diagrams, Flow
Maps}and
(ii) others.

29. Formal Operational (11 years of age to
adult)
• In this stage, children use language in an abstract
way.
• Activities for Literacy include the use of
metacognitive reading strategies helps students
to “think about their thinking” before and after
they read.
• Examples:
• Making Inferences and Summarizing information.

30. Piaget…
• A literacy study that was conducted using
theory of Cognitive Development concluded
that the mental age of six and half year old
child performed better on reading
achievement than younger children.
• Using this research and other related studies
resolved that in applying Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development, the following should
be observed for literacy education:

31. Piaget…
• (i) reading instruction should not be implemented until
students reached the age of 6 1/2 years of age
(ii) Initial literacy activities that are given to children at home
must be linked or related to the level of child’s intellectual
development. Other studies recommendations suggested that
parents should not attempt to teach reading to their children
at home as educators would cause damage to children’s
reading ability if they attempted to teach reading to children
who were too young.
(iii) Reading abilities are linked to Maturation Theory which
believe learning to read is viewed as a natural developmental
occurrence.

32. Maturation Theory
• The maturation theory states that Children would
be ready to read when they have developed
certain prerequisite skills and there is little that
teachers and parents can do to hurry the process
of cognitive development.
• In other ways, the theory advocate for not
teaching reading until children were mature
enough for instruction.
• Scholars for this theory hypothesized that this
could happen when children were at mental age
of 6 1/2.

33. Maturation Theory
• Aldridge & Goldman (2007) noted that the
Maturational Theory of child development was
developed by Arnold Gesell with his colleagues
including Morphette and Washburne who
constructed a set of behavioral norms that
illustrate sequential and predictable patterns of
growth and development.
• Gesell contended that all children go through
similar stages, although each child may move
through these stages at their own rate (Godwin,
Herb, Ricketts & Wymer, 2013).

34. Theory of Literacy Development
• The theory was developed by Holdaway in
1979 and it states that learning to read was a
natural development that is closely linked to a
child’s natural development of oral language
skills.
• Holdaway’s theory of literacy further contends
that literacy development begins in children’s
homes and is based on meaningful learning
experiences.

35. Theory of Literacy Development
• There are four key components in this theory as
itemized by (Godwin etal, 2013):
(a) observation -which demand that children need to
have the opportunity to observe literacy behaviours from
others. For example, parents and siblings to read for
them.
(b) Collaboration – this require that children need to
interact with others who provide encouragement and
help with the reading process.
(c) Practice – children need the opportunity to practice
alone in order to self-evaluate, make corrections and
increase their skills independently.
(d) Performance – children need the opportunity to share
their new reading skills with those who support them.

36. Theory of Literacy Development
• It is important to note that these components
are linked to the child’s natural development
occurrence which begins at home which leads
to a gradual formation of literacy
development practices.
• The classroom application or characteristics of
natural literacy development include:

37. Theory of Literacy Development
• i. Rich home literacy environment
ii. Parent – Child interactions of modeling
literacy behaviors
iii. Rich literacy classroom environment by
Labeling key items around the room
Wide variety of high quality reading materials
 Meaningful language experiences
 Use of big books and shared reading

38. ……
• Holdaway highly recommends the use of big
books and shared reading to foster natural
literacy development.
• He believes big books can create the same
positive feelings about story time that children
have when they read at home.
• He believes that these natural storytelling times
build student’s oral language, print tracking,
concept of letters, and words (Godwin etal,
2013).

39. Stages Model of Reading
• Stage Model theorists such as Frith (1985),
Ehri (1991), and Gough, Joel & Griffith (1992),
believe that children’s reading is in stages of
word identification and that students increase
the number of strategies used during reading
as their reading skills develop.
• Lower staged reading strategies remain
available to a reader as they incorporate more
difficult reading skills in later strategies.

40. Stages Model of Reading
• Chall (1983) as quoted by Godwin etal, (2013)
noted that there are four Stages of Word
Identification:
1. Pre – Alphabetic Stage
2. Partial Alphabetic Stage
3. Full Alphabetic Stage
4. Consolidated Alphabetic Stage,

41. Pre – Alphabetic Stage {Logographic
Stage}
• This stage is associated with a number of feature which
include the following:
• (a) Visual cues are primary method of word
identification
• (b) One might memorize words by their shape or
“look”
• (c) Use of environmental print and logos
• (d) Word Identification is not yet related to letter –
sound knowledge.
• Class activities for Literacy in this stage include:
 collecting samples of Environmental Print to display in
the classroom.

42. Partial Alphabetic Stage.
• This stage according to Godwin et.al (2013)
uses “Phonetic Cue Reading” which further
demand the use of some letter – sound cues.
• First letter of the word and then use just a
letter or two as children develop.

43. Full Alphabetic Stage.
• In this stage students relies more on letter –
sound knowledge.
• Student tries to process all the letters in a word
and a child may become tied to letter-by-letter
reading which slows down the reading process.
• Class activities for Literacy here includes: Puzzles,
Word Card Games, Magnetic Letters, Alphabet
Books. Magazine Search, Letter Bingo and Word
Sort: Beginning, Middle, and End Sounds

44. Consolidated Alphabetic Stage.
• Here there is automatic knowledge of sound –
letter relationships.
• Students read letter patterns within words
and they use word family knowledge to aid
the reading process.
• Activities for Literacy include: word Wheels,
Word Family Sorts, Poetry, Flip Books (Godwin
etal, 2013).

