Theories in Language Description Notes By Prof. Yousaf Malik , HOD MUL Lahore

1. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
Outline
1. The divine theory
2. The natural sound source
(a) Bow-bow theory
(b) Pooh-pooh theory
3. The social interaction source
(a) Yo-heave-ho theory
(b) La-la theory
4. The oral-gesture source
5. Physiological adaptation source
(a) Teeth
(b) Lips
(c) Mouth
(d) Larynx
(e) Pharynx
(f) Human brain
6. Glossogenetics
7. Interactional and transactional
8. The genetic source
9. The tool making source
Originof language isan amazingriddle.Linguistscouldnottrace outa tangible evidence toverifyvarious
hunches about it. Long discussions about the origin of language proved fruitless.In consequence, "Paris
linguisticsociety'foundedin1866passedthe bylawsthatbannedthisdiscussion.The linguistsnicknamed
them in different ways. Following is the detail.
I: THE DIVINE SOURCE
According to one view God created Adam and taught him certain names. Whatever Adam called every
livingcreature thatwasthe name thereof.AccordingtoHinduconcept,languagesprangfromthe headof
the goddess"Sarasvati"the wifeof Brahma,the creatorof the universe.Itsbasichypothesisaccruedfrom
the ideas that if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would
spontaneously begin using the original God given language.
This theory proved a hunch, since no empirical evidence supported it. However, different experiments
were conducted but to no result. An Egyptian Pharaoh (600 B.C) tried the experiment on two new born
infants to grow up without hearing any language. After two years in the company of goats and a mute
shepherd,the childrenwere reportedtohave used spontaneouslythe "Phrygian"word"Bekos"naming
bread.The Pharaohconcludedthat"Phrygian"mustbe the originallanguage.Thatseemsunlikely.Several
commentators hold the view that the children must have heard what the goats uttered.
KingJamesIV of Scotlandcarriedout a similarexperimentaroundA.D.1500. The childrenwere reported
to have startedspeakingHebrew.If humanlanguage didemergefroma divine source we have nowayof
reconstructingthat original language.Moreover,childrendiscoveredlivinginisolationdoesnotconfirm
these findings but grow up with no language at all.

2. Platoarguedthat one legislatorgave the correctnatural namestoall things.Inmany regionsonlyspecial
language may be used in prayers and rituals.
II. The Natural Sound Source
(a) Bow-wow theory
(b) Pooh- Pooh theory
Bow-wow Theory
It is speculated that primitive words could have beenimitation of the natural soundswhich earlymen
and women heard about them for example, coo-coo, baa, splash, oink, bang, thud etc. it is called
onomatopoeia which implies that language beganwhen human startednaming objects after a relevant
sound. That was already involved in everyday life.
Criticism:
Thistheoryis insufficient.Itdoesnotconsiderabstractideaslike Justice,love,hate etc.itdoesnot assist
in teaching grammar. Furthermore onomatopoeia varies a lot from language to language. Hence the
theory is based on a very limited hypothesis.
Pooh-Pooh Theory
According to this theory human language may have started as natural cries of emotions such as
expressions of pain, anger, joy surprise etc. for example, ouch! Ah! Hey! (Expressing surprise or anger)
etc.
Criticism:
These sounds are produced by sudden intakes of breath, which is not the case for ordinary speech.
Emotional sounds are not otherwise used in speech production.
III. SOCIAL INTERACTION SOURCE
It entails two theories:
(a) Yo-Heave-Ho theory
(b) La-La Theory
Yo-Heave-Ho theory:
Accordingto thistheorylanguage arose outof rhythmical gruntsof people workingtogether,involvedin
physical work.Humansof Stone Age may have developedasetof gruntsand curseswhile doingatough
work.
Criticism:
It makes some sense in groups of early humans who must have lived in groups. However,this theoryis
the ultimate reality, since it does not help in learning abstract and grammatical expressions.
La-La theory

