The document discusses several key topics related to the nervous system:
1. The nervous system has limited oxygen and glucose reserves, with 60% of glucose and 20% of oxygen consumed by the brain.
2. Hypoxia and starvation most severely impact young, developing cells in the nervous system. Loss of consciousness can occur when oxygen levels in arterial blood fall below 30 mm hg.
3. The brain can maintain viability if blood flow is reduced to 1/3 of normal levels, but changes become irreversible after 30-60 minutes of reduced flow.
Pathophysiology refers to the functional changes that occur due to disease or injury at the cellular level. Understanding pathophysiology is important for nurses as it helps explain a patient's symptoms and allows for faster reaction to changes. Pathophysiology covers diseases, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. The nervous system is susceptible to many pathologies due to its complex structure and functions. Diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's involve degeneration of neurons and nerve fibers. Spinal stenosis compresses the spinal cord and causes pain. Understanding pathophysiology is key for nursing care.
This document discusses the pathology of reactivity and resistance in organisms. It defines reactivity as an organism's ability to alter its functional activity and systems to adapt to new environmental conditions and ensure survival. Resistance is described as an organism's stability when facing pathogenic factors. The document then categorizes and explains the different types of reactivity and resistance, including specific vs nonspecific, active vs passive, primary vs secondary, and more. It also outlines the physiological levels and systems that regulate reactivity, such as the nervous, endocrine, immune, and monocyte-macrophage systems.
1. The document discusses key concepts in disease including the definition of disease, health, sub-health, etiology, pathogenesis and outcomes. It outlines general rules of pathogenesis including disruption of homeostasis and the balance of damage and anti-damage.
2. Pathogenesis involves multiple mechanisms including neural, humoral, cellular and molecular levels. The neural mechanism involves direct neural injury or changes to neural reflexes and metabolism. The humoral mechanism refers to alterations in hormones, chemical mediators and cytokines.
3. Cellular mechanisms of disease involve selective or non-selective cell damage affecting cell membranes, organelles and pumps. Molecular mechanisms occur at the level of nucleic acids, proteins, and small molecules. Disease outcomes can include
This document discusses stress-induced immune dysfunction. It explains that stress can suppress immune function through pathways like the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system. Brief acute stress may enhance some immune parameters while chronic stress adversely affects immunity. Stress hormones released during stress responses can directly or indirectly impact immune cells and their cytokine production, resulting in quantitative and qualitative immune changes linked to health risks.
Intermittent explosive disorder involves discrete episodes of failure to resist aggressive impulses that result in serious assault or property damage. Between episodes, individuals feel remorse and regret. Etiology may involve psychodynamic factors like attempts to manage difficult emotions, psychosocial factors like exposure to violence, or biological factors like abnormalities in brain regions involved in impulse control. Treatment involves psychotherapy and medication to manage impulsivity and aggression.
This document provides an overview of a book titled "Endogenous Toxicology" which discusses various diseases from an endogenous toxicological perspective. It explores how certain diseases may be caused or related to toxic substances produced internally through metabolism and discusses potential new therapeutic strategies. Several examples of diseases are described in detail, including some cancers, neurological diseases, and cardiovascular/metabolic conditions. The authors analyze literature to understand pathological phenomena from an endogenous toxicological viewpoint and experimental studies are proposed to further test hypotheses regarding local endogenous environmental effects on disease progression.
This document discusses psycho neuroimmunology, which is the study of the interaction between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system. It introduces key concepts like the mind-body connection, the role of stress and emotions in immune function, and the involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and neurotransmitters. Chronic stress can compromise immune function and increase depression and disease risk by impacting neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Psychological interventions may boost immune responses to help fight cancer and other illnesses.
1. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis are caused by the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
2. These disorders are characterized by the abnormal deposition of misfolded proteins that form plaques and tangles within neurons, leading to neuronal dysfunction and death.
3. Common symptoms across neurodegenerative disorders include cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms like depression, and movement problems; the specific manifestations depend on the areas of the brain affected.
Pathophysiology refers to the functional changes that occur due to disease or injury at the cellular level. Understanding pathophysiology is important for nurses as it helps explain a patient's symptoms and allows for faster reaction to changes. Pathophysiology covers diseases, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. The nervous system is susceptible to many pathologies due to its complex structure and functions. Diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's involve degeneration of neurons and nerve fibers. Spinal stenosis compresses the spinal cord and causes pain. Understanding pathophysiology is key for nursing care.
