This document discusses perspectives on diffusing ICTs in developing economies in Africa. It argues that current efforts focus too much on access and use without developing local innovation capacity. To better diffuse ICTs, initiatives need to promote complementary investments, innovations, and sectoral linkages within host economies. This can be achieved by conceptualizing ICTs as general purpose technologies and developing social innovation abilities within communities.
DEFINING ICT IN A BOUNDARYLESS WORLD: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A WORKING HIERARCHYIJMIT JOURNAL
Subsequent to rapid information and communication technology development, the scope of the definition of
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT or ICTs) has been utilized within diverse contexts
including economic development, education, IT, business and personal usage. A review of academic
literature, trade publications and general information was undertaken to establish a hierarchy of
applications for the term ICT or ICTs.
Lezione tenuta il 15 giugno 2012 al Master di II livello in "Management dei sistemi informativi per l'area del Mediterraneo - SI4MED", MEDAlics (Pizzo Calabro)
Information and communications
technologies (ICTs) are different tools
and technologies to transmit information
and communicate with the community
(one to one or in groups). Through the
use of computers and interconnected
networks it provides a feasible and
accurate platform to increase the mobility
of information for different issues and
exchange of knowledge.
DEFINING ICT IN A BOUNDARYLESS WORLD: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A WORKING HIERARCHYIJMIT JOURNAL
Subsequent to rapid information and communication technology development, the scope of the definition of
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT or ICTs) has been utilized within diverse contexts
including economic development, education, IT, business and personal usage. A review of academic
literature, trade publications and general information was undertaken to establish a hierarchy of
applications for the term ICT or ICTs.
Lezione tenuta il 15 giugno 2012 al Master di II livello in "Management dei sistemi informativi per l'area del Mediterraneo - SI4MED", MEDAlics (Pizzo Calabro)
Information and communications
technologies (ICTs) are different tools
and technologies to transmit information
and communicate with the community
(one to one or in groups). Through the
use of computers and interconnected
networks it provides a feasible and
accurate platform to increase the mobility
of information for different issues and
exchange of knowledge.
Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT Dr Lendy Spires
Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT “The so-called digital divide is actually several gaps in one. There is a technological divide great gaps in infrastructure. There is a content divide. A lot of web-based information is simply not relevant to the real needs of people. And nearly 70 per cent of the world’s websites are in English, at times crowding out local voices and views.
There is a gender divide, with women and girls enjoying less access to information technology Introduction ICT and development The role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as a tool for development has attracted the sustained attention of the United Nations over recent years. Strategic partnerships have been developed with donors, the private sector and civil society, and working groups and task forces have been established to enhance inter-agency collaboration throughout the United Nations system. In 2000, the Economic and Social Council adopted a Ministerial Declaration on the role of information technology in the context of a knowledge-based economy.
In 2001, the Secretary-General established a high-level Information and Communication Technologies Task Force to provide overall leadership to the United Nations on the formulation of strategies to put ICT at the service of development.2 The Millennium Declaration adopted in 2000 underscored the urgency of ensuring that the benefits of new technologies, especially ICT, are made available to all. To achieve this goal, a United Nations World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was planned in two phases. The first phase, the Geneva Summit in December 2003, aimed to develop political will and to establish the foundations for an Information Society for all.
In total, 175 Governments endorsed the Declaration of Principles3 and Plan of Action at the first phase.4 The second phase of WSIS is planned for November 2005 in Tunis. Information and Communication Technologies comprise a complex and heterogeneous set of goods, applications and services used to produce, process, distribute and transform information.
Development as Freedom in a Digital Age Soren Gigler
Under what conditions can new technologies enhance the well-being of poor communities? The study designs an alternative evaluation framework (AEF) that applies Amartya Sen’s capability approach to the study of information and communications technologies (ICTs) in order to place people’s well-being, rather than technology, at the center of the study. The AEF develops an impact chain that examines the mechanisms by which access to, and meaningful use of, ICTs can enhance people’s “informational capabilities” and improve people’s human and social capabilities. This approach thus uses people’s individual and collective capabilities, rather than measures of access or use, as its principal evaluative space. Based on empirical evidence from indigenous communities’ use of new technologies in rural Bolivia, the study concludes that enhancing poor people’s informational capabilities is the most critical factor determining the impact of ICTs on their well-being. Improved informational capabilities, like literacy, do enhance the human capabilities of poor and marginalized peoples to make strategic life choices and achieve the lifestyle they value. Evaluating the impact of ICTs in terms of capabilities thus reveals no direct relationship between improved access to, and use of, ICTs and enhanced well-being; ICTs lead to improvements in people’s lives only when informational capabilities are transformed into expanded human and social capabilities in the economic, political, social, organizational, and cultural dimensions of their lives. The study concludes that intermediaries are bound to play a central, even fundamental, role in this process. They help poor communities to enact and appropriate ICTs to their local socio-cultural context so that their use becomes meaningful for people’s daily lives, enhances their informational capabilities, and ultimately improves their human and social capabilities.
Appropriate ICT as a Tool to increase Effectiveness in ICT4D: Theoretical Con...Victor van R
The need to bridge the digital divide is no longer a point of discussion and therefore focus has shifted to the design and implementation of programs that have the potential to close the information and knowledge gap between the developing and developed nations. Unfortunately, the majority of these programs are small and mimic what has been successful in the developed world. It has become increasingly clear that these successes do not necessarily translate well in the context of developing nations. This paper develops the hypothesis that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) projects in developing countries will become successful only when they are adapted to local conditions. The general concept of Appropriate Technology (AT) will be explored for the field of ICT. AT has already been embraced by fields like architecture, building technology and agriculture, but has not yet been rooted in ICT.
The paper proposes a preliminary theory of Appropriate ICT along the lines of existing theories in AT and System development. The theory identifies Appropriate Technology principles at three levels: hardware, software and ICT change management. By means of real life mini cases in the ICT for Development context in Africa, the guiding principles for Appropriate ICT are illustrated. The paper will conclude with an agenda for further research in
the three identified levels. The research agenda targets academia, governments, NGO's and industry.
RELEVANCE OF COMPUTER APPRECIATION/ICT TO THE CURRICULUM OF CERTIFICATE IN AU...Muhammad Muhammad Suleiman
Being A Text of Paper To Be Presented At Its 4-Days Final Phase of ASW Curriculum Review and Adaptation Meeting Held At Tahir Guest Palace, Kano, Organized By Society For Family Health, Between 27th To 30th April 2021
The Impact of Information Technology on Business Transformation in the Operat...IJMIT JOURNAL
The study aims at measuring the effects of information technology on the transformation of businesses in communication companies in Jordan. The study population consisted of companies' directors as well as their deputies, assistants, advisors, in addition to department managers and their assistants. The total number of the study subjects is 3 designated communication companies in Jordan; these are: Zain, Umniah, and Orange. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher had prepared a questionnaire which comprises of 45 items covering the three factors of the independent variable (Information Technology): infrastructure, developmental environment, and executive support systems and applications, as well as the three factors of the dependent variable (Transformation of Businesses): operations, organization change, and workers' competence. In order to test the hypotheses, the following three criteria were adequately used: The Medians, the Standard Deviations, as well as the Regression Analysis. The study has reached a number of results; the most notable amongst these results is that there is a positive effect that is statistically significant of information technology on the elements of business transformation in Jordanian communication companies and all of their relating elements.
The last decade of the twentieth century and the turn of twenty-first century witnessed significant progress in technology in general and information technology and communication in particular. Such progress still continues until today, accelerating with wide quick strides more than ever. This age has produced many mechanisms for manufacturing knowledge and more advanced technological means that have made the globe as a small village. Communication technology, which is represented by the internet, has played a huge rule in transferring information and technological revolution from the north to the south passing by the east and the west at the same time. All of that have had an impact on all political, economic, educational, teaching, social, media, and advertisement systems in all communities.
The term technology is derived from Greek. It consists of two parts, techno, which means skills or art, and logy, which means science or study. Thus, the word technology means the science of performance, science of implementation, or the technical methods to achieve a practical purpose, the science of industrial operation.
What are the EU and member states doing to address digital literacy?eLearning Papers
Authors: Kerstin Junge, Kari Hadjivassiliou.
In 2006, EU member states set themselves an ambitious objective: to half the digital literacy gaps between ‘at risk groups’ and the average population by 2010. Having committed themselves to turning Europe into the most competitive knowledge-based economy in the world by the end of the decade, it became important to ensure that people were not going to be left behind and that employers have access to the skills driving the anticipated economic growth.