45. Family Literacy Theory
• Godwin etal, (2013) contended that family
literacy refers to a series of ideas that
researchers share, including the design,
implementation, and evaluation of programs
to help facilitate literacy development of
family members; the relationship between
family literacy and student achievement; and
the ways in which literacy is naturally used in
the home.

46. Family Literacy Theory
• This theory stresses the importance of family involvement
on student achievement.
• The actions to encourage Family Literacy include;
i. Create a two – way street between parents and teachers
in order to gain information about literacy in the home.
ii. Teach parents about the school culture and necessary
skills for a student to be successful.
iii. Help parents understand what they can do at home to
help support and encourage their children’s academic
success. Many studies have been done on parent and child
reading interactions to support the importance of the
connection between home and school.
iv. Parent Volunteers Reading in the Classroom

47. Emergent Literacy Theory
• The Emergent Literacy Theory states that there
are levels of literacy behaviours which children
acquire before they formally get into classroom
which facilitates the acquisition of reading and
writing skills at a conventional level.
• Emergent literacy theorists believe that literacy
development starts in the maternity ward and is
continuous and ongoing.
• This early literacy development provides
educators with instructional guidance to promote
early literacy growth among their students.

48. Emergent Literacy Theory
• Theorists believe that children’s development
in the areas of listening, speaking, reading,
and writing are all interrelated.
• In other ways, Emergent Literacy Theorists
believe that children’s listening, speaking,
reading, and writing skills begin at birth, it also
emphasizes the importance of a literacy rich
home environment.

49. Emergent Literacy Theory
• Components of a literacy rich home
environment include:
having large number of books available in the
home,
 Newspapers and Magazines,
Parents read a variety of materials and
Reading is associated with pleasure,
Parents frequently read to children.

50. ……
• Marie Clay’s studies on emergent literacy indicated
that children know a great deal about reading and
writing before they come to school, and they are able
to experiment with and apply their knowledge in
various ways (Clay, 1975).
• Reading readiness seemed to be an inaccurate term,
since Clay’s research showed that there was not a
specific sequence of skills children needed to master
prior to reading and writing.
• The children she studied seemed instead to “emerge”
into literacy—with writing, reading, and oral language
abilities developing together.

51. Approaches to Literacy teaching
1. Language Experience Approach
2. Phonics Approach
3. Sight word Approach

52. LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH
• Language experience approach is suitable for
all levels of learners.
• By using the Language Experience Approach
(LEA) to teach beginning readers how to read,
pupils can connect their life experiences with
learning written words.

53. LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH
• The unique factor about this approach is that the
pupils own words are recorded or used as they
describe the event or activity.
• This allows them to interact with the text and
gain knowledge and understanding through their
experience.
• The LEA can be used with individual pupils or
group.
• While it is most commonly used with young
emerging readers, it is also effective for teaching
struggling readers

54. LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH
• It is an approach to reading in which the
child’s own language and experiences is used
to create reading material.
• Students dictate a story based on an
experience they have had.
• The teacher writes the dictated story.
• Through discussion, the teacher can help
students organize and reflect on their
experiences.

55. Language-Experience for ELL
• Accept the child’s language and show that it is
valued.
• If the teacher edits it, it becomes the
teacher’s language, not the child’s.
• However, if mispronounced, the teacher
should spell correctly.
• As children grow in language, they will have
opportunities to develop fuller knowledge of
verbs, contractions, and pronunciation.

56. Advantages
• It integrates the four language processes.
• It is child centred which brings new reader to the
text rather than the other way around.
• Aids comprehension:
 the reader and composer are one and the same
person.
 The child understands that text carries meaning
 It is enjoyable and allows the child and his or her
life to become known.

57. Advantages..
• Highly motivating.
• Boosts self esteem
• Incorporates emotion and fun
• Can be used to develop sight vocabulary and
comprehension via cloze exercises

58. How to conduct ELA approach in class?
• PROCEDURES:
Present the topic for discussion.
This might be based on a previous field trip, as
story that was read to the class, a video, or some
other experience shared by the class.
 Write down the title on large lined chart paper
with a marker.
Encourage careful observations .
Elicit and extend oral language relating to the
students' thoughts and observations.

59. PHONICS APPROACH
• Teaches the relation of the letters (graphemes) to the
sounds (phonemes) they represent.
• The theory behind the phonics approach is based on
two assumptions: most languages have consistent
phonemes (sound) to grapheme (letter) correlation.
• Once children have learned the relationships of the
letters to the sounds, they can pronounce printed
words by blending the sounds together.
• Knowing these relationships help early readers
recognizes familiar words accurately and automatically
"decode" new words.

60. PHONICS APPROACH
• Utilizes explicit, teacher-directed instruction to
introduce skills and strategies.
• Provides distributed practice and cumulative
review.
• Emphasis to reinforce phonic elements or
linguistic patterns.
• Tightly controlled vocabulary and are used
primarily for struggling readers.
• Selections are unnatural so it is difficult to use
context clues.

61. Advantages..
• Increase students’ phonemic awareness.
• Strengthen letter-sound associations.
• Increase decoding skills for single syllable and
multi-syllabic words.
• Increase instant recognition of high frequency
words.
• Improve spelling of single syllable and multi-
syllabic words.
• Promote passage reading fluency and related
comprehension

62. Sight Word Approach
• Sight words are words that are recognized
instantly and without any analysis.
• Many sight words can’t be sounded out
because they don’t follow decoding rules.
• Sight words are high frequency words – the
words most frequently occurring in reading
materials.