This document discusses the pathology of reactivity and resistance in organisms. It defines reactivity as an organism's ability to alter its functional activity and systems to adapt to new environmental conditions and ensure survival. Resistance is described as an organism's stability when facing pathogenic factors. The document then categorizes and explains the different types of reactivity and resistance, including specific vs nonspecific, active vs passive, primary vs secondary, and more. It also outlines the physiological levels and systems that regulate reactivity, such as the nervous, endocrine, immune, and monocyte-macrophage systems.
1. The document discusses key concepts in disease including the definition of disease, health, sub-health, etiology, pathogenesis and outcomes. It outlines general rules of pathogenesis including disruption of homeostasis and the balance of damage and anti-damage.
2. Pathogenesis involves multiple mechanisms including neural, humoral, cellular and molecular levels. The neural mechanism involves direct neural injury or changes to neural reflexes and metabolism. The humoral mechanism refers to alterations in hormones, chemical mediators and cytokines.
3. Cellular mechanisms of disease involve selective or non-selective cell damage affecting cell membranes, organelles and pumps. Molecular mechanisms occur at the level of nucleic acids, proteins, and small molecules. Disease outcomes can include
This document discusses stress-induced immune dysfunction. It explains that stress can suppress immune function through pathways like the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system. Brief acute stress may enhance some immune parameters while chronic stress adversely affects immunity. Stress hormones released during stress responses can directly or indirectly impact immune cells and their cytokine production, resulting in quantitative and qualitative immune changes linked to health risks.
Intermittent explosive disorder involves discrete episodes of failure to resist aggressive impulses that result in serious assault or property damage. Between episodes, individuals feel remorse and regret. Etiology may involve psychodynamic factors like attempts to manage difficult emotions, psychosocial factors like exposure to violence, or biological factors like abnormalities in brain regions involved in impulse control. Treatment involves psychotherapy and medication to manage impulsivity and aggression.
This document provides an overview of a book titled "Endogenous Toxicology" which discusses various diseases from an endogenous toxicological perspective. It explores how certain diseases may be caused or related to toxic substances produced internally through metabolism and discusses potential new therapeutic strategies. Several examples of diseases are described in detail, including some cancers, neurological diseases, and cardiovascular/metabolic conditions. The authors analyze literature to understand pathological phenomena from an endogenous toxicological viewpoint and experimental studies are proposed to further test hypotheses regarding local endogenous environmental effects on disease progression.
This document discusses psycho neuroimmunology, which is the study of the interaction between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system. It introduces key concepts like the mind-body connection, the role of stress and emotions in immune function, and the involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and neurotransmitters. Chronic stress can compromise immune function and increase depression and disease risk by impacting neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Psychological interventions may boost immune responses to help fight cancer and other illnesses.
1. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis are caused by the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
2. These disorders are characterized by the abnormal deposition of misfolded proteins that form plaques and tangles within neurons, leading to neuronal dysfunction and death.
3. Common symptoms across neurodegenerative disorders include cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms like depression, and movement problems; the specific manifestations depend on the areas of the brain affected.
psyhogenic Disorders 4rth Course 2nd semester psychiatryKaran Deep
This document summarizes psychogenic diseases, which result from acute or long-term psychic trauma and manifest as both mental and physical disorders. It describes several types of psychogenic diseases including neurotic disorders like neurasthenia and hysteria, as well as situational psychoses, somatoform disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychogenic diseases are caused by psychic trauma that affects a person's existence. They can develop due to a person's constitution or previous harmful influences. The document provides classifications and details on specific psychogenic diseases and their symptoms.
This document discusses how increased cognitive stimulation from technology may reduce aging and age-related disease. It proposes that the information load of modern society places hormetic stress on neurons, activating the neuronal stress response and diverting repair resources from the germline to neurons. This allows neurons to repair age-related damage and function better for longer. The neuronal stress response produces factors that induce apoptosis in the germline, further reducing resources allocated to it. Over time, this could reverse the natural tendency to prioritize germline repair over somatic repair and potentially eliminate aging and its associated diseases.
Write a 625- to 700-word letter to your future self about what you.docxambersalomon88660
Write a 625- to 700-word letter to your future self about what you will need to know to be an effective adult educator.