The Role of Appropriate ICT in Bridging the Digital Divide: Theoretical Consi...Victor van R
The importance of bridging the digital divide is no longer discussed; the focus has shifted to the design and implementation of programs that aim to close the information and knowledge gap between the developing and developed nations. Unfortunately, the majority of these programs mimic what has been successfully implemented in the developed world. It becomes increasingly clear that these successes do not necessarily translate to the context of developing nations. This chapter develops the hypothesis that information and communication technology (ICT) projects in developing countries will become more successful when they adapt to local conditions. The concept of Appropriate Technology (AT) is explored. This concept has already been embraced by fields like architecture, building technology, and agriculture, but has not yet rooted in the area of ICT.
This article proposes a preliminary theory of Appropriate ICT along the lines of existing theories in AT and system development. The theory identifies Appropriate Technology principles at three levels: hardware, software, and ICT change management. By examining real-life cases in Africa in the context of ICT for Development (ICT4D), the guiding principles of Appropriate ICT (A-ICT) are illustrated. This article will conclude with an agenda for further research in the three identified levels. The research agenda will target academia, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and industry.
THE CRITICAL ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS OF E-GOVERNMENT IN KENYA Editor IJCATR
eGovernment focusses on the use of technology to achieve levels of improvement in various areas of government, transforming the nature of politics and relations between the government and citizens. However, in Kenya, just like in other developing nations, many eGovernment projects have either stalled or failed to meet their objectives due to some key organizational factors. This study therefore highlights critical organizational factors affecting eGovernment projects and the nature of their relationships with eGovernment performance. The study employed cross-sectional survey design. Targeting the entire 18 eGovernment projects implemented through the Information Communications Authority of Kenya since 2005. Both primary and secondary data was collected and analyzed based on response from 217 respondents out of the 300 who participated (72% response rate). At the end, it emerged that out of the various organizational factors hypothesized to predict eGovernment projects Performance, only organizational structure, prioritization of deliverables, and organizational culture are critical in Kenyan context. Others identified in previous studies such as future needs of the organization, power distribution, structure, information system strategy alignment, prioritization of deliverables, and training were also important but not critical.
Summertime IT Marketing an Hour a WeekMailerMailer
Learn how to grow your IT business by setting aside one hour per week to focus on marketing. You will find out which activities generate leads effectively even during summertime months when business might be a little slower. At the end of the webinar, you will have an actionable marketing plan to put in place immediately.
Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT Dr Lendy Spires
Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT “The so-called digital divide is actually several gaps in one. There is a technological divide great gaps in infrastructure. There is a content divide. A lot of web-based information is simply not relevant to the real needs of people. And nearly 70 per cent of the world’s websites are in English, at times crowding out local voices and views.
There is a gender divide, with women and girls enjoying less access to information technology Introduction ICT and development The role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as a tool for development has attracted the sustained attention of the United Nations over recent years. Strategic partnerships have been developed with donors, the private sector and civil society, and working groups and task forces have been established to enhance inter-agency collaboration throughout the United Nations system. In 2000, the Economic and Social Council adopted a Ministerial Declaration on the role of information technology in the context of a knowledge-based economy.
In 2001, the Secretary-General established a high-level Information and Communication Technologies Task Force to provide overall leadership to the United Nations on the formulation of strategies to put ICT at the service of development.2 The Millennium Declaration adopted in 2000 underscored the urgency of ensuring that the benefits of new technologies, especially ICT, are made available to all. To achieve this goal, a United Nations World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was planned in two phases. The first phase, the Geneva Summit in December 2003, aimed to develop political will and to establish the foundations for an Information Society for all.
In total, 175 Governments endorsed the Declaration of Principles3 and Plan of Action at the first phase.4 The second phase of WSIS is planned for November 2005 in Tunis. Information and Communication Technologies comprise a complex and heterogeneous set of goods, applications and services used to produce, process, distribute and transform information.
Development as Freedom in a Digital Age Soren Gigler
Under what conditions can new technologies enhance the well-being of poor communities? The study designs an alternative evaluation framework (AEF) that applies Amartya Sen’s capability approach to the study of information and communications technologies (ICTs) in order to place people’s well-being, rather than technology, at the center of the study. The AEF develops an impact chain that examines the mechanisms by which access to, and meaningful use of, ICTs can enhance people’s “informational capabilities” and improve people’s human and social capabilities. This approach thus uses people’s individual and collective capabilities, rather than measures of access or use, as its principal evaluative space. Based on empirical evidence from indigenous communities’ use of new technologies in rural Bolivia, the study concludes that enhancing poor people’s informational capabilities is the most critical factor determining the impact of ICTs on their well-being. Improved informational capabilities, like literacy, do enhance the human capabilities of poor and marginalized peoples to make strategic life choices and achieve the lifestyle they value. Evaluating the impact of ICTs in terms of capabilities thus reveals no direct relationship between improved access to, and use of, ICTs and enhanced well-being; ICTs lead to improvements in people’s lives only when informational capabilities are transformed into expanded human and social capabilities in the economic, political, social, organizational, and cultural dimensions of their lives. The study concludes that intermediaries are bound to play a central, even fundamental, role in this process. They help poor communities to enact and appropriate ICTs to their local socio-cultural context so that their use becomes meaningful for people’s daily lives, enhances their informational capabilities, and ultimately improves their human and social capabilities.
Appropriate ICT as a Tool to increase Effectiveness in ICT4D: Theoretical Con...Victor van R
The need to bridge the digital divide is no longer a point of discussion and therefore focus has shifted to the design and implementation of programs that have the potential to close the information and knowledge gap between the developing and developed nations. Unfortunately, the majority of these programs are small and mimic what has been successful in the developed world. It has become increasingly clear that these successes do not necessarily translate well in the context of developing nations. This paper develops the hypothesis that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) projects in developing countries will become successful only when they are adapted to local conditions. The general concept of Appropriate Technology (AT) will be explored for the field of ICT. AT has already been embraced by fields like architecture, building technology and agriculture, but has not yet been rooted in ICT.
The paper proposes a preliminary theory of Appropriate ICT along the lines of existing theories in AT and System development. The theory identifies Appropriate Technology principles at three levels: hardware, software and ICT change management. By means of real life mini cases in the ICT for Development context in Africa, the guiding principles for Appropriate ICT are illustrated. The paper will conclude with an agenda for further research in
the three identified levels. The research agenda targets academia, governments, NGO's and industry.
RELEVANCE OF COMPUTER APPRECIATION/ICT TO THE CURRICULUM OF CERTIFICATE IN AU...Muhammad Muhammad Suleiman
Being A Text of Paper To Be Presented At Its 4-Days Final Phase of ASW Curriculum Review and Adaptation Meeting Held At Tahir Guest Palace, Kano, Organized By Society For Family Health, Between 27th To 30th April 2021
The Impact of Information Technology on Business Transformation in the Operat...IJMIT JOURNAL
The study aims at measuring the effects of information technology on the transformation of businesses in communication companies in Jordan. The study population consisted of companies' directors as well as their deputies, assistants, advisors, in addition to department managers and their assistants. The total number of the study subjects is 3 designated communication companies in Jordan; these are: Zain, Umniah, and Orange. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher had prepared a questionnaire which comprises of 45 items covering the three factors of the independent variable (Information Technology): infrastructure, developmental environment, and executive support systems and applications, as well as the three factors of the dependent variable (Transformation of Businesses): operations, organization change, and workers' competence. In order to test the hypotheses, the following three criteria were adequately used: The Medians, the Standard Deviations, as well as the Regression Analysis. The study has reached a number of results; the most notable amongst these results is that there is a positive effect that is statistically significant of information technology on the elements of business transformation in Jordanian communication companies and all of their relating elements.
The last decade of the twentieth century and the turn of twenty-first century witnessed significant progress in technology in general and information technology and communication in particular. Such progress still continues until today, accelerating with wide quick strides more than ever. This age has produced many mechanisms for manufacturing knowledge and more advanced technological means that have made the globe as a small village. Communication technology, which is represented by the internet, has played a huge rule in transferring information and technological revolution from the north to the south passing by the east and the west at the same time. All of that have had an impact on all political, economic, educational, teaching, social, media, and advertisement systems in all communities.