63. • Why do we teach sight words?
Students who learn sight words have a good
base for beginning reading instruction.
• When do we teach sight words?
Sight word instruction usually begins in
kindergarten and continues into primary and
secondary school, although struggling readers
continue learning sight words beyond
secondary school.

64. Basal reader
• It is a core reading program that is used to
teach children to read.
• It is usually a grade-levelled series of
textbooks produced by an educational
publisher which focus on teaching reading
either by a code-emphasis approach or a
meaning-emphasis approach.

65. Basal reader
• It is very dependent on books and
instructional materials, in terms of its
presentation.
Code emphasis approach
Relies heavily on phonemic awareness and
decoding and word attack skills

66. Basal reader
Meaning-emphasis program
Tends to stress the concept of "reading for
understanding" and the accompanying
workbooks have questions about the stories
read, vocabulary lessons and lessons
encouraging students to write about what
they have read

67. Materials and Content of Basal Reader

68. Materials and Content of Basal Reader

69. Materials and Content of Basal Reader

70. Advantages
• 1. Well organized, each skill is presented in a
sequential order.
• 2. Good scope and sequence; skills are taught
continuously throughout all of the grades.
• 3. Teacher's manual is full of ideas to be used.
• 4. Readers are colorful, well illustrated, and
contain a variety of literature appropriate for
each age

71. Advantages
• 5. Includes systematic instruction in word
recognition, comprehension, and some study
skills with a gradual introduction of each new
skill.
• 6. A big help to a beginning teacher.
• 7. Some contain criterion-referenced tests to
check skill mastery.
• 8. Some have an IRI for placement.
• 9. Stories attempt to be multi-ethnic and non-
stereotyping of women

72. Limitations
• 1. Readability. The stories often vary widely in
grade level within a reader.
• 2. Teachers have a tendency to regard the
guide as The Source instead of as a guide.
• 3. Recreational reading for pleasure is often
neglected.
• 4. Pacing of introduction of new skills is too
rapid for some and too slow for others.
• 5. Students tend to be placed into readers
which are too difficult or too easy for them.

73. Limitations
• 6. Stories are sometimes dull.
• 7. Teachers tend to use the basal as the entire
reading.
• 8. Not personalized.
• 9. Not individualized enough.
• 10. The language in the beginning readers doesn't
always match that of the child.
• 11. Stories at the beginning levels may be dull
and unnatural in language patterns.

74. Ability grouping
• What is it?
The practice of dividing students for
instruction on the basis of their perceived
capacities for learning.

75. Heterogeneous and Homogeneous
• Heterogeneous is used to describe a group of
students in a mixed-ability class.
• Homogeneous is used to describe a group of
students grouped by ability.

76. Types …
• With-in class grouping – refers to dividing
students of similar ability into small groups,
usually used for reading or math instruction.
• Between-class grouping- The students are
separated into different classes, courses or course
sequences –also known as tracks-based on the
students level of achievement.
• The Joplin Plan – Students remain in
heterogeneous classes for the day but regroup
across grade levels for reading instruction.

77. Types ….
• Non-graded plan – Placing students in groups
according to their performance rather than
their age. The curriculum is divided into levels
which students progress at their own rates.

78. Within class grouping
• Mostly used in the elementary grades
• Frequently used for math and reading
• Most positive effects are slightly greater for
lower achieving students than for higher
achieving students
• Is especially helpful in upper elementary grade
levels and in teaching math.

79. Between class grouping
• About 60% of elementary schools practice some form of
between – class ability grouping and two-thirds of high
schools are moderately tracked.
• Can be useful in particular subjects like math and reading.
• Benefits are only seen if the children are only put into the
groups for no more than two subjects.
• Only proven to be useful in the elementary level, not high
school.
• Students who spend most of the day “tracked” into
achievement level courses, that used the same curriculum,
do not benefit at any level.
• Students in the “higher” level track, with curricula adjusted
to their ability levels, do yield positive effects.
• No difference for “lower” track students.

80. Joplin plan
• There is strong evidence that the Joplin plan
can increase reading achievement.
• An example would be a reading group with
high achieving fourth graders, average
achieving fifth graders and low achieving sixth
graders.

81. Non- graded plan
• Students progress at own rate
• Studies conducted in regular schools support
the use of non-graded plans.

82. TEACHING PHONICS

83. Teaching literacy
How do you teach young
learners to read and write?

84. An important part of learning to read
and write is being able to hear sounds
in words

85. Young learners are already familiar
with many words or language chunks
but also with sounds which do not
exist in their mother tongue.

86. For example, sound differences
such as those between long and
short vowels, or those between /s/
and /sh/ sounds are easily
discernible by them.

87. The English system
 26 letters in English
 44 main sounds (e.g., ‘tch’, ‘sh’,
etc.)

88. Reading in English
 English is an exceptionally inconsistent
alphabetic language because it suffers from a
large amount of inconsistency in both reading
and spelling.

89.  A letter can be pronounced in multiple ways
(e.g. the letter ‘a’ in English maps onto a
different phoneme in the words ‘cat’, ‘was’,
‘saw’, ‘made’ and ‘car’)
 Some letters have more than one sound
(e.g., vowels and consonants like ‘c’, ‘s’, ‘y’,
etc.)