Address the following in your letter:
· Current developments in workplace learning in both formal and informal settings
· Challenges regarding motivation that facilitators might face, and how to motivate adult learners in an adult learning environment
· Digital age benefits and challenges
· Ethics and values in the adult learning environment
Include at least two citations and references.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
Running Head: SCHIZOPHRENIA
SCHIZOPHRENIA 2
Critical Review: Schizophrenia
Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Course:
Professor’s name:
Date:
Introduction
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that affects almost all elements of a patient's life. The disease is characterized by hallucination, cognitive impairment, social withdrawal, delusions. All these characteristics are usually seen in Schizophrenia patients. In most cases, a patient is unable to think straight, distinguish fantasy from reality and also can be over-reactive when they interact with others. All the above symptoms can be explained based on the neurological mechanisms of a patient's mental illness. Over the recent past, there have been various researches linking psychology and neuroscience in search of information on the causes of schizophrenia in patients. “There has been evidence that the disorder is as a result of impaired activation on three brain networks between frontotemporal, front parietal and front striatal that serve in cognitive functioning and coordinating cognition and emotion” (Tritsch et al., 2016).
Theory
Neurotransmitters are basically chemical elements that are secreted by the neurons. The function of these neurotransmitters is actually found in the name of the elements, and that is to transmit messages from one neuron to the other. There are several types of these neurotransmitters and our main point of focus in this case will be those that are actually associated with schizophrenia and the very first and common one is Dopamine. As we have seen this condition affects the thinking of the patient and at some point are not in a position to distinguish between fantasy and the realities of life, now this is one element of an individual that is controlled by dopamine, dopamine is actually responsible for the movement of thoughts within an individual now these thoughts are actually what helps an individual to make some distinction between the facts and fantasy that is why you find an individual is not actually able to make distinction between fantasy and reality when they are affected as a result of schizophrenia.
The other neurotransmitter that is involved with this disorder is glutamate,.
1-ENDOCRINOLOGY-Part-I.PPT PART OF THE HUMAN BODYbarilloanfhal
What Is Endocrinology?
The Basics
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine that deals with the endocrine system, which controls the hormones in your body. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in the field of endocrinology. Endocrinologists diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions affecting the endocrine system, including diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, osteoporosis, growth hormone deficiency, infertility, cholesterol problems, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity and more.
How the Endocrine System Works
The endocrine system’s glands and organs release hormones that regulate a number of vital functions of our body. These glands include the hypothalamus, pineal body, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, testes and ovaries.
The hormones in your body all have specific jobs to complete. There are up to 40 different hormones circulating in your blood at any time. Once released into the bloodstream, a hormone travels throughout the body until it reaches its specific destination(s) to perform its function. These destinations, called targets, can be located either on other endocrine glands or on other organs and tissues in the body.
When a hormone reaches its target, it tells that part of your body what work to do, when to do it and for how long. Hormones are often referred to as the “messengers” because they help different parts of the body communicate. Overall, they are involved in many different processes in the body, including:
Blood sugar control
Growth and development
Metabolism (the process of getting and maintaining energy in the body)
Regulation of heart rate and blood pressure
Sexual development and function
Reproduction
Mood
What Happens When the Endocrine System Does Not Work?
Hormonal function is a balancing act. Too much or too little of one hormone can have an impact on the release of other hormones. If this hormonal imbalance occurs, some of your body’s systems will not work properly.
These imbalances can often be corrected by the body itself. Your body has built-in mechanisms to keep track of and respond to any changes in hormone levels to bring them back to normal and restore the balance.
Sometimes, however, this system goes wrong and there can be a problem that the body can’t fix itself. In this case, a primary care physician will refer you to an endocrinologist, who is an expert in treating frequently complex (and often chronic) conditions which can involve several different systems within the body.
The Anatomy of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system is made up of a collection of glands. Each gland has a specific function in the body, and all these glands work together to regulate vital functions of our body.
Adrenal glands
Located just above the kidneys, adrenal glands are responsible for the secretion of several hormones which maintain the body’s salt and water balance that in turn regulate blood pressure, help the body cope with and respond to stress, regulate body meta
The document discusses diseases of the nervous system. It begins by defining the nervous system and its main functions, which include maintaining posture, movement, and internal regulation. It then describes the different parts of the nervous system and their roles. The document emphasizes that differentiating between primary nervous system diseases and secondary diseases is important for determining proper diagnosis and treatment. It outlines some common nervous system diseases and how they may present based on excessive or depressed nervous activity. Finally, it discusses specific clinical manifestations that may indicate nervous system diseases, such as abnormalities in mental state, movement, posture, sensation, and autonomic function.