The term technology is derived from Greek. It consists of two parts, techno, which means skills or art, and logy, which means science or study. Thus, the word technology means the science of performance, science of implementation, or the technical methods to achieve a practical purpose, the science of industrial operation.
What are the EU and member states doing to address digital literacy?eLearning Papers
Authors: Kerstin Junge, Kari Hadjivassiliou.
In 2006, EU member states set themselves an ambitious objective: to half the digital literacy gaps between ‘at risk groups’ and the average population by 2010. Having committed themselves to turning Europe into the most competitive knowledge-based economy in the world by the end of the decade, it became important to ensure that people were not going to be left behind and that employers have access to the skills driving the anticipated economic growth.
The Role of Appropriate ICT in Bridging the Digital Divide: Theoretical Consi...Victor van R
The importance of bridging the digital divide is no longer discussed; the focus has shifted to the design and implementation of programs that aim to close the information and knowledge gap between the developing and developed nations. Unfortunately, the majority of these programs mimic what has been successfully implemented in the developed world. It becomes increasingly clear that these successes do not necessarily translate to the context of developing nations. This chapter develops the hypothesis that information and communication technology (ICT) projects in developing countries will become more successful when they adapt to local conditions. The concept of Appropriate Technology (AT) is explored. This concept has already been embraced by fields like architecture, building technology, and agriculture, but has not yet rooted in the area of ICT.
This article proposes a preliminary theory of Appropriate ICT along the lines of existing theories in AT and system development. The theory identifies Appropriate Technology principles at three levels: hardware, software, and ICT change management. By examining real-life cases in Africa in the context of ICT for Development (ICT4D), the guiding principles of Appropriate ICT (A-ICT) are illustrated. This article will conclude with an agenda for further research in the three identified levels. The research agenda will target academia, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and industry.
THE CRITICAL ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS OF E-GOVERNMENT IN KENYA Editor IJCATR
eGovernment focusses on the use of technology to achieve levels of improvement in various areas of government, transforming the nature of politics and relations between the government and citizens. However, in Kenya, just like in other developing nations, many eGovernment projects have either stalled or failed to meet their objectives due to some key organizational factors. This study therefore highlights critical organizational factors affecting eGovernment projects and the nature of their relationships with eGovernment performance. The study employed cross-sectional survey design. Targeting the entire 18 eGovernment projects implemented through the Information Communications Authority of Kenya since 2005. Both primary and secondary data was collected and analyzed based on response from 217 respondents out of the 300 who participated (72% response rate). At the end, it emerged that out of the various organizational factors hypothesized to predict eGovernment projects Performance, only organizational structure, prioritization of deliverables, and organizational culture are critical in Kenyan context. Others identified in previous studies such as future needs of the organization, power distribution, structure, information system strategy alignment, prioritization of deliverables, and training were also important but not critical.
Summertime IT Marketing an Hour a WeekMailerMailer
Learn how to grow your IT business by setting aside one hour per week to focus on marketing. You will find out which activities generate leads effectively even during summertime months when business might be a little slower. At the end of the webinar, you will have an actionable marketing plan to put in place immediately.
Non-Sales Questions That Lead to SalesMailerMailer
List of questions that lead to conversations that generate more technology sales. These questions are designed to be used by both non-sales and sales people to uncover hidden opportunities for IT sales. A checklist with how/when to use each question is available here: http://www.presstacular.com (See Resources > Guides).
Gestione dei processi e conservazione sostitutiva. Arxivar per CopmaARXivar
"Grazie ad ARXivar abbiamo ridotto i tempi di elaborazione di alcune pratiche (LUL) di due giorni, il tutto senza impattare minimamente sulle normali «abitudini» lavorative del personale.”
Luca Bonaretti
Responsabile Sistemi Informativi
Una nuova Case History firmata ARXivar e Gescad
CASE HISTORY ARXivar - Una nostra storia di successoARXivar
Baraclit è dal 1946 un’azienda leader nel settore dei prefabbricati in cemento per l’edilizia industriale e commerciale.
Per migliorare la comunicazione interna, l'azienda aveva bisogno di un unico strumento informatico per gestire la totalità delle comunicazioni aziendali, centralizzare tutte le informazioni, renderle fruibili per mezzo di dispositivi fissi e mobili ed integrare soluzioni di comunicazione evolute.
As in the real world, the digital economy has also thrown up its share of shifting buzzwords. From ‘e-Commerce’ and ‘dot.com’ at the turn of the century, the last couple of years have thrown up ‘ICT’ as the all encompassing technology and for business the newest buzz is undoubtedly ‘outsourcing’. Rarely has a single trend impacted global business and industry these last few years as much as outsourcing or ‘off-shoring’ as it is referred to in the US. Coming along with the compulsions of globalisation mandated by the WTO agreements it has helped develop new markets, improved bottom lines, expanded the range of goods and services and pulled the planet together into a tighter-knit community. This opportunity of outsourcing from the perspective of developing economies is ICT services export.
Including the Excluded Can ICTs empower poor communities? Towards an alternat...Soren Gigler
nder which conditions can information and communications technologies (ICTs) empower poor communities? This paper investigates this question, focusing on the role of information and communications technologies in promoting indigenous people's development in Latin America. First, the paper analyzes key factors under which information and knowledge can be instrumental and substantive for the empowerment of marginalized groups. Hereby, we argue that improved access to information and ICT skills, similar to the enhancement of a person's writing and reading skills, can enhance poor peoples' capabilities to make strategic life choices and to achieve the lifestyle they value. Furthermore, the paper develops an alternative evaluation framework for ICT interventions based on Sen's capability approach. This framework places, in contrast to the current discourse around the "digital divide", the human development of the poor and not technology at the center of the analysis. The paper concludes that there does not exist a direct and causal relationship between ICTs and empowerment, but that in fact this relationship is being shaped by a dynamic, multi-dimensional interrelationship between technology and the social context.
INTEGRATION OF ICT WITH KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TO FOSTER DIGITAL INNOVATION: TH...ijmpict
This paper explores how knowledge management (KM) through information and communication technologies (ICTs) can foster Internet-based digital innovation in the public sector in Bangladesh. A total of twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted with relevant persons in four government organizations. Findings reveal that there are huge unexplored areas where ICT can be utilized for the creation, storage and dissemination of knowledge. By reducing time, cost & movement ICT-utilized KM can
promote ICT-led innovation. The main barrier of ICT-led KM initiatives is the lack of awareness of the government officials. This study is an extension of the previous findings. It contributes significantly to a better understanding of ICT’s integration with KM and innovation. It suggests that one of the core functions of ICT in the public offices is to manage knowledge. The paper offers some insights into how in a digital environment, knowledge can be innovatively managed in the public sector organizations.
Gender is an important issue in the context of information and communication technologies ICT . Studies show that ICT use is subject to gender bias, e.g. in relation to ICT use and interests. This contribution describes the current situation of gender and ICT professions. Based on an empirical study, it shows particular areas in ICT education that suffer from gender inequalities in both countries. Furthermore, the chapter elaborates how gender inequalities develop from secondary to professional ICT careers based on statistics. As a consequence of recession driven economic development, the information and communication technology sector has weakened in recent years in OECD countries. Still, an ICT growth of about 4 percent was observed in 2008. Although there was a decrease in 2009 due to the current financial crisis, a general upturn is expected in the long term because of constant development of the ICT services, software, products for Internet use and communication, and infrastructure. The ICT skills of the work force contribute to the growth the overall share of employees in ICT specialist occupations is 4 percent and increasing rapidly, and 20 percent of employment relates to occupations that use ICT extensively.Even though information and communication technology ICT is essential for everyday life and has gained considerable attention in education and other sectors, it also carries individual differences in its use and relevant skills. This systematic review aims to examine the gender differences in ICT use and skills for learning through technology. A comprehensive search of eight journal databases and a specific selection criterion was carried out to exclude articles that match our stated exclusion criteria. We included 42 peer reviewed empirical publications and conference proceedings published between 2006 and 2020. For a subsample of studies, we performed a small scale meta analysis to quantify possible gender differences in ICT use and skills. A random effects model uncovered a small and positive, yet not significant, effect size in favor of boys g = 0.17, 95 CI 0.01, 0.36 . However, this finding needs to be further backed by large scale meta analyses, including more study samples and a broader set of ICT use and skills measures. We highlight several concerns that should be addressed and more thoroughly in collaboration with one another to better IT skills and inspire new policies to increase the quality of ICT use. Archana Sahare "Gender Impact of ICT in Education" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd51814.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/51814/gender-impact-of-ict-in-education/archana-sahare
The digital divide has serious consequences in the information soc.docxmehek4
The digital divide has serious consequences in the information society. If ‘information is power’ why is creativity one of the key focuses concentration areas in the UKs Digital Economy Act?