90. How to teach phonics
 Gradually move on to the more complicated
ones(/ph/, /th/,/-th /, /sh/)
 Forget about the traditional approach (the
alphabet)
 When we start teaching phonics, we start
with one sound only. We start with the most
common sounds (eg. /a/, /t/, /s/, /d/, /e/, /i/,
/p/)

92.  When you have given them the first basic sounds,
you can start building with them the first simple
words (transparent) through simple sound
combinations. (sit, sat, tin, pin, pen, ten, set etc.)
 Let your students create their own nonsense (or
silly) words (testint, piten, satiapata….) and later
their own nonsense (or silly) sentences (a mat in
the tub, the cat sits on the hat……) and even short
stories.

93. Using Total Physical Response (TPR) in teaching
phonics
Invite pupils to:
 Touch and feel the new letter-sound
A multi-sensory method

94. Form it with their bodies

95. Sing and dance it (‘h’ can be hop’, ‘t’
is playing tennis and ‘d’ is drum.
Each sound has its own action and
song
This fun way helps the pupil learn
the sounds more easily

96.  Sing and dance it
ddddd hhhhh

97.  The pupils trace the letter
following the arrows.

98. Lower case and capital letters
•We first focus on lower case
letters
•In the same lesson we also deal
with capitals

99. More complicated sounds
 Later on start introducing the different and
more complicated vowel sounds and vowel
combinations (/ai/, /ee/, /oo/, /ow/, /i-e/, /o-
e/ etc).
 This needs lots of practice and you will need
to employ different approaches and
techniques /methods such as games, songs
colouring, matching etc

100. Building Word Families
ai
Pain
Train
paint
ay
Pray
Tray
spray
o-e
Bone
Cone
home

101. Playing with word families

102. Rhyming
• We can make up silly rhymes and focus on
specific vowel sounds:
The funny clown
is in the town
Look! He can bow!

103. REMEMBER !
Teachers should
always detect and
respect different
learning styles
and strategies.

104. Opaque words
What do we do with words such as
“ one” “two” or “are”?
We teach them as sight words

105. Help with reading
•Dots are used to show how many
sounds in each word
•Pupils can put their finger on each
dot
… ..

106. Do we teach Alphabet?

109. Other helpful material
 Mini books
 Colouring pages
 Matching activities

110. Some tips
 Phonics-based instruction is an ongoing
process. We don’t teach all the phonemes till
we come to the end.
 After 6-7 phonemes we do other activities and
projects giving pupils time to assimilate their
new knowledge

111. Why learning with phonics?
It helps learners acquire accurate
pronunciation
It helps them make associations between
spelling and pronunciation
 It helps them recognize and read patterns
(e.g., if they know how to read ‘leaf’ it will be
easier for them to read the words ‘bean’,
‘eat’, etc.)

112. 5. Balanced Literacy Program
• A balanced literacy program includes all
activities done in the classrooms—word
study, read aloud, reader’s workshop and
writer’s workshop.
112

113. Shared Reading
• Shared reading is an interactive reading process in which a
teacher and student share in reading a text and the teacher
models the skills of a proficient reader. When doing a
shared reading, the text is available for both the student
and teacher to see, whether it be looking at the same book
or a projected reading on a screen.
• As a teacher begins the shared reading process, he or she
selects a skill or behaviour they wish to model (for example,
a teacher may model fluency). The teacher will read the
text aloud fluently, with correct speed, accuracy, and
intonation, and students will replicate the behaviour.
Shared readings support in-the-moment, replicable reading
behaviours.
113

114. Read Aloud
• Read aloud is a process by which teachers select a text to
model specific reading strategies often used by readers as
they silently read. The process of reading aloud helps to
support students’ listening comprehension skills as well as
reinforce behaviors that readers would use if they are
reading independently.
• For example, a teacher may choose to read a text to model
expression. They may choose to read a text to model self-
to-text connections. They may even use a text
instructionally for understanding main ideas, drawing
conclusions, or identifying cause and effect. Read alouds
are foundational for building many skills necessary to
comprehend a text.
114

115. Guided Reading
• Guided reading allows teachers to create
differentiated small groups to deliver reading
instruction at a student’s particular reading
level. While shared readings and read alouds
are typically done for the entire class to model
a particular reading behaviour or reading
comprehension skill, guided readings allow for
targeted practice of a behaviour or skill on
level.
115

116. Cloze Reading Procedure
• Cloze reading is a strategy in which words are
removed from a text to support a student’s
reading comprehension. Teachers may choose
to remove unknown vocabulary words in a
passage in order to support a student’s ability
to use context clues to determine the missing
word. Cloze reading procedures engage
students in a process of problem solving or
analytical behaviours necessary when reading
on level or difficult texts.
116

117. Word Study / Vocabulary Instruction
• Word Study in a balanced literacy program can involve
decoding study of a word. For example, if studying the
word “chain,” students would be working on both
digraphs (“ch”) and vowel-vowel-consonant rimes
(“ain”). Learning words phonetically in this way
supports decoding and spelling abilities.
• Word Study can also include studying meaning of a
word—vocabulary. Using the above example, one
could introduce the definition of the word “chain” as “a
series of links.” The definition can also be paired with a
picture to increase understanding.
117

118. Interactive Writing
• Interactive Writing is a process by which
teachers and students share the pen,
essentially modelling parts of the writing
process. Teachers may model writing a topic
sentence for an introductory paragraph and
students contribute what is included within
the writing.
118