3. According to this theory language originated from an expressive rather than communicative need. It
emergedfromthe soundsof inspiredplayfulness,love,songs,poeticsensibilityetc.itwas the upshotof
romanticside of man.Accordingto Otto Jesperson,"Language wasborninthe courtingdaysof mankind"
(1921)
Criticism:
It seemstobe a lovelysupposition. It does not account for syntax, pronunciation, abstract vocabulary.
IV. The Oral-Gesture Source
This concept is the source of Ta-Ta theory. This theory proposesextremely specific connection between
physical and oral gestures. It is claimed that a set of physical gestures was developed in which the
movementof the tongue,lipsetc.wererecognizedaccordingtothe patternsof movementof theTongue,
for example, in a ‘Good bye’ message is represented in the waving of the hand or arm for a similar
message.
Criticism
We can use special gestureforvarietyof communicationprocess,butitishardtovisualize theactual “Oral
Aspect”, which would reflect many such gestures.
V. Physiological Adaptation Source
Physical featuresthatdistinguishhumansformothercreaturesmay have supportedspeechproduction.
Evolutionarydevelopmentresultedfrompartialadaptationmakingspeechpossible forearlyhumans.For
example,
(a) Teeth
Human teeth have upright position, not standing outward like those of apes. They are roughly
even in height,good for grinding and chewing.They are very helpful in making soundslike F, V,
and Th.
(b) Lips
These are more flexible thanthose of otheranimals.These have muchmore intricate muscles
than foundinotherprimates.These helpinproducingsoundslikep,b,andw.
(c) Mouth
The human mouthis relativelysmall.These canbe openedandclosedrapidly.It containsa very
flexible tongue which can be used to shape a whole variety of sound.
(d) Larynx
It containsvocal cords.It differssignificantlyinpositionfromthatmonkeys.
(e) Pharynx
It is a cavity above the vocal cords. It acts as a resonator for any sounds produced via larynx.
(f) Human Brain

4. It has specialized function in each of the two hemispheres.These functions are largely confined
to the left hemispheres. The use of language is connected to the left hemisphere.
VI. Glossogenetics
It isreelectedtoDarwin’sconceptandtheoryof evolution.Itfocusesmainlyonthe biologicalbasisof the
formationanddevelopmentof the humanlife.Itstartswiththe observationthatatsome earlystage our
human ancestors made the transition to an upright posture, with bi-pedal (two legged) motion and a
revisedrole forthe frontlimbsinthe evolutionarydevelopment.There are certainphysicalfeatures,best
thought of as partial adaptations that appear to be relevant for speech. By themselves, such features
would not lead to speech production, but they are good clues.
VII INTERACTION AND TRANSACTION
INTERACTIONAL FUNCTION:
Interactional function has to do with human's use of languages to interact with each other socially or
emotionally, how they indicate friendliness, co-operation, hostility, annoyance, pain, pleasure etc.
TARNSACTIONAL FUNCTION:
It shows how humans use their linguistic ability to communicate knowledge, skill and information. This
functionmusthave developedinpart,forthe transactionof knowledge fromone generationtothe next.
This transfer function of language remains fairly restricted in time and space as long as it can only be
realized in speech. The desire for a more permanent record of what was known must have been the
primary motivation for the development of inscriptions, and eventually of written language.
NOTE: Other Two sources of the Origin of language
VIII THE GENETIC SOURCE
According to this theory, human offspring are born with a special capacity of language. It is innate, no
other creature seems to have it, and it isn't tied to a specific variety of language.
IX THE TOOL MAKING SOURCE
Itisbelievedthathumanlanguagedevelopedbecause of manualgestureswhichprovedtobe aprecursor
of language.
CONCLUSION:
Aftera centuryof the banishmentof the language originissue,linguistsstartedtoreconsiderit,butin a
differentlight.Theybegantouse evidence frombiological featuresof earlyhuman beingsandhominids.
They speculated about what kinds of vocalizations gave rise to speech sounds and considered which
physical, cognitive and social factors must have contributed to the formation of language.