Main points to focus on when reading for this topic:
The digital divide – all reading in regards to this point
Information society – Castells work in regards to this point
UK Digital Economy Act – Read the act and find out more about concentration areas, spefically, Creativity.
TOPIC POINT – Internet access plays a vital part in a modern society
Networks (Castells)
His hypothesis: the historical superiority of vertical/hierarchical organizations. That non centred networked form of social organization had material limits to overcome. Fundamentally linked to available technologies.
Networks have strength in their flexibility, adaptability and capacity to self configure
Global Networks
· Digital networks are global, as they have the capacity to reconfigure themselves, as directed by their programmers, transcending territorial and institutional boundaries through telecommunicated computer networks (pp 24)
· The global society is a networked society and exclusion from these networks is ‘tantamount to structural marginalisation in the global network society’ (Castells, 2009: 25)
Limitations of materials. Benefits from global networks: access to bigger markets and a variety of producers. Breaking down the value chain.
States – the network state
· State have sovereignty in specific territories; has ultimate legislative powers; the power of force (police/army); and have citizens. They are the ones who have an existent power relationships. They are very powerful: control the material form of power (guns, armies, war, police, army) and they have power over the citizens.
· With globalisation and networks these powers affect the sovereignty of the state which has to alter/transform to adapt to these dynamic situations
A. They associate together – ASEAN; EU; NATO; etc. – G20 at the ‘top of the pecking order’
B. Dense networks of international organisations to deal with international issues (UN; WTO; IMF; World Bank etc.)
C. Nation states devolve powers to regional bodies and sometimes NGOs to overcome a crisis of political legitimacy.
The material we discussed in last weeks lecture details the role of the State in the UK
Organisations – the network organization
· Castells points to the rise of the network enterprise as a response to the needs to increased flexibility and autonomy.
· Large organisations are divided internally into networks; small ones are parts of larger networks.
· These networks are dynamic and not stable and may (re)form around specific projects as alliances and partnerships.
· The unit of production is the business project not the firm though it is still the ‘legal unit of capital accumulation.’
· Financial valuation remains key and global financial markets are key in a network economy.
He also talks about the rise of the network ente ...
Information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) r.pdfannaelctronics
Information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) refers to the applying of
knowledge and communication technologies (ICTs) toward the social, economic, and political
development, with a specific stress on serving to poor and marginalized individuals and
communities. It aims to assist in international development by bridging the digital divide and
providing evenhanded access to technologies. ICT4D is grounded within the notions of
\"development\", \"growth\", \"progress\" and \"globalization\" and is commonly taken because
the use of technology to deliver a larger smart.[1] Another similar term utilized in the literature is
\"digital development\".[2] ICT4D attracts on theories and frameworks from several disciplines,
together with social science, economics, development studies, library and knowledge science,
and communication studies.[3]
ICT4D grew out of the tries to use rising computing technologies to boost conditions within the
developing countries. It formalized through a series of reports, conferences, and funding
initiatives that acted as key political avenues:[4] the 1998 World Development Report from the
planet Bank, lightness the role of information and ICTs in development; a report from the G8
Digital Opportunities Task Force, closing that ICTs play a key role in fashionable human
development, the planet Summits on the data Society command in Geneva in 2003 and port in
2005.
At least 3 phases may be known in ICT4D evolution:[5]
ICT4D 0.0: mid-1950s to late-1990s. the main focus of this earliest part was on the employment
of IT (not ICT) in government and personal sector organizations in developing countries. one
among the earliest computers utilized in a developing country was a HEC machine put in in 1956
to undertake numerical calculations within the Indian Institute of Statistics in Calcutta.[6]
ICT4D 1.0: late-1990s to late-2000s. the appearance of the Millennium Development Goals
combined with the increase and unfold of the net in industrial countries crystal rectifier to a fast
increase in investments in ICT infrastructure and comes in developing countries. the foremost
typical application was the telecentre, accustomed bring info on development problems like
health, education, and agricultural extension, into poor communities. Later, telecentres were
conjointly accustomed deliver government services[citation needed].
ICT4D 2.0: late-2000s forwards. there\'s no clear boundary between phases one.0 and 2.0. the
main focus within the part two.0 progressively shifts toward technologies in use, like the
transportable and SMS technologies. there\'s less concern with e-readiness and a lot of interest
within the impact of ICTs on development. to boot, there\'s a lot of specialise in the poor as
producers and innovators with ICTs (as opposition being shoppers of ICT-based information).
ICT4D 2.0 is regarding reframing the poor. wherever ICT4D one.0 marginalised them,
permitting a supply-driven focus, ICT4D 2.0 central.
The I-CAN Tool and Managing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) In...Waqas Tariq
Australia, while being a large and eager consumer of innovative and cutting edge Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), continues to struggle to remain a leader in Technological Innovation. This paper has two main contributions to address certain aspects of this complex issue. The first being the current findings of an ongoing research project on Innovation Management in the Australian Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector. The major issues being considered by the project include: investigation of the possible inherent entrepreneurial nature of ICT; how to foster ICT innovation; and examination of the inherent difficulties currently found within the ICT industry of Australia in regards to supporting the development of innovative and creative ideas. The second major contribution is details of the I.-C.A.N. (Innovation by Collaborative Anonymous Networking) software application tool created and evolving in our research group. I-CAN, besides having a positive reinforcement acronym, is aimed at facilitating productive collaborative innovation in an Australian workplace. Such a work environment is frequently subjected to cultural influences such as the ‘tall poppy syndrome’ and ‘negative’ or ‘unconstructive’ peer-pressure. There influences are frequently seen as inhibitors to employee participation, entrepreneurship and innovation.
155-holguin Baseline for indicators for R&D and innovation in ICT a tool for ...
Ngonzi & Kosheek - Modelling for the diffusion of ICTs in Developing Countries_Research paper
1. 1
Modelling for the Diffusion of ICTs in the Economies of Africa’s Developing Countries
By: Tibuhinda Ngozi and Kosheek Sewchurran
University of Cape Town
Abstract
This paper addresses the shortcomings of the perspectives driving applied ICTs initiatives for
development in developing countries of Africa. My claim in this paper is that the efforts
underway in applied ICTs for development in Africa as a measure to address digital divide on
the continent, have no capacity to immerse the technology in the economic functions and
processes of Africa’s developing countries. A content analysis conducted on the stock of
ICT4D projects’ driving concerns and values reinforce the claim. I argue in this paper that,
the efforts are developing and sustaining a technologically trapped and persistently foreign
dependent island of countries on the African continent, as evidenced by the visible lack of
Africa’s innovative contribution in the production of ICTs for instance, or innovative
application of ICTs in her economies. To get out of this scenario, it is suggested in this paper
that the developing countries in Africa need to develop a focus on the productivity impacts of
ICTs; by enhancing the emergence of innovation complementaries, complementary
investments, and sectoral linkages in the diffusion processes of ICTs. For that to succeed, I
suggest for the conception of ICTs in the capacity of general purpose technologies (GPTs).
Keywords: Digital divide, Complementary investments, Innovation complementaries,
Sectoral linkages, General purpose technologies, Social innovation machinery.
1. Introduction
A weak position of firms in the creation of the necessary complementary investments,
innovation complementaries, and inter-sectoral linkages in developing countries in Africa is
a major setback in the diffusion of information and communication technologies (ICTs - here
in after used interchangeably with ‘technology’) in those countries. This scenario affects the
diffusion process of technology in the economic functions of the continent. The situation
results in a skewed appropriation of technology in favour of its informational dissemination
impacts. On the other hand, technology assimilation for the promotion of factor productivity
growth and contribution to output remains very low and narrow in Africa’s economies. This
paper acknowledges the efforts being made in applied ICTs, where ‘applied ICTs’ refers to
the ICT based innovations and initiatives of the world information society and ICT4D,
aiming at pushing for the uptake of technology in the technologically deprived societies with
the aim of enhancing their livelihoods. This acknowledgement however, is not without
criticism in the focus of this paper.
