1. Non-human Communication
Animal languages are forms of non-human communication that show similarities
to human language. Animals communicate through a variety of signs such as sounds or
movements. Such signing may be considered complex enough to be called a form of
language if the inventory of signs i
s large, the signs are relatively arbitrary, and the animals
seem to produce them with a degree of volition (as opposed to relatively automatic
conditioned behaviors or unconditioned instincts, usually including facial expressions). In
experimental tests, animal communication may also be evidenced through the use of
lexigrams (as used by chimpanzees and bonobos). While the term "animal language" is
widely used, researchers agree that animal languages are not as complex or expressive
as human language (“Animal language,” 2020)
Many researchers argue that animal communication lacks a key aspect of human
language, that is, the creation of new patterns of signs under varied circumstances. (In
contrast, for example, humans routinely produce entirely new combinations of words.)
Some researchers, including the linguist Hockett (1960), argue that human language and
animal communication differ so much that the underlying principles are unrelated.
Transmission in Animal Language
Animals can convey various message to each other, such as feelings (anger,
fear), warnings, desire/willingness to mate, and location of food sources. Nonetheless,
animals lack anything like human language.
Some Basic Ways Animals Communicate
1.Chemical signals (used be some very simple creatures, including protozoa)
2. Smell (related to chemical signals, e.g. pheromones attract, skunk secretions repel)
3.Touch
4.Movement
5.Posture (e.g. dogs, geese)
6.Facial gestures (e.g. dogs snarling)
7.Visual signals (e.g. feathers)
8.Sound (e.g. very many vertebrate and invertebrate calls)
Animals use these techniques to do such things as: attract mates, repel enemies,
signal aggression/submission, warn about predators, or to communicate about the
environment/availability of food.
Here are examples of how some animals communicate:
a. Honeybee Dance
Dance to communicate
Dance communicates direction and distance to food source
Not entirely arbitrary
b. Birdcalls and Bird Songs
Birdcalls (one note) convey messages about surroundings.
2. Bird songs (patterns of notes) indicate territorial purposes and mating purposes.
c. European Robin's song
European Robin's song is complex. Despite complexity, only high-low alternation
is important, which indicates degree of willingness to defend territory.
Some birds can imitate human speech, but they cannot learn structure and
create novel utterances. They can imitate sounds regardless of source.
Non-Human Primate Communication
Odors, vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions are used by non-human
primates to inform others of their psychological state and present concerns, which is an
important clue to what they are likely to do next.
Chimpanzee begging gesture and facial expression
Source: https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/behavior/images/chimp_with_outstretched_hand.jpg
Most primate species use threatening gestures, stares, and poses to intimidate
others. Primatologists refer to this particular use of body language as agonistic displays
click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced. Among non-human primates,
they are usually sufficient to prevent physical fighting. In fact, physically violent
encounters are rare among them. The dominant male in a monkey or ape community
can usually prevent major conflicts and keep order by the use of often subtle agonistic
displays. For instance, male baboons flash their eyelids when they are angry and want
to intimidate others. I
f this i
s not sufficient in its effect, they open their mouths widely in a
manner that looks like human yawning. This is usually the last warning before attacking.
Since the marmosets and tamarins cannot significantly change their facial expressions,
their agonistic displays are different. Adult males chirp repeatedly and turn around to
show their genitals from behind. This is the ultimate threat for them (O'Neil, 2012).
Most primate species communicate affection and reduce group tension by what
are known as affiliative behaviors. These include calmly sitting close to each other,
touching, and mutually grooming. The latter i
s referred to as allogrooming. Allogrooming
is a powerful tool for communication. I
t is used by both monkeys and apes to reinforce
male-female mate bonds as well as same sex friendship bonds. Chimpanzees often have
ecstatic bouts of allogrooming that go on for hours when an old acquaintance rejoins
the community. They also do it to calm emotions following wild, aggressive outbursts by
angry adult males. Most members of the community also seem to enjoy very much
grooming infants and may compete for the opportunity (O'Neil, 2012).