5. LANGUAGE VARIATION
Out line
1. Pidgin
2. Creole
3. Dialect
4. Idiolect
5. Register
6. Diglossia
7. Jargon/ argot
8. Slang
9. Euphemism
10. Taboo
11. Lingua France
12. Isogloss
EdwardSapir(1954) maintainsthatlanguageispurelyhumanandnon-instinctiveof communicatingideas,
emotions and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
Human language is a rare blessingfromabove. Unlike the language of animals,it is highlycomplex.Itis
systemof systems.Italwaysremainsonthe move.Itsvariationsare of multifarioussteps.Some of these
variations are mentioned as follows:
1. Pidgin
It is a sort of lingua Franca, a contact language, meant for communication between those who
have nolanguage incommon.Itisnoone’snativelanguage.Ithasgotnonnative speakers.Inclear
words,it is a reducedvarietyof commonlanguage.It is alsoregardedas marginal language.Itis
a mixture of elementsborrowedfromdifferentnatural languages.Ithassimplifiedgrammarand
vocabulary.Its soundsystemis alsoimperfect.Itdevelopedforsome practical purposes.Thusit
is restricted to certain groups for instance, of trades, science, etc.
Some linguists hold the view that pidgination probably requires a set-up that entails at
leastthree languages, one of which…… and dominantoverthe others.There are between6and
12 million people still using pidgin language.
Chinese pidgin is a combination of items from Chinese and English. Tok Pisin is a pidgin
usedas a unifyinglanguage commonamongspeakersof manydifferentlanguage inPapua,New
Guinea.SimilarlyNigerianPidginEnglishisastrange blendof EnglishandotherAfricanlanguages.
2. Creole
Creole isthe type of languagethatengageswhenthe pidginbecomesestablished.Itbecomesthe
firstlanguage of the nature of the native speakers.Hence the firstspeakersof pidginbecomethe
native speakersforthe nextgeneration.Inotherwords,creolebecomesthe firstlanguage of the
children of the native speakers. It has standardized vocabulary, syntax and sound system. For
example,inJamaica(WestIndies),peoplespeakEnglishbasedcreole.Similarly,creole are inuse
in Haiti, Dominica, Hamitic (a state of the West Indies) etc.
Creole is comparable to other languages as regards their functional and formal shape.
3. Dialect
It is a sub ordinate variety of language within “standard Language”. It differs in pronunciation,
grammar,and vocabularyfromthe standardlanguage.A dialectcanbe consideredasabstraction
deriving from a large number of idiolects.The speakers who belongto different ……… groups or
different geographical region speak different dialects of the same language. For example,the

6. language of the people of Waziristan in Pakistan speak a dialect which is a variety of Pashtu
speakerinPeshawar.Nevertheless,whenthe speakersof one dialect groupfail tounderstandthe
speakersof anotherdialectgroup,thenthese dialectsbecome differentlanguages.Forexample,
Texas English, Cockney English, Australian English etc are the varieties of English.
Dialects are of three types
I. Regional dialects
It is spokenby the people of a particulargeographical area withina specificcommunity.
For example, Cockney in London.
II. Temporal dialects
It is a variety of language used at particular stage in its historical development. For
example, ‘Pali’ in ancient India. This dialect has become extinct.
III. Social dialects
Itisalsocalled‘sociolect’.Itisspokenbymembersof aparticularsocial dialect.Itdepends
on a variety of factors like class, ethnic groups. religion, convention etc.
4. Idiolect
It is a varietyof language usedbyone individual speaker.Itisindividual’spersonal varietyof the
communitylanguage system.According to a rough estimate there are round about 40, 000, 000
idiolects, perhaps equal to the total number of speakers of English.
5. Register
A register is a restricted code of social behavior. Registers are stylistic- functional varieties of
language ordialect.Thesemostlyindicatethe use of professional language.Forexample,doctors,
lawyers, pilots, engineers, teachers etc use registers.
There is a difference betweendialectandregister.Registersare varietiesof languagesaccording
to use, whereas dialects are varieties of language according to users.
6. Diglossia
It showstwoormore dialectsorlanguagesinregularuse inacommunity.‘Twodifferentvarieties
of language co occur in a speechcommunity’.The twovarietiesare keptapart from each other.
There isa strongtendencyina diglossiace communitythatone of the languages/dialecstisgiven
a higherstatus.The high varietyis usedfor offices,formal lectures,deliveringsermons,political
speeches etc. the low variety(L) is used for a non-specialized daily activities. Use of Diglossia is
commonwhere the societyismultilingual,forexample,inCanadapeople speakEnglishaswellas
French.Sometimes,the speakersmaycode switchfromonelanguagetothe other.Alsotheymay
have code mixing. In Saudi Arabia, Arabic has two varieties, colloquial and classical. Classical
Arabicis a highvarietywhichis spokenin officesor any informal settings,but colloquial Arabic
is used in informal settings.
7. Jargon/ argot