It is claimed in this paper that, although pragmatic efforts have focused on inducing and
promoting the adoption of ICTs for their purportedly impacts related to development, the
approaches have ignored very important aspects of diffusing ICTs in the socio-economic
processes of the respective societies. The initiatives seem to have extensively concentrated on
the people centred outcomes such as access and use of ICTs (WSIS, 2003; ITU, 2005, 2009)
without paying attention to developing root innovativeness in the host communities to
2. 2
support the emergence of innovations locally. This situation is not without a background.
This paper identifies two main historical factors to it as expressed in the subsequent sections
after the definitions of the operationalized concepts.
The rest of the paper is presented in nine sections. The next section presents the conception of
the operationalized concepts, followed by Section 3 on the historical background to the
limited uptake of ICTs in the economic processes of underdeveloped countries in Africa.
Section 4 describes the perspectives for the diffusion of ICTs in the economic processes,
while Section 5 is the statement of the problem. Sections 6 and 7 present the design of the
study and discussion of findings respectively. Section 8 dwells on the modelling activity for
the diffusion of ICTs, while the contributions to knowledge made and the conclusions are
presented in Sections 9 and 10 respectively.
2. Operationalized Concepts
Digital Divide
Digital divide is an evolving concept, and there have been a number of pertinent definitions.
OECD (2001) defined ‘digital divide’ as being referring to the gap between individuals,
households, businesses and geographical areas at different socio-economic levels with regard
both, to their opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) and
to their use of the Internet for a wide variety of activities. ITU (2007) asserts that digital
divide is to be seen as a ‘discrepancy’ gap between more and less developed communities.
Tongia and Subrahamanian (2006) conceptualize digital divide in the context of the under-
served people who lack physical access to connectivity, and social and political avenues for
ICT participation. Steyn (2011) subdivides ‘digital divide’ into categories of: (1) operational
divide, (2) cultural divide, and (3) political divide. The first is said to be about the availability
of ICT and access to ICT systems; the second is about some groups lacking either
technological or social access to dominant social networks; and the third is about exclusion of
some groups or individuals.
In our observations, ‘digital divide’ should be stretched to include an ‘innovation divide’ as
well. The inclusion of this category of divide in the gap should enhance the pragmatic
approaches beyond just targeting opening-up opportunities for access and use of ICTs as per
the OECD (2001), or empowering people to discover opportunities for social cohesion
(Gomez & Pather, 2010).
Innovation
We project an understanding of 'innovation' in this study as being about the generation and
adoption of new concepts. As such, it involves creativity, learning, and the objects of creation
and learning. The understanding also takes the view that in societies there can be organized
systems for innovation, through which efforts are directed towards desired outcomes. This is
an extension on other similar definitions such as 'innovation is a ‘learning process’ by which
“new knowledge is produced or existing elements of knowledge are combined in new ways”
(Edquist & Hommen (1999, p.65); innovation is the ‘creation of value from
knowledge’(Gault, 2010); innovation is “the adoption of an internally generated or
purchased device, system, policy, program, process, product or service, that is new to the
adopting organization” (Meyer, 2000, p.329). Rogers (2003) express innovation as an idea,
practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption; while
Mulgan (2006) defines an innovation as the outcome of deliberate efforts towards developing
and shaping an idea, a product, a process, or a method; and refers to innovations as tools.
3. 3
Information and Communications Technology for Development (ICT4D)
There is a range of perspectives of the term ICT4D (Information and Communications
Technology for Development) in literature. Some sources refer to ICT4D as the use of ICTs
to solve developmental problems, or as the opportunities that exist for ICTs as an agent of
development (Sutinen & Tedre, 2010). Steyn (2011) views ICT4D as being about
“overcoming [the] digital divide operationally” (p.20) so as to enable the deprived
communities to appropriate ICTs and access ICT systems. Tongia and Subrahamanian (2006)
see ICT4D as solving the problem of development through innovations in computers,
connectivity, content and human capacity.Tongia and Subrahamanian (2006) describe ICT4D
as a dynamic process with goals that shift over time, and see ICT4D as “inherently dependent
on the goals of the stakeholders and their ability to participate in defining the right
development problems to be solved” (p.202).
The definitions just tabled have a connotation of ICT4D being about the use of ICTs by
practitioners to confront digital deprivation, or solving developmental problems in the
socially and economically disadvantaged places (Klein, 2009; Steyn, 2011; Sutinen & Tedre,
2010). While we maintain this worldview when we use the term in this paper, we suggest that
ICT4D should not be seen as a weapon in the hands of practitioners, but a context in which
actors are both the practitioners, and host individuals/communities innovatively defining their
ICT related concerns and values for their own life and economic achievements.
3. Historical factors limiting the Uptake of ICTs in Economic processes of
underdeveloped economies in Africa
Two factors involved in limiting the uptake, or assimilation of ICTs in the underdeveloped
economies are: (1) the perspectives of the community of practitioners in applied ICTs, and
(2) the limited scope of the approaches against digital divide in applied ICTs, as
conceptualized in the existing understanding(s) of ICT4D.
Perspectives of the community of practitioners
The first factor is reflected in the deliverables of the ICT forums on the world information
society, such as the International Telecommunications Union (ITU)’s organized world
summit on information society (WSIS). These include the declarations on addressing digital
divide and the famous millennium development goals (MDGs); and their respective action
lines (ITU, 2005). The perspectives relate peoples’ underdevelopment related problems such
as poor health, poor education, low income (GDP) etc. to lack of access to, and low level of
use of ICTs to facilitate information sharing (WSIS, 2003; ITU, 2005). Such perspectives in
turn have led to short term impacts focussed approaches in interventions, which are not
rooted in local host economies.
Pertinent to the identified factor, the desire of the developers, practitioners and sponsor
stakeholders who happen to form a force, externalized to the contexts of relevance in applied
ICTs has been to witness the outcomes of their ingenuity (in design) and justification of
financial outlays respectively. This has also reinforced the short term impacts focus and
commitments in applied ICTs. In reality, foreign-agency-driven initiatives for addressing
‘digital divide’, lack provisions for transition to contextually rooted innovations to sustain the
initiatives, which means that social innovations based on the perspectives of the host
communities are not cultivated. Apparently, the host communities of ICT4D initiatives rarely
develop the necessary ‘agency’ and capacity for generating complementary innovations in
support of mainstream ICTs.
4. 4
Limited scope in applied ICTs
The conceptual contributions of the technology elite community on digital divide and ICT4D
is seen in this paper to have impacted on the conception of the initiatives for addressing
livelihood and poverty issues with technology. The initiatives for the deployment of
technology in Africa’s underdeveloped economies have dominantly focussed on
operationalizing the consumption of ICTs for their prescribed intrinsic values, specifically
information processing and dissemination (ITU, 2005, 2009; WSIS, 2003) for social
empowerment and cohesion (Gomez & Pather, 2010). This has resulted in the aspects of
enhancing technology ‘acceptance’, ‘use’, and ‘access’ and targeting human development
indices in terms of access points established for instance, or numbers visiting internet services
outlet points etc. being the main agenda of ICT4D stakeholders.
Although some human development indices are perceived to be realizable if target
communities ‘accept’ and ‘use’ the ICT interventions (Alampay, 2006; Gigler, 2004; Smith,
Spence, & Rashid, 2011), the targeting of such indices face a danger of ending up leading to
concentrating on short-term incidences only. For socio-economic transformational ends, such
incidences need to be theoretically and practically enriched for long-term economic
performance, as called for by other sources such as Morales-Gómez and Melesse (1998). In
the perspectives of this paper, human development and economic performance are inter-
related. Consequently, even short term human development indices need provisions to
translate into long-term economic development and social transformation. To get that
achieved, quality labour and improved productivity are the values that applied ICTs should
seek to reinforce.
4. Different Perspectives for the Diffusion of ICTs in the Economic Processes of
Underdeveloped Countries
A review of literature on the emergence and pervasiveness of ICTs around the world suggest
that ICTs have characteristics of general purpose technologies (GPTs). GPTs can be
conceptualized as technologies whose impacts are not confined to any economic or social
sector, and thus can be realized in many forms and settings (Bresnahan & Trajtenberg, 1995;
Cette, Mairesse & Kocoglu, 2005; Hamel, 2010; Helpman & Trajtenberg, 1996; Jalava &
Pohjola, 2007; Jovanovic & Rousseau, 2005; Rohman, 2012). GPTs are technologies that
tend to improve factor productivity across sectors, influence productivity growth, and
contribute to national product directly (Gretton et al., 2002; Gretton, Gali, & Parham, 2004;
Jalava & Pohjola, 2007). ICTs enhance factor productivity by complementing other capital
inputs, penetrating production processes refered to as ‘capital deepening’, and influencing
improvement in labour quality (Cette, Mairesse & Kocoglu, 2005; Getton et al., 2002).