119. Reader's Workshop
• Reader’s Workshop includes:
• a mini-lesson,
• independent reading time in which students are
expected to practice a particular reading strategy
taught during the lesson,
• teacher-student conferencing,
• small group instruction, and
• a close/share, in which students have an opportunity
to model or express how they used the strategy during
the workshop time.
119

120. Writers Workshop
• Similar to Reader’s Workshop, Writer’s Workshop
includes a mini-lesson and independent writing time in
which students are expected to practice a particular
strategy during a phase of the writing process
(generating ideas, drafting, revising, editing, and
publishing).
• Writer’s Workshop also includes teacher-student
conferencing, small group instruction, and a
close/share in which students have an opportunity to
model or express how they used the strategy during
the workshop time.
120

121. 6. The Reading and Writing
Connection
Understanding and using the literacy
connection between reading and
writing
121

122. Want to teach a child to read?
Give him a pencil.
Want to teach a child to
write? Give him a book.
122

123. • Children appear to be more likely to derive learning benefits
across reading and writing when they understand that a
connection exists.
• Reading is the receptive side of knowledge, while writing is
the productive side. Thus, reading and writing are reciprocal
processes.
• Writing skill is a predictor of academic success along with
reading comprehension.
Reading Research in Action, 2008
123

124. Strategies for integrating reading and writing
across the curriculum
• “Effective teachers will recognize where their
students are in reading and writing
development and will tailor instruction
accordingly.”
• ~Louisa C. Moats
124

125. Reading + Writing = Literacy
• Each skill contributes to the other.
• Both skills enhance engagement and reasoning.
• Reading and writing involve using knowledge of
language structure, including word structure, and
text structure (syntax and style).
~Reading Research in Action, 2008.
125

126. Traits of proficient readers
• Make connections
• Self-question
• Visualize
• Determine importance
• Make inference
• Synthesize
• Monitor comprehension
126

127. How do the reading traits translate to
writing?
1. Make connections
2. Self-question
3. Visualize
4. Determine importance
1. Connects to topic/thesis
2. Writing
process/organization
drafts
3. Creates a picture/plan
3. Must determine the
evidence/supporting
details
127

128. How do the reading traits translate to
writing?
5. Make inference
6. Synthesize
7. Monitor comprehension
5. Audience, readers’ concerns,
counter-arguments
6. Research/include/create
7. Diction, syntax, cohesiveness
128

129. Pillars of Reading
Early Literacy
• Phonics
• Phonemic Awareness
• Comprehension
• Fluency
• Vocabulary
Adolescent Literacy
• Vocabulary
• Advanced Word Study
• Comprehension
• Fluency
• Motivation
129

130. What does the research say?
• Reading and writing are interdependent processes that are
essential to each other and mutually beneficial.
• Reading and writing should occur naturally to construct
meaning in everyday situations.
• Reading and writing are clearly related, and each has been
shown to benefit from instruction addressing the other.
~McCardle, Chhabra, & Kapinus in Reading Research
in Action, 2008
130

131. The Integration of Language Arts
Instruction
• Reading and writing can be described as parallel
processes.
• There is a connection between what readers do and
what writers do.
• Writers want to give information and readers want to
seek information---metaphorically, readers and
writers meet at the text.
131

132. It makes sense to teach the two together.
• You will note that many of the terms and
concepts found in the reading standards are also
included in the writing standards.
• Writing is closely related to reading, and the two
can reinforce each other, with writing both
enhancing and demonstrating reading
comprehension in all content areas.
132

133. Let’s Write: How do we feel?
• Receive a copy of “Fish
Cheeks” by Amy Tan.
• Listen closely as it is
read.
• Receive an emotion
chart.
• Fill out the chart
 Guided imagery activity:
1. Close eyes and
visualize as the
presenter asks
questions.
2. Open your eyes and
now write for 15
minutes.
3. Now share with a
person next to you.
4. Now share with the
group.
133

134. Share a great book that you have read!
• Read your favorite book.
• Explain what made you want to read the
book.
• Then read the tail.
• Explain what you thought about the tail.
Were you disappointed or pleased?
• Be sure to have each student present in the
same way that you did.
134

135. How do we help our students develop and
use these habits ?
• Model it!
Teachers need to practice Read Aloud
Think Aloud (RATA) in class.
This involves reading aloud a small portion of text and
modeling (or thinking out loud) the strategies that
you use to comprehend text.
135

136. • Read It
Think It
• Write
It
Think It
• Talk It
Know It
136

137. Activity: Teaching Voice through
Reading Selections
• Read the two texts.
• Talk about the voice of each piece.
• How can you use these pieces to teach
students how to create a voice in a writing?
• What are some of the GPS terms you can use
when using these writings to teach students
how to write a certain style?
137

138. Addressing the Standards through the
Reading and Writing Connection
• To teach narrative writing, read and discuss several
narrative pieces with students before they write.
• To teach persuasive writing, read and discuss several
persuasive pieces with students before they write.
• To teach technical writing, read and discuss several
technical pieces with students before they write.
• To teach expository writing, read and discuss several
informational pieces with students before they write.
THIS WILL HELP THEM EXPLORE THE COMPONENTS OF
THE DIFFERENT GENRES.
138

139. Organizational Structures
• Explanation
• Description
• Sequence or Logical Order
• Cause and Effect
• Classification Schemes
• Comparison and Contrast
• Problem and Solution
• Question and Answer
139