7. A jargon in one of the featuresof registers.Itis a sort of technical language.Itconnectsinsiders
but excludesoutsiders.Forexample,“jugglingeggs”indicatesacomputerterm in linguisticslike
phoneme, lexes, morpheme, phrase etc are instances of jargon/ argot.
In computer we say ROM(read only memory) RAM(random access memory)
However, it is important to note that many jargons pass into standard language.
8. Slang
It is a conventional language peculiar to a group, profession or social class.Every one of us uses
slang at one or other occasion. Its words may be rough. These slangs are often restricted to
special contexts.Theseare usedbya particulargroupof people.Forexample,soldiers,criminals,
children, drug pushers etc
The use of slangvariesfromgenerationtogeneration.Forexample,‘applesandpears’inconkey
mean‘stairs’.‘shit’isaswearwordshowinganger.The word“shit”meanssolidwastematter.For
urination, we use the slang ‘drain the dragon’
Note: the word ‘slang’ itself is slangy in British English for “scold “
9. Euphemism
It indicatesawordor a phrase that replacesatabooword or avoidsfrightening.Forexample,we
use ‘pass away for death to avoid death phobia. We use the expression ‘users’ for taxes.
10. Taboos
Taboos are forbidden words or offensive expressions.
For example,the wordbloody’inEnglishisconsideredataboo. In the past the word ‘woman’in
English was a taboo, since it meant a female of low society.
The word taboo’ was borrowed from “tongan” a Polynesian language. Through taboos, people
express their hatred and disapproval of certain kinds of behavior consideredto be harmful to
them.
11. Lingua Franca
Itisa language usedforcommunicationbetweentwoormore groupswhose native languagesare
different. For example English is used as lingua franca in different provinces.
Similarly “Swahili” is used by speakers of many different local languages of east Africa.
The term “Lingua Franca” was first used for a pidgin based on French and Italian developed in
Mediterranean. Then a Lingua Franca may also a pidgin for insistence, the Melanesian, pidginis
widely spoken in the south pacific.
12. Isogloss
According to Gleason (1963) “isogloss is a line indicating the degree of linguistic change.” It
separatesthe areasinwhichlanguage differswithrespecttoa givenfeature.Forexample,inthe
upperMidwestof the U.S.A,inonearea,peopleuse theword“paperbag”,whereasinotherarea
people use the word“papersack”.Itispossible todraw aline acrossthe mapindicatinglanguage
differences.Thislineiscalled“isogloss”.Whenseveralisoglossesare coincide,itiscalledadialect
boundary.

8. REFERENTIAL THEORY OR NAMING THEORY
Thistypical theoryexplainsthatmeaningof anexpressioniswhatitreferstoorwhatitstandsfor.(Lyons,
1981)
Accordingtocertaintheorists,itwasfirstproposedbyancientGreekscholarPlato.Forms/word/symbols
usedinalanguage are takentobe labelstheystandfor.Thusthe meaningof awordisjustobject/referent
inthe real world.Inclearwords,we meanwhat we say. Facts are relationsbetweenobjectforexample:
Example 1
Child: what‘s fish? (Meaning)
Adult: that is a fish. (Reference)
(Meaning=reference)
Example 2
President Obama= president of USA
Sir Winston Churchill= famous statesman of England
Another instances: the word “bachelor” refers to all the bachelors of the world.
The theoryprovidesanattractive,innocentandcommonsensical view of whatmeaningis --- soattractive
that most of us think of it by the time we are ten or eleven years old.
Reference isthoughttobe the core of meaningandcontext.Theyare symbolsthatrepresent,designate,
name denote or refer to items in the world. This story is also answered by the contemporary theorists
withthe title of “semanticexternalism”i.e.the meaningof the word“dog” isan objectthat existsinthe
world.
Referential theoryiscloselyassociatedwithTylerBurge.HilaryPutnam and Saul Kripkc. It has appeared
to manytheoriststhatpropernameshave anideallytransparentsemanticstructure.Whenapersonsays
“Fido”, he knows that it is the name of his Dog. Everything, according to this theory, is open, nothing is
hidden or mysterious.
The theory claims that words are like labels, For example,Charlie Chaplain kicked a cat. Charlie Chaplin
denotesa famouscomedyfilmactor and script writer.The word "kicked”standsfor the act of kickingin
the past. The word a ‘cat’ refers to an animal and member of ‘Felis catus’
Referential theory is extremely simple. It has following limitations
Firstly not every word refers to an actual thing
Example 1
The ‘word"Pegasus"doesnotdenoteanythingreal,Itismythicalwingedhorsethatsprangfromtheblood
of Medeesa.