GPTs have their characteristics which promote their diffusion and use in economies as
follows:
- They are propagated through innovation complementaries
- They are supported by complementary investments
- They extend beyond the sectors in which they emerge to lead to inter-sectoral
linkages.
GPTs are acknowledged as radical innovations that in many cases play the role of influencing
revolutionary changes that transform household lives and the way firms conduct businesses
(Dwivedi, Mustafee & Williams, 2009; Jovanovic & Rousseau, 2005).
5. 5
Other descriptions regard such technologies as ‘major technologies in historic eras’ that have
been able to create sets of opportunities and constraints for innovative activities in other
major innovation lines (Castellacci, 2008). GPTs are known to be ‘enabling technologies’,
‘pervasive’, and capable of opening up new opportunities (Bresnahan & Trajtenberg, 1995;
David & Wright, 1999; Hamel, 2010; Helpman & Trajtenberg, 1996). GPTs are pervasive in
the sense that, after being produced in one sector of an economy, they are usually used as
inputs by other sectors, referred to as ‘the user sectors’, developing sectoral linkages in so
doing. The user sectors benefit from the GPTs trough two important inputs. One is that they
innovatively build upon the main GPTs, developing what is known as innovation
complementaries. The other is that they make the necessary investment in infrastructure and
human resources to support the GPT based innovations. These are then referred to as
complementary investments.
The studies conducted by Ngwenyama, Bollou, Andoh-Baidoo, & Morawczynski (2006) and
Indjikian & Siegel (2005) among others, reveal a positive correlation between investment in
ICT and economic growth for developed economies. However, contradicting findings exist
for similar studies conducted in under-developed economies in Africa (Ngwenyama et al.
2006; Steyn & Kirlidog, 2013).
In the views of this paper, applied ICT initiatives will be successful in ICTizing deprived
economies, thereafter generating respective positive correlations, if the uptake or diffusion
process of technology is complemented with capacity to generate contextual complementary
innovations. Those will then function to immerse technology in the economic processes,
coupled with the generation of the necessary supportive infrastructural investments for the
innovations. Such capacity should evolve from within the host communities’ bodies. This
paper refers to that capacity to innovate as ‘social innovation (SI)’ in contrast to where the
term is used as a reference to technological innovations conceived to address needs of social
reach in the communities of deprivation (see Section 2).
Much of the available literature on GPT is contextualized in the world of business
organizations, with reference to firms and industries as the main carriers of the respective
‘innovations’ and ‘investments’. The firms provide the necessary investments, and set
avenues for innovations. In so doing, the firms have driven the emergence and growth of ICT
innovations (Bresnahan & Trajtenberg, 1995; Helpman & Trajtenberg, 1996). In turn, ICTs
have overwhelmingly supported economic growth.
The immediate question coming to our minds is, can the firms, or the industry base
altogether, in underdeveloped economies of Africa be relied upon to generate the necessary
complementaries?
This question is tackled by taking a brief exploration of the stock markets, as an
approximation of the status of the industrial base in Africa.
The Status of an Industry Base in Africa’s Underdeveloped countries
Unfortunately, the industry in Africa’s underdeveloped countries is narrow and shallow
(Gibbon, 2001; Page, 2011, 2012). A clear evidence is observable in the comparison of
market capitalization data worldwide (Tables 1&2).
6. 6
Table 1 Market Capitalization of Stock Markets Country-wise Globally
Country 2010 2011 2012 Country 2010 2011 2012
Africa France 1,926.5 1,568.7 1,823.3
Botswana 4.1 4.1 4.6 Germany 1,429.7 1,184.5 1,486.3
Cote
d'Ivoire 7.1 6.3 7.8
United
Kingdom 3,107.0 2,903.2 3,019.5
Egypt,
Rep. 82.5 48.7 58.0 Netherlands 661.2 594.7 651.0
Ghana 3.5 3.1 3.5 Norway 250.9 219.2 252.9
Kenya 14.5 10.2 14.8 Poland 190.2 138.2 177.7
Malawi 1.4 1.4 0.8 Sweden 581.2 470.1 560.5
Morocco 69.2 60.1 52.6 America
Namibia 1.2 1.2 1.3 Brazil 1,545.6 1,229.0 1,229.8
Nigeria 50.9 39.3 56.4 Canada 2,160.2 1,906.6 2,016.1
South
Africa 635.3 523.0 612.3 Chile 341.6 270.3 313.3
Tanzania 1.3 1.5 1.8 Costa Rica 1.4 1.4 2.0
Uganda 1.8 7.7 7.3 USA 17,139.0 15,640.7 18,668.3
Zambia 2.8 4.0 3.0
Zimbabwe 11.5 10.9 11.8 Asia
Europe Bangladesh 15.7 23.5 17.5
Belgium 269.3 229.9 300.1 China 4,762.8 3,389.1 3,697.4
Denmark 231.7 179.5 224.9 Hong Kong 1,079.6 889.6 1,108.1
Finland 118.2 143.1 158.7 India 1,615.9 1,015.4 1,263.3
Russia 1,004.5 796.4 874.7
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/CM.MKT.LCAP.CD
Table 2 Listings on Stock Exchanges in Africa (2014)
Economy Location Listings Link
Côte d'Ivoire Abidjan 39 BRVM
Algeria Algiers 5 SGBV
Botswana Gaborone 44 BSE
Cameroon Douala 2 DSX
Egypt Cairo 833 EGX
Ghana Accra 34 GSE
Kenya Nairobi 64 NSE
Libya Tripoli 7 LSM
Malawi Blantyre 14 MSE
Mauritius Port Louis 88 SEM
Morocco Casablanca 81
Casa
SE
Namibia Windhoek 32 NSX
Nigeria Lagos 223 ASCE
Rwanda Kigali 5 NSE
Seychelles Victoria 4 RSE
7. 7
South Africa Johannesburg 402 JSE
Sudan Khartoum 54 KSE
Swaziland Mbabane 10 SSX
Tanzania
Dar es
Salaam 17 DSE
Tunisia Tunis 56 BVMT
Uganda Kampala 17 USE
Zambia Lusaka 16 LuSE
Zimbabwe Harare 81 ZSE
Source: www.world-stock-exchanges.net/africa.html
The averages of market capitalization of corporate stocks listed on country bourses
worldwide (until 2012 as per the available data, Table 1) are used to approximate for the
capital investment depths across world economies. For Africa, with the exception of South
Africa (at USD 612.3 billion), market capitalization is as low as USD 0.8 billion (Malawi),
with the highest at USD 58.0 billion (Egypt) for the last year in the series (2012). By
comparison in Europe, the lowest value is USD 158.7 billion (Finland) against highest of
USD 3,019.5 billion (UK). The number of stock market listed companies in Africa range
between 2 companies (Cameroon) and 88 (Mauritius), with the exceptions of Egypt (833
companies), Nigeria (223 companies) and South Africa (402). The latter three countries
display exceptionally high bourse listings compared with the rest on the continent.
Identified in this analysis is a confirmation of a weak industry base for producing, absorbing,
and reproducing ICT innovations, and supporting innovation processes with resources in
Africa. It can be implied as well, that digitally deprived economies have an inherent
characteristic of the digital divide itself - the technological base in many sectors of economies
is very low. It is a feature of these economies to be based on light (i.e. low level of intensity
and sophistication) innovations.
Obviously, developing a framework for the realization of GPT potentials in such a scenario is
significantly challenging.
Having identified the limiting factors for the diffusion of ICTs to take effect in the economic
processes of underdeveloped countries, we turn to the exploration of practice for the inherent
features and potentials for turning around the trend. We begin by stating the problem,
followed by empirical observations.
5. Statement of the Problem
The main concern of the presented study was that the perspectives at the foundation of the
deployment of ICTs in developing countries undermine the diffusion process of technology
that would lead to its pertinent long-term economic benefits in developing countries. Not only
that, but they also affect the ways in which stakeholders for the global information society
engage themselves in influencing the diffusion process. That said, there is a need for adequate
theoretical foundations to appropriately guide the ICT deployment and application initiatives
for effective social development in Africa’s developing countries. In the other words,
theoretical contributions in the discipline of information systems are needed to explain the
relationships between long-term impacts of ICT and societies, and the frameworks for
practice to realize the impacts.