140. Pre-Reading: Anticipation Guide
• The anticipation guide is designed to access prior knowledge about a topic
before reading the text.
• Students respond to several statements that support or challenge their
preconceived ideas about a topic.
• Teacher identifies the major ideas of a text and then anticipates student
ideas that would be supported or challenged by the text
• Five to six statements addressing the major ideas make up the anticipation
guide (even those that might contradict student beliefs).
• Prior to reading, students discuss whether they agree or disagree with the
statements, justifying their answers.
• As they read, they focus on information that confirms, elaborates, or
rejects each of the statements.
• After they read, they revisit the statements and evaluate their
understanding of the ideas discussed in the text, correcting any
misconceptions they originally had.
140

141. Strategies for Content Texts
Pre-Reading:
• Provide a variety of textual resources
(magazines, newspapers, nonfiction books,
nonfiction picture books for children,
textbooks, electronic media).
• These texts can provide pictures and images,
narrative writing or personal points of view,
engaging writing techniques, and connections
to real-life.
141

142. Three Types of Writing for Every
Classroom
• Writing-to-Learn
• Writing to Demonstrate Learning
• Authentic Writing
142

143. Writing to Learn: Connected to
Reading
• Journals—Journal of the Plague Year
• Learning logs—Night (Pair with a history book’s account of the
Holocaust)
• Writer’s Notebooks—(Collection of short fiction and nonfiction
selections)
• Exit and Entry(Admit) Slips—(Connect to the LOTS—both reading
and writing--- symbols, themes, diction, syntax, etc.)
• Study guides—Jane Austen selection (How does each female
character reflect the historical period? Be sure to include historical
research as evidence.)
143

144. Writing to Demonstrate Learning:
Connected to Reading
• Paragraphs—Excerpt from a Katherine Anne Porter selection to
emulate style.
• Essays—The Ways We Lie by Stephanie Ericsson
• Essays and open-response questions—Any great reading selection
• Research assignments—Their Eyes Were Watching God –Why did
Zora Neale Hurston use so many examples of folklore? Things Fall
Apart—How accurate is Achebe in his depiction of the Ibo people?
• On-demand writing(timed writing)—Use nonfiction as much as
possible here (SAT writing, ACT writing, etc. will often deal with
such topics)
144

145. Authentic (Real World) Writing
• Articles—Use the biographical sections about authors here, or use the
author’s own voice by finding articles where the authors talk about their own
writing—example: Hemingway’s comments on The Old Man and the Sea
• Editorials—Pull newspaper editorials; read those for persuasive techniques
and then have students write their own.
• Speeches—Read “Ain’t I a Woman” by Truth or any President’s inaugural
address
• Letters—A Letter to My Husband by Adams
• Proposals—Swift’s A Modest Proposal; Pull a business proposal from any
business website—explain the components of a proposal.
• Reviews—Movie and literary reviews (read and critique before they write their
own)
• Business plan—Again pull examples from MIT or a business website
• How to manuals—Pull examples from the CTAE department at your school
• Memorandums—Critical: Pull examples from websites
145

146. Create your own READING/WRITING
CONNECTION list
• Handout: Take each writing type and create a
list based on the literature you are going to
study this year.
• Be ready to share with the group.
• Discussion
146

147. 7. The Writing Process
Getting from Nothing to Something

148. PREWRITING
• The 1st step of the writing process.

149. Things you do during prewriting
• Choose your topic
• Identify your audience
• Identify your purpose
• Gather supporting details

150. Prewriting Strategies
• Write for a limited amount of time on whatever
comes to mind
• Formalized list-making
• Bubble map (also called mapping or webbing)
• Formulate questions you have about the topic
then look for answers (research)

151. Audience
• Anyone who is going to “receive” your work

152. Why you need to know your audience
• Amount of information
• Word choice
• Kinds of details
• Formal/Informal

153. Purpose
• Why you’re writing
• What you want to accomplish

154. Examples of Purposes
• Inform – research paper
• Entertain – descriptive essay
• Persuade – persuasive essay
• Explain

155. Why you need to know your purpose
• Word choice
• Organization
• Kinds of details

156. DRAFTING
• The 2nd step of the writing process

157. Things you do during drafting
• Turn prewriting ideas into sentences
• Group sentences into paragraphs
• Organize the paragraphs based on purpose
• Get something that looks like a formal piece of
writing

158. Main Idea
• The point the writing supports

159. Thesis statement
• One sentence that tells what the entire essay
is going to be about
• All paragraphs in the essay support the thesis
statement
• Determines how many and what kinds of
details go in the essay

160. Topic Sentence
• One sentence that tells what the paragraph is
going to be about
• All sentences in the paragraph support the
topic sentence

161. Style
• Whether the paper is written formally or
informally
• Determined by audience and purpose

162. Organization
• Important decisions to be made during
drafting
• Supporting details have to go in an order that
makes sense
• Determined by purpose

163. Methods of Organization
• Chronological – time order
• Spatial order – how details are related to other
details; as you become aware of them; always has
a starting point
• Compare & contrast – based on similarities and
differences
• Emphatic order – based on order of importance

164. REVISING (content level changes)
• The 3rd step in the writing process

165. Unity
• All details relate to the topic
All paragraphs in the essay relate to the
thesis
All sentences in the paragraph relate to the
topic sentence

166. Coherence
• Details are arranged in a way that makes
sense

167. Why Revising Is Important
• Your writing needs to make sense
• You need to include all necessary details
• You need to get rid of any unnecessary details