9. Example 2
Unicorn" an imaginary horse with a horn on head.
Example 3
Mona Lisa, She was not a real women,It wasa picture paintedbyan ItalianpainternamedLeonardode-
Vinci in 1503.
Thus abstract qualities are not real symbols. For example, courage, obscurity, treachery etc.
Secondly, there are certain words like sake, behalf, etc, which do not refer to anything.
Despite thisfact,they are meaningful.Certainwordslike exclamatoryexpressions.Conjunction,articles,
prepositions do not refer to anything.
Thirdly, this theory treats a sentence as a list of names for things to which the words refer but list of
namesmeansnothing.For example;BobJohnson,Tim, Tom etc. Is it possible toget meaningfroma list
of names? No there must be else going on to refer to.
Fourthly, some words can refer to the same thing, but not share the same meaning. It was
Pointed out by German philosopher G. Frege (1818-1925) by quoting the following example:
I. The morning star is the morning star
2. The morning star is the Evening star
It refers to same star, but its meanings are different. It refers to the same entitythat is planet "Venus",
which might be visible either in the morning or in the evening, depending upon the relative position of
Venus and the earth.
Conversely, two expressions can have different meanings, but the referent is the same e.g. (B.
Russell quotes) "Scot" is Sir Walter Scott, a great writer of Scotland, and the reference "the author of
Waverley" (a novel). These two expressionsrefer to the same individual.For example: John F. Kennedy
can be referred to as the president of the U.S.A assassinated in Dallas. These examplesshow that it can
refer to a certain object that gives it the particular meaning it has.
Fifthly, there may be different referents but conveythe same meaning. For example, certain terms like
"I""You""here""This"etc.whichchange theirreferencewithchangesintheconditionsof theirutterance.
For example,whenJohnrefersto"I”,itrefersto"Smith",itdoesnotmeanthat'I' hasdifferentmeanings
corresponding to these differences. The word itself has a single meaning that is the speaker.
All thisdiscussionindicatesthatreferringisonlyone of the functionsthatlinguisticexpressionsperform
____ a function assigned to some sort of expressions and not to others.
The referential theoryisbasedonanimportantinsightthatlanguage isusedtotalkaboutthingsoutside
(as well asinside) language,andthatthe suitabilityof an expressionforeachtalk issomehow crucial for
havingthe meaningithas.Butinthe ReferentialTheory,thisinsightisruinedthrough over-simplification.

10. The essential connection of language with the "world”, with what is talked about, is represented as a
piecemeal correlation of meaningful linguistic units with distinguishable components of the world. The
connection is not as simple as that.
In few, Referential theory cannot be regarded as self-sufficient in conveying meanings. In
correspondence,manyotherlanguagetheoriesof meaningwere evolvedtoprovide deepinsightintothe
meaning of language expressions.
Ideational Theory
This theory, according to Sterne (1913) is linked to psychology. Ideational theory Claims that meanings
are purelymental contents(ideas) provokedbysigns.The supportersof this theoryassertthat meaning
isdividedbywayof cognitivethought.Wordsdenote ideasratherthanobjects.Wordsare marksof ideas
within the speaker'smindand communicationisachievedwhenthe wordsexcite the same ideasinthe
hearer’smindsas inthe speaker’s.Thistheoryhasbeentakenup by the moderntheoristsbythe title of
"semanticInternalism"i.e.the contextof one'sthoughtsare usuallytakentobe Semanticobjectsthatare
truth variable.
To Lyons (I981), the meaning of an expression is the idea or concept, associated with it in the mind of
anyone who knows it.
To Lycan, "Ideational Theoryhasbeenpushedoutby pressure of our thoughts".This theoryimpliesthat
every signifying name stands for an idea. It has following elements:-
(a) When I speak, write etc. a word, it signifies a particular kind of idea in my mind.
(b) When you hear, read etc. a word then the same particular kind of ideas arise in your mind.
Thus the endof language isto generate the same particularideasinother's mindthat are inmy mindby
means of words. A man cannot make his words stand for things of which he does not have ideas in his
mind. The purpose of the speech is to make the speaker's ideas known to the hearer. The hearer
represents the speaker's ideas by some of his own.
This theoryismostcommonlyassociatedwiththe Britishempiristtraditionof JohnLocke (1690), a great
Britishphilosopherof I7th centuryinhis "Essay concerningHumanunderstanding",(sectionI,chapterII,
Book111). He comments."'The use of wordsistobe sensiblemarksof ideas;andthe ideastheystandfor
are their proper and immediate signification". This concept considers language "means for the
communication of thoughts". It is an external representationof an internal state. Locke’s views were
supported by Berkley (Irish philosopher of 18th
c) and Hume, a great Scott.
Wordsare signsof ideas.Ideasare independentof language.Wordsallowustotalkaboutbothimaginary
and real objects. For example
(i) The crown Prince of Holly wood
(ii) Unicorn (an imaginary horse)