Neurology is a clinical discipline that developed in the 18th century to study the nervous system. It uses specialized investigation methods and has distinguished various neurological disorders. The nervous system regulates and coordinates the organism's activity and interaction with the external environment through interconnected nerve structures. It consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord develop from ectoderm and mesoderm tissues during embryogenesis. Neurological examinations evaluate mental status, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination and gait to localize pathology. Neurological disorders are common causes of illness and can affect the brain, spinal cord or nerves.
The Puerperium & Lactation Parturition Fetal Attachmen.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Puerperium & Lactation
Parturition
Fetal Attachment & Gestation
Early Embryogenesis &
Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy
Ovulation & Fertilization
Cyclicity
Tract Function
Puberty
Prenatal
Development
... " ( \
' '
Spermatogenesis
Tract Function
Pub erty
Prenatal
Development
Take Home Message
Hormones m·e secreted by endocrine glands or nerves. They enter tlte blood and cause
cells in target tissues containing specific receptors to secrete new products or new hormones.
Hormones and their products are necessm y for successful reproduction. Protein hormones
act via plasma membrane receptors am/ exert effects in the cytoplasm of the target cell. Ste-
roid hormones act through nuclear receptors that regulate transcription factors that cause
gene expression t'slow responses", days to weeks) in target cells. Steroid hormones also
act through plasma m embrane receptors that cause "rapid responses" (minutes to hours) in
target tissues. Both types of hormones cause changes in tlzeftmction oftlze target cells.
Reproduction is regu lated by a remarkable
interplay between the nervous system and the en-
docr-ine system. These two systems interact in a
consistent display of teamwork to initiate, coordinate
and regul ate all reproductive f unctions. In order
to understand and appreciate the role of these two
systems, we must fi rst focus on the contro l that each
system exerts independently.
Neural control requires:
• simple neural reflexes or
• neuroendocrine reflexes
The fimdamental responsibility ofthe nervous
system is to translate or transduce external stimuli
into neural signals that bring about a change in the re-
productive organs and tissues. The primary pathways
of nervous involvement are a simple neura l reflex and
a neuroendocrine reflex. The fimctiona l components
of these two pathways are sensory neurons (afferent
neurons taking neural signals toward the spinal cord),
the spinal cord, efferent neurons (nerves leaving the
sp inal cord and traveling to the target tissue) and
target tissues (See Figure 5-1). Target tissues are
those organs that respond to a specific set of stimuli
or hormone.
The bas ic difference between the si mp le
neural reflex and the neuroendocrine reflex is the
type of de livery system each u ses . For example,
a simple neural reflex employs nerves that release
their neurotransmitters (messengers) directly onto
the target tissue. In other words, the target tissue is
directly innervated by a neuron and responds to a
neurotransmitter. In contrast, a neuroendocrine reflex
requires that a neurohormone (a substance released
by a neuron) e nter the blood and act on a remote target
tissue. Neurons releasing neurohonnones are also
called neurosecretory cells . D irect innervation of
the target tissue does not exist in the neuroendocrine
reflex. Instead, the neurohormone in the blood is the
messenger between the neurosecretory cell and the
target .
The Role Of Cytokines On Immune PrivilegeKaty Allen
- Immune privilege sites like the brain actively suppress inflammation to protect delicate tissues from damage. Cytokines play a role in maintaining this immune privilege.
- Experiments on mice found that chronic early-life stress impaired microglial function and rewired the brain's stress response pathways, causing depression-like behaviors in adulthood. Treating the stress hormone CRH reversed these effects.
- Exposure to toxins in tobacco smoke during development can alter brain cell proliferation, synaptic activity, and microglial function, potentially leading to neurological and cognitive impairments.
CELL INJURY, CELLULAR ADAPTATIONS, MECHANISM OF CELL I NJURYMithun Venugopal
The document discusses various types of cell injury and adaptation. It describes reversible and irreversible cell injury, as well as different types of cellular adaptation such as hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. The main causes of cell injury are identified as hypoxia/ischemia, toxins, infectious agents, immunological reactions, genetic abnormalities, nutritional imbalance, physical agents, and aging. Adaptations allow cells to modify their structure and function to avoid injury when under stress.