168. EDITING (sentence level changes)
• The 4th step in the writing process

169. Things You Look for During Editing
• Grammar (fragments, run-ons, usage errors)
• Mechanics (punctuation, capitalization)
• Spelling

170. Why Editing is Important
• Good papers look bad if they have a lot of
errors
• Errors get in the way of content
• Editing errors put your teacher in a bad mood


171. PRESENTING
• The 5th step in the writing process

172. What it is
• Turning it in

173. What you Should Do
• Print a clean copy – no smudges, stains, etc.
• Flat and neat – not wrinkled or torn
• Stapled in the upper left-hand corner

174. Why It’s Important
• You want to make a good first impression

175. THE PROCESS AS A WHOLE
• Cycle through the first four steps until the
paper is finished and ready to turn in
• Can do more prewriting during drafting
• Can do more drafting after revising
• Can edit during drafting

176. THE PROCESS AS A WHOLE
The writing process IS NOT linear!!!
(It is cyclical.)

177. Teaching of Spelling
• An important component of the balanced
approach to teaching language is teaching
learners to spell by relating sounds to letters.
• Learners should first understand the meaning
of a word before they can master spelling
patterns.
• A programme to teach spelling can be
effectively integrated with reading and writing
activities.

178. Spelling Phases
• All learners develop the ability to spell in
phases, although not all at the same pace.
Emergent spelling
• become aware of letter and notice what
words look like on paper
• experiment by writing own names and names
of objects in their environment

179. Semi-phonetic phase (spelling of acronyms)
• Through exposure to games that promote
phonetics and phonemic awareness, learners
quickly learn that certain letters and sounds
match.
• use two to three letters to spell words
(Stickland et al., 2004:390 as cited in Joubert,
2017).
Phonetic phase
• formal learning of spelling
• Learners start to notice spelling patterns.

180. Conventional spelling
• At this stage learners gain a greater
understanding of the alphabet principle and of
complex consonant patterns.
• To spell words they build on their knowledge
of the division of syllables, prefixes, suffixes
and stems, as well as their knowledge of
related words (Stickland et al., 2004:390 as
cited in Joubert, 2017).

181. Spelling Activities
• Learners should build their spelling skills daily though
various reading, writing and word-building activities.
Reading
• Learners learn to learn from the visual image of a
word.
• They read a story and observe word patterns which
they then apply to spell words.
• For example, they may read the word hot in the
sentence, “The pot is hot”. The teacher may then ask
them whether they can find more words that look the
same.

182. Writing
• When learners write they practise their
spelling and apply their knowledge of word
study to resolve spelling challenges.
• In a writing and spelling exercise the teacher
may select a sentence in the passage the
learners have to read. The learners close their
books and write down the sentence. They
then open their books and check their
spelling. Afterwards relevant spelling rules
may be discussed.

183. Word building
• sounds are combined to create words
• When learners know which letters represent which sounds,
they can start to construct the words in writing.
• They should master the high-frequency words and use
them daily.
• Words walls: words posted alphabetically, (they) may build
word and group words together that look the same.
• Cognitive monitoring technique: look at correct spelling,
close their eyes and visualise the word then write it down
without looking at it again.
• Learners may compare the spelling of their word with the
correct spelling.
• They should do the activities repeatedly.
• encourage dictionary use
• play word-building games

184. Teaching Spelling in the Foundation
Phase
• Encourage children to spell words phonetically
correct, so that each sound in a word is
represented in writing.
• As spelling is closely linked to phonics, the
spelling programme should be linked to the
phonics taught during that week.
• Spelling teaching informal in Grades 1 and 2, but
in Grade 3 a more formal spelling programme
should be implemented, with periodic informal
spelling tests and dictations.

185. According to Stickland et al. (2004:396) as cited by
Joubert, 2017, learners progress through various word
learning and spelling phases and the teacher should take
these into account in the following ways:
• Encourage the learners’ experiments with words by
means of word-learning activities.
• Encourage the learners to write from an early age.
• Match the learners’ ages and abilities to the standard
of spelling.
• Monitor the learners’ word-learning and spelling
abilities to help them progress from one phase to the
next. Remember to emphasise the learners’ own
explorative spelling more than correct spelling.

186. • When spelling is the focus, encourage learners to recall
the visual and auditory image of the word. Therefore,
they need to remember what the word looks like and
sounds like. The following guidelines can help learners
master spelling:
– Continued learning and repetition without boring the
learners.
– Reinforcement by means of games
– Sounding words out loud while writing the word as single
words or in sentences.
– Using illustrations, live characters, pictures and stories to
represent the word.
– Learner participation in movements such as sweeping a
hand over the surface of a table for a long sound and
tapping on the table for a short sound.
– association

187. • When learners confuse f and v (or th/v), use a
visual aid only because the sound will make no
difference.
• Some sounds in English, such as ay and ai, ate
and eight, ee and ea, do not lend themselves
to association, therefore ask learners how
they will remember the spelling of words
containing those sounds.

188. Selection of spelling words
• Words learners use frequently in their reading and
writing activities and words following a specific pattern
may be selected as spelling words.
Integration of spelling with writing
• Teachers should allow learners to combine spelling and
writing as often as possible.
• Learners may guess how to spell words by using
spelling strategies, but should also edit their work after
they have completed an assignment.
• encourage dictionary use
• Correct spelling is not to curb creativity but results in
better communication of writer’s message (Strickland
et al., 2004: 398, as cited in Joubert, 2017).