8. 8
This paper reports the outcome of the exploration for the conceptions surrounding applied
ICT processes in theory and practice, for the objective of gaining an understanding on how
the improved approaches for applied ICT can be achieved. The paper looks into the ways by
which local communities and their governments in Africa’s underdeveloped countries can
play a role in cultivating the enhancement of ICT to promote productivity, like it has
happened in the places that have advanced to the levels of commanding technologies.
6. Design/Methodology/approach
The paper is based on an empirical qualitative study. The textual data were mined from the
ITU-WSIS Stocktaking and the IDRS databases. The databases function as a repository for
the ICT4D based projects, which comprise the main initiatives made by the International
organizational stakeholders including sponsors, in the body of the United Nations to address
digital divide worldwide. Content analysis techniques were applied in the analysis of data to
elicit constructs, concerns and values that in turn describe the perspectives of the community
of stakeholders as the drivers of applied ICTs.
7. Observations, Findings and Discussion
I. The leading force in the initiation and implementation of applied ICT interventions for
development in Africa’s underdeveloped economies is external to the contexts of application.
Figure 1 provides a clear evidence for the observation; where only 10% of the investigated
projects were endogenously initiated with the remaining 90% being initiated and
implemented by exogenous agencies. Consequently, the voices of State powers as agents of
citizens do not feature significantly. The situation is the same in the aspects of policy,
financial resources allocation, and the determination of the mode the interventions should
take. There is no adequate presence of local drive in the choice and initiation of ICT projects.
The body of international development community of practice, working with international
donor funding as favoured by the ITU/IDRC is the key player in the efforts to curb ‘digital
divide’, realize MDGs, and stimulate development.
Figure 1 Affiliation of Project's Lead Entities
II. The distribution of the initiatives is highly skewed (Figure 2), North and West Africa
hosting about two thirds of all the 346 analysed projects (particularly in Egypt which host 96
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
External 90% Local 10%
9. 9
(39%). This can, to some extent, explain why the region is favourably advanced in the use of
digital technology in comparison to the region south of the Sahara.
Figure 2 Projects Distribution by Region on the Continent of Africa
III. The local based participation in the formulation of own solutions for own problems is
not featuring. Observed is a ‘clinical approach’ which happens to be short term and short
lived. However, an example from the idea carrying the project on ‘Collaboration for Health
Systems Analysis and Innovation (IDRC project no.106788, 2012) which contend that
“critical social problems need to be addressed in a more comprehensive way … for
sustainable results …. rather than a ….. clinical approach” negates that kind of approach
to social problems.
IV. The dominant focus of the initiatives for addressing digital divide and knowledge
poverty in Africa is on providing access and connectivity. In turn, the theme drives the
deployment of ‘telecentres’ as the solution to lack of ‘access’ and ‘connectivity’.
At the macro level, the practices for the deployment of ICTs fall in four main classes:
i. Technical innovations which have included investment in telecentres, e-governance
systems; web portals for governments, youth and women; and investment in digital
communication infrastructure.
ii. Providing public ‘access’ to ICTs and ‘connectivity’ to ‘knowledge’ via internet as
a solution to digital marginalization.
iii. Promoting the use of ICTs via support for deployment in small businesses and social
portals. Assumption of digital technology uptake as having a decisive role in
promoting economic growth.
iv. A focus on the transformation approach for community changes through ‘technology
transfer’ to the deprived communities. This goes with an implicit assumption that the
poor people are probably poor because they are ‘digitally excluded’
V. There were instances of government role playing to support the growth of the private
sector, specifically small and medium enterprises; while other indigenous activities such as
agriculture and fisheries are not addressed.
VI. The development of ICT sector itself in developing countries before it can support
development is not a theme in practice. The tendency at the moment, though not explicitly
0
50
100
150
NA WA EA SA
150
57
37
102
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
10. 10
stated, is an implicit dependence on foreign activists such as the ITU, IDRC, WB, and other
international organizations.
There is no enough evidence in practice to show the presence of significant institutional role
playing in underdeveloped countries for the promotion of national innovation systems for
endogenous motivation of development and use of ICTs.
VII. Creating capacity to exploit ICT is a challenging area not adequately dealt with in
applied ICT for development efforts. This is not just about ‘training users’ as widely spelt in
such efforts. The issue is about creating linkages between economies, technology and
understanding the related services. The excerpt below is a clear evidence for the challenge.
“As the presence and influence of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) continues to widen and deepen, so too does its impact on economic
development. However, much work needs to be done before the linkages between
economic development and ICTs can be understood in a systematic and
meaningful manner. …..….to expand the scope of conventional investigation
beyond the telecommunications industry to include other vertically integrated
components of the ICT sector such as manufacturing and services” (IDRC
Project Number 1051227 ‘Statistical Compilation of the ICT Sector and Policy
Analysis’)
VIII. Evidently missing in practice are:
i. Support for pervasiveness of ICT in capacity of GPT: The design end is not
charged to work with economic bases. ‘Development’ is equated to ‘use of ICTs’,
while ICTs are not connected to the indigenous people’s economic activities.
ii. Support for the development of innovation complementaries: This is about
operational interventions that have worked to stimulate, or catalyse innovations in the
aspects of a society or economy leading to the diffusion of an ICT based intervention.
For instance, promoting social creativity, promoting imaginativeness, creating gaps
for ICTs in manufacturing or business etc. as a prerequisite to inventing things which
utilize the products of ICT interventions, such as ICT aided processes.
iii. Local driven concerns and values: There is a complete lack of locally driven,
inward looking SI process in the whole scenario of deploying ICTs in Africa’s
underdeveloped countries for bridging the digital divide, curbing knowledge poverty
and establishing knowledge economy.
The practice part in ICT interventions in Africa is focussed on providing solutions to
problems exogenously defined, and not building local capacity for generating
solutions to locally identified and defined problems in the local understanding.
iv. Support for the development of infrastructural inputs for the mainstream
ICT-GPT innovation: Having provisions for removing bottlenecks for the
application of mainstream innovation. For instance: Developing skills for the
establishment of ICT based institutions (R&D), building up a resource capacity for
innovations etc.
v. Opportunities for inter-sectoral uptakes and linkages: Having applicability in
multiple sectors which are inter-linked such as farm inputs manufacturing and
agriculture. Investment in technology (exemplified in the insistence on digital
11. 11
communication infrastructure) lacks corresponding efforts in synergies such as
information systems for health, e-governance and transparency, education etc.
The findings of the study are utilized in the next section to conceptualize the modelling
activity for the proposed focussed process of ICT diffusion in underdeveloped countries.
8 Modelling for GPT
Following-up on the findings is a consideration of the framework to address the diffusion of
ICTs in the core economic processes of underdeveloped countries. The framework is aiming
at filling the evidenced lack of a strong platform of firms which could supposedly function as
the main carrier of ICTs diffusion, and the lack of innovation base in African countries. The
framework is also expected to fill the revealed diffusion gap of ICTs that practice in ICT4D
has so far failed to address.
To tackle the challenge of frameworking for GPT potentials, we take perspectives from social
theories. Literature on social theory informs that a social unit, such as a society, can respond
to internally or externally induced changes for short-term, or long-term adaptations
(Schoderbek, Schoderbek, & Kefalas, 1990). According to Schoderbek and colleagues, short-
term changes are only related to contemporary functionings. They are not structural, meaning
that they do not result in the definitive structural long term modifications of the entities
concerned. The long-term response of a unit body may result in a body “structurally
modifying itself, or structurally modifying its environment” (Schoderbek et al., 1990, p.54).
It is a conviction of this paper that, among others, Sen’s capabilities approach is an
appropriate model by which constructs for generating communities’ and individuals’ long-
term transformative capacity to innovate can be advanced. This paper’s advanced construct in
relation to ICTs diffusion is a ‘social innovation capacity’. Starting at the grassroots, an
individual’s recognised concerns and values compel her to make choices on how to deal with
them. The choice range available to her however, is limited by what the person is capable of
doing (Sen, 1999), determined by how a person is naturally gifted and the set of intangible
resources (such as knowledge, skills, freedom of movement, access to services etc.) and
tangible resources (such as capital and infrastructure) available to her (Sen, 1990, 1999). The
exploitation of the gifts and resources is in turn enhanced by what Sen (1999) labels as
‘social arrangements’. Thus, social arrangements work to institute the freedom a person or
community has in freely choosing the combination of resources to work with for the purpose
of achieving expected end results, or pre-set developmental goals.