11. Ogden and Richards suggested a model of “Semantic Triangle”, illustrating the view of meaning as
concept.It is also calledConceptual approachwhichstressesthatthe meaningof a wordis the concept,
idea or impression formed in the mind.
Most of the theories of meaning can be grouped into three categories:
(a) Referential
(b) Ideational
(c) Behavioral
Reference theory identifies the meaning of an expression with that to which it refers.
Ideational theory identifies the meaning with the idea with which it is associated.
Behavioral theory identifies the meaning with stimulus that evokes the utterance or responses that it
evokes.
In fact, ideational theory rejects referential theory.
A new model of ideational theoryevolvedin20th
centurywascalled“Bounded Ideational Theory”. (BIT)
According to this model there is a link betweenidea- quantityand idea –quantity. It shows relationship
between “total- number- of ideas” producedin ideational session and “the number-of-good-ideas” that
emerged during that session.
Accordingtothismodel,quantitybreedsquality.Earlyideasare unlikelytobe bestideas.The more ideas
people produce, the more good ideas will emerge.
Note: ideation session
It is a period of time people work together to generate ideas in an attempt to attain a good period of
brainstorming.
Semantic triangle Thought (Concept/ idea)
Ideational theory (limitations and problems)
Word (symbol) (aero plane) Referent*(object i.e. aero plane)
Ideational theoryrejectsreferential theory.The proponentsargue thatthere isno directlinkbetweena
linguistic form and what it refers to.
Example
A personcansaythathe thinksthatallPolarBearsare white.There maynotbeanytruthbehinditbecause
itis an ideawhichhasdirectlycome aboutfromhisownbelief thatisexpressedthroughlanguage.Inthis
perspective it may refer to ideas as entities (or specific objects)

12. This theory is truer than referential theory.Some linguiststhink that it is a perfect theory and it has got
no limitation. There are others who have pointed out the following limitations/ problems:-
(I)
Human language is arbitrary. If words make no link to things in the world, how do we know our words
meaningsare the same as those of other people. We often don't understand what someone is saying.
(II)
This theory will not work even for words that have an obvious connection with mental images. It is not
necessarythatmental image isthe same thathaveanobviousconnectionwithmental imagesallthe time.
For example,the word"Dog"maybe the image of a beagle,aCoolie ora bull terrieronone occasion.On
anotheroccasionitmaybe the image of a dog sitting,standingorchasinga cat.Hence the image of a dog
has complexity of meaning. In another word, there is no one to one correction betweenthe image and
the word.
(III)
We do not lookfor ideasinthe mindsof speakersand listenersinorderto settle questionaboutwhata
word meansinthe language or aboutthe sense inwhicha speakeruseda term on a givenoccasion.Itis
not possible to produce a distinctive idea for each word.
(Semantic triangle) semantic internalism
Thought concept idea
Word or symbol referent or object
Aero plane aero plane
Signifier signified
(l V)
Some wordsdonot have obviousreferentsforexample wordslike "if', -about""could","ought","should'
"how" etc. (Modern linguists have started working on this theory in different ways)
(V)
Modern linguists like Sapir and Whorf, Michael Dummeth etc., object to the ….that thoughts are
independent of language. They comment that language decides thought. They .are supporters of
"Language first" view-point.

13. Contrary to thisconcept and infavor of ideational theoryisthe conceptof Chomsky.He thinksthat"the
study of language could be done in terms of I- language i.e. internal Language.
Conclusion:
Ideational theory differs from Referential Theoryas well as Behaviorist theory.According to referential
theory,twoexpressionshavethe same use ifandonlyif theyrefertothe same object.Onthe otherhand,
• Ideational theoryclaimsthattwoexpressionshave the same use if andonlyif theyare associatedwith
the same idea/s. According to Behaviorist theory, two expressions have the same use if and onlyif they
are involved in the same stimulus- response connections.
Important terms
1. Semantic Externalism
The meaningof a wordis environmentallydetermined.Similarlywhateverconceptsare available
to a speaker, are detrained by their environment or their relation to the environment or their
relation to the environment Referential theory is reflective of it.
2. Semantic internalism
It impliesthatthe contextsof one'sthoughtsare usuallytakentobe semanticobjectsor entities
that are truth valuable. Ideational theory is similar to the concept of semantic internalism.
3. Semantic Holism
Meaning of a whole sentence, not of a single word, should be explained.
Quiz on ideational theory
1. Ideational theoryislinkedto______________
a. Sociology
b. psychology
c. physiology
2. Ideational theoryshowsrelationshipbetween.
a. Sociolinguistics&Psycholinguistics
b. betweenlanguageandgender
c. betweenideaquality&idesquantity.
3. Accordingto mostof linguists,the ultimateaimof Ideational theoryisto
____________.
a. Provide everysortof idea
b. provide informationtoall.
c. providinggoodideas
4. Accordingto ideational theoryitis_________
a. Possible toprovide adistinctive ideaforeachword
b. Impossibletoprovide adistinctiveideaforeachword.