189. Spelling patterns
• Spelling patterns involve insight into the use
of phonograms or word elements.
• If a learner cannot spell correctly, he will have
difficulty with reading as well as writing.
• In the foundation phase the learners discover
the patterns that are present in the sounds,
structure and meaning of words.
• Initially the teacher will emphasise sound,
then prefixes ad suffixes as well as derivations.

190. Vocabulary Development
• Learners need sufficient word knowledge to decode
the meaning of texts.
• Vocabulary can be explained as the knowledge of
words, both spoken and printed, and the meanings of
those words.
• Vocabulary is important for the development of fluent
readers.
• The breadth of knowledge (the number of words
known) and its depth (the level of understanding of the
known words) are crucial in the development of
proficient readers.
• Direct teaching of vocabulary is necessary.

191. Factors Important in Vocabulary
Development
• Words that are repeated in different contexts are
not easily forgotten.
• Birch (2002) (as cited in Joubert, 2017) refers to
the phonological loop.
• Long words are not easily retained.
• The shorter the word, the better it will be
retained.
• Words with discernible letter-sound relationships
are more easily remembered than those with
complex relationships.

192. • Nouns are learned more easily than verbs.
• Nouns never change form like verbs, which tend
to change form according to the tense in which
they are used. The meaning of nouns also tend to
be more image-related than verbs.
• Words that conform to the spelling system of the
first language are learned more easily than those
with an altogether different spelling system.
• Words that are easily pronounced are more easily
remembered than difficult ones.
• Words with a stable pattern should precede
those with irregular form.
• Teach words that can easily be recalled.

193. Principles of Teaching and Learning
Vocabulary
Vacca et al. (2012) (as cited in Joubert, 2017) mention the
following seven principles that will reinforce the teaching of
vocabulary:
1. Building experiential background
2. Teaching words in relation to other words
3. Developing depth of meaning by relating taught words to
personal experience
4. Creating an interest in words
5. Teaching words systematically, emphasising the meaning
of words
6. Encouraging learners’ active participation
7. Repeating the taught words in differentcontexts

194. Strategies to Teach Vocabulary
There are a number of strategies to teach
vocabulary that are in line with the above principles
(Ducker, 2003; Snow et al., 1998; Vacca et al., 2012
as cited in Joubert, 2017):
• Labelling of objects/items in the classroom
• Acting out songs or rhymes is another effective
way to support vocabulary development.
• Introduce new words that are key to
understanding a story, before reading the story to
learners. Encourage the use of the new words in
sentences.

195. Reading Comprehension
• According to Biemiller (2006) for adequate
reading comprehension from grade 3 on, children
require both fluent word recognition skills and an
average or above-average vocabulary (p.41).
• Reading comprehension is the act of
understanding what you are reading. Reading
comprehension is an intentional, active,
interactive process that occurs before, during and
after a person reads a particular piece of writing
(What is Reading Comprehension, 2018).

196. Reading Comprehension Strategies
for English Language Learners
• Comprehension is the goal of reading, but it can
be the most difficult skill to master, especially for
English language learners (ELLs). ELLs often have
problems mastering science, math, or social
studies concepts, for example, because they
cannot comprehend the textbooks for these
subjects.
• ELLs at all levels of English proficiency and literacy
development will benefit from improved
comprehension skills, which allow them to:

197. • Read more accurately.
• Follow a text or story more closely.
• Identify important events and concepts in a
text.
• Master new concepts in their content-area
classes.
• Complete assignments and assessments.
• Feel motivated to read in school and for
pleasure.

198. • There are a number of ways to build ELLs'
comprehension skills.
• Often, standard strategies that teachers use in
mainstream classrooms are a good starting
point—they just need to be tweaked with
ELLs' language and academic needs in mind.
• This article focuses on strategies that are part
of three main approaches: building
background knowledge, teaching vocabulary
explicitly, and checking comprehension
frequently.

199. 1. Build background knowledge.
• Draw on students' existing knowledge.
• Build students' background knowledge.
• Take students on a tour of the text.
• Use a "picture-walk."
• Use outlines to scaffold comprehension.
2. Teach vocabulary explicitly.
• Focus on key vocabulary
• Include signal and directional words
• Use a "picture-walk" for vocabulary
• Teach students to actively engage with vocabulary

200. • Give students practice with new words
• Incorporate new words into discussions and activities.
3. Check comprehension frequently.
• Use informal comprehension checks.
• Test comprehension with student-friendly questions.
• No matter what the students' proficiency level, ask questions that
require higher-level thinking.
• Use graphic organizers.
• Provide students with many different ways to show what they
know.
• Summarize: Ask students to use the following strategies to
summarize, orally or in writing, what they have read:
– Retell what you read, but keep it short.
– Include only important information.
– Leave out less important details.
– Use key words from the text.

201. References
Biemiller, A. (2006). Vocabulary Development and
Instruction: A Prerequisite for School
learning. In D.K. Dickinson & S.B. Neuman (Eds),
Handbook of Early Literacy Research Volume 2 (pp. 41-
51). New York: The Guilford Press.
Breiseth, L. (2019). Reading Comprehension Strategies for
English Language Learners. Retrieved from
www.ascd.org/ascd- express/vol5/511-
breiseth.aspx
Joubert, I. (Ed). (2017). Literacy in the Foundation Phase.
(2nd ed.). Hatfield, Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
What is Reading Comprehension? (2018). Retrieved from
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