Applied to ICT4D, and the diffusion of ICTs in their capacity of GPTs, locally organised
efforts are essential to enhance the presence of social arrangement frameworks in
underdeveloped economies. The arrangements should in turn boost the emergence of a SI
capacity, capable of generating innovation complementaries and complementary investments
for the deepening of ICTs in respective economies, hence improved factor productivity and
economic development.
In an attempt to focus ICTs to output and productivity versus derived economic growth and
social transformation in the Africa’s underdeveloped countries, we have chosen in this study
to embark on the inherent characteristics of GPTs for long-term economic and social
transformation impacts. The lenses of social development theories, specifically the Capability
Approach (CA), are used to frame SI as a social capability to mediate ICTs for long term
social change. This is done by positioning SI in the spectrum of ICT diffusion processes, via
inferring the innovation complementarities and complementary inputs.
12. 12
The effects of framing for SI are twofold. First, SI is framed to generate a medium that
functions as a carrier for investment and innovation complementaries in order to supplement
for the weak industrial base as presented before. Recall that a strong industry base functions
to produce, absorb, and reproduce ICT innovations on the one hand, and to support
innovation processes with resources on the other. Second is that SI is framed to specify the
‘agency’ of the state which is proposed to be the key role player in driving for organized and
sponsored innovations, and enhancing for ambient social arrangements for innovation to
emerge. This is further clarified in the next subsection.
Innovativeness and Technology Diffusion in the Mediation of State Agency
Innovation is a dimension of technology that is highly influential in instantiating technology
in the realm of development processes. In the absence of strong firms, potentially impactful
major innovations have to be planned for, and coordinated to exploit their advancements and
cumulativeness in sectors for their short, medium, and long-term socio-economic
performances.
Innovation is a collective social endeavour, a collaborative process in which the economic
units such as sectors depend on each other for the expertise, goods, and services in a wide
social constituency of workforce, suppliers, consumers, institutions, training bodies etc.
Figure 3 below is a framework for the comprehension of the modelling dimensions.
13. 13
Figure 3 Modelling Framework
4 - GPT
DIFFUSION
-Capital
deepening
-Labour quality
1-State organized collective vision
of the society
2- Action Areas
Determine economic
characteristics
-Economic structure
-Value chains
-Core competences
-Processes
Capabilities
-Individuals
-Social arrangements
-Institutions
Technology
-Innovations
-Resources
-Infrastructure
-Sector networks
etc
Activity
of
agency
3 - Short-term
aspects and impacts
Action and inaction on
technology:
-adaptive innovations
-adaptive applications
-modifications
-repair
-vocational training, -etc.
6 - Long-term
Transformational
Impacts
ECONOMIC
TRANSFORMATION
SOCIAL
TRANSFORMATION
5 - CHANGE IN PRODUCTION PROCESSES
IMPROVED VALUE CHAINS
ECONOMIC GROWTH
14. 14
In Figure 3 are six main dimensions labelled 1-6. The six dimensions altogether function on a
SI platform. In the figure SI is placed as ‘level 0’, to mean that all other elements of the
framework are an outcome of its functionings. The dimensions are described as follows:
Dimension 1 depicts the role of the state to organize visions on technology, development and
social transformation, in its representation of the society.
Dimension 2 informs on the areas of attention for the state’s action. For instance, the state
should be aware of the economic conditions, the available capabilities, and the technology
environment so that it can act to align them with the requirements for the deep and extended
diffusion of ICTs.
Dimension 3 is an activity area. It is a projection of the individual and institutions agency role
playing in innovating and propagating innovations. It is a demonstration area of the
innovation capabilities. The realization of innovation impacts is achieved in the short term,
while other impacts bear implications for the long-term outcomes.
Dimension 4 is a depiction of the outcome of the processes and activity that take place in
Dimension 3. As people engage technology in different aspects, capital deepening develops,
quality of labour gets modified, and technology sinks to the cores of economic operations
whose impacts are realised in Dimension 5.
Dimension 5 projects the macro level manifestations of the impacts of Dimension 4. They are
an outcome of technology enhanced factor productivity. Improved production processes and
improved economic value chains lead to economic growth. In turn, economic growth is a
driver for long term sustainable social and economic transformation of Dimension 6.
The framework under construction should be a guiding tool of practice in applied ICTs.
Accordingly, the next stage is to underpin the framework in operations.
Framework operationalization
To operationalize the framework developed in the preceding Sub-Section, at the centre is the
requirement for the state to have base information on the techno-diffusion scenario for it to
effectively organize for high impact technology diffusion. The state must have an idea on the
status of the diffusion critical identifiers or variables (technology deepening, sector linkages
etc. Figure 4 ). This is an input that should function to identify the technological concerns,
and development of content and values for the state organized diffusion processes.
For practical purposes, a tool devised for the prior techno-diffusion scenario assessment for
identifying the starting point or the relevant ‘concerns’ beforehand. The tool is presented in
Figure 4 as a ‘spider-web diagram’ (SWD) for multi-dimensional perspectives in the process
of assessment.
15. 15
Figure 4 A Spider-web tool in the drafting of organized ICT diffusion process
The spider-web tool works by, firstly specifying certain ‘critical identifiers’ informed criteria.
For instance in the figure, the ICT innovation, social arrangements, innovative
complementaries, and complementary inputs emanate from the stages one and two critical
identifiers. The rest are informed by stage three. The scores (here arbitrary) are obtainable
from the technical surveys, using Likert scale tools. The Core ICT indicators manual
(Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development, 2010) is useful at this stage. It is used to get
the specific variables for each criterion. The observations against the criteria are supposed to
generate action areas for intervention, such as where to do what.
For instance, the score on ICT innovation is an indication on the rate of emergence of ICT
related innovations. An innovating society will have a favourable score on this. Then on
social arrangements, the tool is to test for the presence of the necessary social arrangements
(policies, financial resources guarantees, market protection etc.) for innovations to emerge
and thrive and so on.
The tool also helps as a pointer to the areas of strength and weakness in the efforts for social
development. The areas that attract low scores on the specified variables should be areas of
incompetence and vice versa. The advantage of the tool is that it provides a visual aid for
viewing the status of critical identifiers in a single plane by use of an easy to understand
polygon.
9. Contributions
This study has made two important contributions to the understanding of diffusion of
technology and addressing of digital divide in developing countries. (1) The paper has
exposed the weak position of firms in the creation of the necessary complementary
investments, innovation complementaries, and inter-sectoral linkages in the diffusion process
of ICT in Africa’s underdeveloped countries. This results in a low and narrow appropriation
level of ICT, which does not promote factor productivity growth and ICT’s contribution to
output. (2) The paper has exposed the ineffectiveness of the applied ICTs of ICT4D
initiatives in taking technology and innovation to the cores of underdeveloped economies’
0
1
2
3
4
5
Scale
ICT innovation
Social arrangements
Innovative
complementaries
Complementary
inputs
Technology
deepening
Factor productivity
Sectoral linkages
16. 16
economic processes. And (3) that to change the above scenario, the underdeveloped countries
have to take initiatives to promote local innovation capabilities for the strategic diffusion of
ICT. To this the paper has proposed for the intervention of the state agency role in driving
ICT diffusion in Africa, and also to effect the long-term economic growth and socio-
economic transformation.
10. Conclusions
At this point it is summarised that ICTs have their greatest economic impacts in their contexts
of GPTs; that GPTs depend on specific features for their effective diffusion in economies;
that a dual existence of ICT producer and user industries and a network of sectoral linkages in
them is an important catalyst for the diffusion of GPTs. It is also learnt that the presence of
situated agency in applied ICTs should be important to facilitate the identification of
concerns, and the development of content and values for ICT innovations in a situated sense
making world view.
In the modelling exercise, we focused on deliberating for the emergence of the GPT
characteristic features without dependence on the absent duality of producer and user firms
identified elsewhere. We proposed for the social arrangements that are capable of sponsoring
the emergence of local innovativeness and capital deepening for greater factor productivity in
underdeveloped countries.
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