Animal Consciousness
3. Aristotle’s principal argument about animal intelligence relates to the “practical
intelligence” of what he refers to as the “other animals”. This latter statement suggests
that we are also animals. Nonetheless what Aristotle called phronêsis (practical wisdom)
in certain animals has nothing to do with practical wisdom in humans, but refers rather to
their capacity to recall past events and to anticipate new ones. One of Aristotle’s favorite
examples of this i
s that of the red deer doe teaching its fawn to hide in a safe place: thus
demonstrating a power of memory as well as a strong capacity for learning and
teaching. But he cautions that all animals are not equally endowed with this form of
practical intelligence: some do not have it at all, while others manifest it only in very
specific contexts. Such is the case with the “industrious” bee, but also with large
mammals living in family groups, such as lions and dolphins (Le Neindre, 2017).
Experiments on Languages and Animals
Some researchers devoted their time to teach a chimpanzee how to use human
language. The following are the experiments done.
a. Luella and Winthrop Kellogg (1930s)
- raised an infant chimpanzee (Gua) with their baby son.
- Gua was able to understand 100 words but did not produce any.
b. Catherine & Keith Hayes (1940s)
- raised (Viki) as a human child.
- spent 5 years attempting to get her to ‘say’ English words by trying to shape her
mouth as she produces sounds.
- Eventually, she managed to produce poorly articulated versions of mama,
papa, and cup.
This was a remarkable achievement: it has become clear that non-humans do not
actually have a physically structures vocal tract which is suitable for articulating
the sounds used in speech.
Apes and gorillas, like chimpanzees, communicate with a wide range of vocal
calls (but they just cannot make human speech sounds).
c. Beatrix and Allen Gardner
- raised Washoe as a human child.
- taught her to use ASL (learned by many deaf children as their natural first
language)
- Sign language was always used when she is around, and she was encouraged
to use signs.
- In 3 ½years, she came to use signs for more than 100 words. (e.g. baby, banana,
window, woman, you, etc.)
- She was able to combine forms to produce sentences (e.g. more fruit/ open
food drink)
- She invented some forms (e.g. water bird =swan).
d. Duane Rumbaugh
4. - Trained Lana using a similar training technique (artificial language –Yerkish)
- Yerkish consisted of a set of symbols on a large keyboard linked to a computer
- For water =press 4 symbols in the correct sequence =please machine give
water
- Lana demonstrated an ability to use (word symbols +basic structure)
e. Herbert Terrace
After the success with Washoe, Herbert Terrace, a psychologist of Columbia
University decided to replicate the project. At first, Nim Chimpsky (Nim), named
after linguist Noam Chomsky who thought language was unique to humans, was
raised in a human household. (Washoe had been treated like a person too but
had her own trailer.) Later, Nim was removed from the family and his language
lessons moved to a lab on Columbia’s campus. In the end, Terrace concluded
Nim never really learned language; he had merely been trained to imitate his
teachers to get rewards.
f. Lyn Miles
Chimpanzees are not the only talking apes. In 1978, anthropologist of the
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga began studying an orangutan named
Chantek. During eight years of study, Chantek learned 150 signs. He also showed
signs of being self-aware: he could recognize himself in a mirror ((Wayman, 2011).
g. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
Kanzi, a bonobo, does not use sign language; he uses different combinations
of lexigrams, or symbols, to communicate. In the early 1980s, psychologist Sue
Savage-Rumbaugh, then of Georgia State University, was trying to teach Kanzi’s
mom, Matata, to use the lexigrams; instead, Kanzi was the one who mastered the
symbols. Kanzi understands spoken English and knows close to 400 symbols. When
he “speaks,” his lexigram usage follows rules of grammar and syntax, according
to researchers at the Great Ape Trust in Iowa, where Kanzi resides. Kanzi i
s also an
accomplished stone-tool maker ((Wayman, 2011).
h. Koko, the gorilla, i
s probably best known for her love of kittens and Mr. Rogers (and
maybe less well-known for her encounter with Captain James T
. Kirk). Koko’s sign-
language training began in 1972 with then-graduate student Francine (Penny)
Patterson of Stanford University. According to the Gorilla Foundation, Koko knows
1,000 signs and understands spoken English. It also claims the gorilla has an IQ
somewhere between 70 and 95 (the average human IQ i
s 100). (Critics, however,
remain skeptical about some of Koko’s supposed abilities due to the lack of recent
scientific publications supporting the claims (Wayman, 2011).