14. c. Likelytoprovide adistinctive ideaforeachword.
5. Withthe helpof Ideational theorywe __________ questionaboutmeaningbylookingforideas
a. Settle
b. do notsettle
c. raise
6. The ideational theorycanstate thattwo expressionshave the have same use if they
___________.
a. Are associatedwiththe same object.
b. Are associatedwiththe same idea(s).
c. Are associatedwiththe differentidea(s).
7. Accordingto ideational theorymeaningsare got……………………………….
a. By wayof situation
b. by wayof cognitive thinking
c. by wayof semantic of internalism
8. Ogden& Richardsgave model of semantictriangle basedon……………….
a. empirical approach
b. holisticapproach
c. conceptual approach
9. JohnLocke,a reputedBritishempirist,foundedthe principlesof ideational theoryin………..
a. 16th
century
b. 17th
century
c. 18th
century
10. Accordingto ideational theory,ideas………..
a. Are generatedbylanguage
b. are dependonlanguage
c. are independentof language
ANSWERS
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. C
9. B
10. C

15. THEORY OF BEHAVIORISM
Oxfordadvancedlearnersdictionarydefinesbehaviorismas“the theorythatall humanbehavioris
learntbyadaptingto outside conditionandthatlearningisnotinfluencedbythoughtsandfeelings.”
Longman’sEnglishDictionarydefinesbehaviorismas“the doctrine thatpsychological theoriesshouldbe
basedon outwardlyobservable dataof humanactionswithoutreference tothe productof
introspection.”
Behaviourismisatheory of philosophy.Itstatesthathumanand animal behaviorcanbe studiedin
termsof physical processonly.Itexplainshow anexternal event(astimulus) causesachange inan
individual’sbehavior(aresponse) withoutusingconcepts/ideasorany kindof mental behavior.
Theoryof behaviorismcasta deepimpactonpsychology,educationandlanguage teachingespeciallyin
the USA. It claimedthatlearningisentirelythe productof experience andthatout environmentaffects
all of usin the same way.
ThistheoryisrepresentedasanS-Pparadigm.Behavioristare notinterestedisthe consciousdecisionof
the individual tomodifyorgo againstthe conditioningprocess.
The theoryremaineddominantinthe firsthalf of the 20th
century.It remainedinfluentialthroughout
the 1950 and 60s. It focusesonlyonobjectivelyobservedbehavioursanddiscountsmental activities.It
isderivedfromthe beliefthatfree will isanillusion.Humanbeingsare shapedentirelybyexternal
environment.The famous”Dogsalivationexperiment”byIvanPatrovichPavlov(Russianpsychologist)
where he makesdogssalivate atthe soundof the bell.AndlaterexperimentsbyBurhusFredircSkinner
withrats and pigeonsinthe socalled“SkinnerBox”are veryfamousexamplesof behaviourism.
Behavioristviewof language simplyclaimsthatlearner’smindisa“TabularRasa”, blankstate that can
be filledwithinformationthroughenvironment.Language developmentisthe resultof aset of habits.In
fact it wasa theoryof J.B.Watson.He foundeditin1023. Itwas latertakenup byRussianpsychologist
IvanPavlovandB.F. Skinnerin1960.
The word “Unconditioned means that the
connection between stimulus and
response was already present.
“Conditioned” means to connect
somethingnew with the old relationship.

16. The concept of classical conditioningiseasytofollow fromexamplesof day- to-daylife.Forinstances,
manybeerads showattractive youngwomenwearingbikinis(shortdress).The youngwomenstandfor
unconditionedstimulus,arousingof feelingsshows unconditionedresponse inmostmen.The beerin
associatedwiththe effect.The same thinghappenswiththe jinglesandthe musicthataccompanymany
advertisements.
B.K.Skinner,anAmericanchairmanof psychologyDept.inIndianaUniversity,gave the conceptof
“operantconditioning”in1957. For himthe historyof reinforcement(shiftingthe emphasisform
reflexes) isinthe leaningprocess.He developedPavlovianclassical conditioning,whereanoldresponse
(salivation) isevokedbyanewstimulusi.e.bell andtofocusmore closelyonoperantconditioning,
where a newresponse isdevelopedasaresultof satisfyinganeed.
Stimulus>>>>>>>>> response >>>>>>>>reinforcement
Thus the reinforcementisthe keyelementinSkinners’theory.A reinforce isanythingthatstrengthens
the desiredresponse.Itcouldbe a valuable praise,agoodgrade or a feelingof satisfaction.Thistheory
alsocoversnegative reinforcement(aversive stimulus- punishmentandthe resultisreducedresponse)
Instrumental/operantconditioningoccurswhenaresponse isa singlyfeedbacksystem.B.FSkinner
usedreinforcementtechniquetoteachpigeonstodance.
B.F.Skinnerprovedhistheoryfromhisexperimentona rat. It became possible forthe ratto pressthe
bar in the skinner’sbox bytrial anderror.It causeda pellettobe dispensed,followedbyaperiodforthe
rat to eat the pelletwhenthe ‘discriminative stimuluslightwasout,andthe leaverinoperative,thenthe
rat may learnto pressthe leverif lefttohisownfor a longtime. Thusthe firststepisto stimulate the
rat to the foodpellet;he will laterbe rewardedwithinthe Skinnerbox inhishome cage whenhe is
hungry.Nowhe can be introducedthe Skinner’sbox.AccordingtoSkinner,learningalanguage operates

17. on a same principlesthatarat will use tolearntopres
He famouslyremarkedonce,“giveme achild,andI will shape himintoanything.”
He putforth histheoryof learningin1957. To him, language islearntthroughcultural determiners.
Learningenvironmentthatallowsfortrial anderroris essential.Some innateabilitytolearnandacquire
studentsmustbe presentinall learners.
Accordingto thistheory,language acquisitionreflectsabuildingprocessthatresultsfrominteraction
withthe environment.Itisbasedonempirical approach,language isaconditionedbehaviour.
Punishmentpresentsthe fastestwaytochangingbehavior.Itmightbe dangeroustothe individual.It
can be abusive (The teacherwhile punishingthe studentbecomesabusive).Moreover,itcanbe
aggressive (i.e.the studentmaybegintohate the punisherandadoptanaggressive attitude).Theorist
may suppressone inappropriate behaviouronlytobe replacedbyanother.Asa conclusion,punishment
shouldbe usedonly asthe last option.
Behaviorismispassivelyacceptedbythe influential Bloomfieldianstructuralismschoolof linguisticsand
producedsome well-knownapplicationsinthe fieldof secondlanguage/foreignlanguageteaching.It
gave birthto audio-lingual methodorarmy method.Reinforcementbywayof repetition,drill and
practice processstrengthensthe exhibitionof desiredbehaviour.Educational softwareisusedin
elementaryschools,suchasdrillsandflashcardsfrom the goodolddays are examplesof behaviorist
theoryof practice.
Criticism
Strengths

18.  Clearlystatedobjectivesallowthe learnertofocusonone goal.
 Cryingresponsestobehaviourshowsthe learnertoreactina predictable wayundercertain
conditions.
 Teachingof pronunciationandspokenlanguage isskillfullydone.
 Its positive andnegative reinforcementcanbe veryeffective--- especiallyinthe treatmentof
mental disorderslike“Autism”(itisconditionof mindwhenapersonisunable tocommunicate
or form relationship withothers) andanti-social behaviour.
Weakness
 Behaviourismdoesnotcountforall kindsof learning,since itoverlooksthe activitiesof the
mind.
 Behaviorismdoesnotexplainsomeleaning—suchasthe recognitionof new languagepattern
by youngchildren—forwhichthere isnoreinforcementmechanism.
Chomskycriticizedthistheoryinhisbook”B.F.Skinner’sVerbal Behaviour”. He assertsthatthere is
neitherempirical evidence noranyknownargumenttosupportany specificclaimaboutthe relative
importance of feedbackfromthe environment.The theoryoverlooksthe internal factorsaccountable
for the language acquisition.
Behaviourismsome main features
1. The term behaviourismreferstothe school of psychologyfoundedbyJohnB.Watsonbasedon
the belief thatbehaviourcanbe measured,trained,andchanced.
2. Behavioral psychologyisthe studyof external behaviour.
3. Behaviourisobjectiveandobservable whereaswhatgoesoninone’smindcanneverreallybe
knownor measured(the mindisa‘blackbox’)
4. People’sbehaviourare directlyobservable,ratherthanthe mental systemunderlyingthese
behaviors.
5. Childrenare bornwitha mindthat islike ablankslate.The slate iscalledTabulaRasa.
6. Chunkingtheory:language islearnedinpartsthanthenlinkedtogether.1st
words,2nd
phrase 3rd
sentence.
There are two typesof conditioning
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operatingconditioning