CELL INJURY, CELLULAR ADAPTATIONS, MECHANISM OF CELL I NJURYMithun Venugopal
The document discusses various types of cell injury and adaptation. It describes reversible and irreversible cell injury, as well as different types of cellular adaptation such as hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. The main causes of cell injury are identified as hypoxia/ischemia, toxins, infectious agents, immunological reactions, genetic abnormalities, nutritional imbalance, physical agents, and aging. Adaptations allow cells to modify their structure and function to avoid injury when under stress.
1.1 Basic principles of Cell injury.pptxMUNEZEROEvase
This document provides an overview of basic principles of cell injury and adaptation. It defines key terms like homeostasis, feedback systems, and causes of cellular injury. The main mechanisms of cellular injury include damage to the cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, and nucleus. Cells can adapt to injury through processes like atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia, which refer to changes in cell size and number. The document also discusses examples of homeostasis maintenance through negative and positive feedback systems.
Post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) is defined as recurrent seizures occurring after traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI accounts for 10-20% of epilepsy cases. Risk factors for early PTE include GCS <10, intracranial hematoma, and seizures within 24 hours of injury. Risk factors for late PTE include penetrating injury, intracranial hematoma, early PTE, and age over 35. Temporal lobes are the most common localization. Standard anticonvulsants are used to treat established PTE but prophylaxis is ineffective at preventing late PTE. Surgery may be considered for refractory late PTE if the seizure focus is well-localized.
1) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) involves delivering electricity to the brain to induce a seizure. It is a standard psychiatric treatment used to improve abnormal mental states.
2) ECT was developed in the 1930s-1940s as an alternative to inducing seizures through chemicals. It gained acceptance after Italian scientists successfully applied electricity to a patient's scalp in 1938.
3) The exact mechanisms of how ECT works are unclear but theories involve effects on neurotransmitter systems, neuroendocrine functions, anticonvulsant properties, and psychological factors. Modern ECT aims to optimize safety and efficacy.
Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder that affects about 1% of the population. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and behavior. It is believed to have genetic and environmental causes. Treatment involves antipsychotic medications, which help control symptoms by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. Older antipsychotics controlled positive symptoms but had side effects, while newer atypical antipsychotics also help negative symptoms but can cause weight gain and metabolic issues. Patients require lifelong treatment and monitoring to help prevent relapses.
The nervous system, parts, function, illness and diseasesMariel Flores
The nervous system is the body's information gatherer, storage center and control system. It collects information from inside and outside the body and sends it to the brain for analysis, then sends signals to initiate responses. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves connecting to the rest of the body). The peripheral system includes the somatic system for voluntary movement and autonomic system for involuntary functions like heart rate. The autonomic system has the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions that work in opposition to regulate normal and stress responses. Common nervous system diseases include Alzheimer's, which causes dementia, and Parkinson's, characterized by movement issues from dopamine neuron loss.
Genes may encode for subtle molecular abnormalities rather than directly causing mental illnesses. These abnormalities could alter neurodevelopment or neuronal components, increasing risk for conditions like schizophrenia. A genotype could code for an abnormality linked to abnormal brain activity, a biological endophenotype, which may then relate to psychiatric symptoms. Both genetic and environmental factors like stress, trauma, or lifestyle influence whether symptoms develop.
The document provides information on seizures, convulsions, and epilepsy. It defines these terms and describes the different types of seizures including partial/focal seizures and generalized seizures. It discusses the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic evaluation, and management of seizures which includes anti-seizure medications, surgery, and vagus nerve stimulation. Nursing care focuses on protecting the individual during a seizure and observing/reporting seizure characteristics. Complications include prolonged seizures known as status epilepticus.
Respiratory viruses infections in childrenNehaFathima11
This document discusses respiratory viruses, focusing on influenza viruses and adenoviruses. It describes the structure and classification of influenza viruses, how they cause antigenic drift and shifts, and their replication cycle. Symptoms of influenza include fever, muscle aches and cough. Influenza is diagnosed via antigen detection, virus isolation, and serology. Treatment includes adamantane derivatives and neuraminidase inhibitors. Vaccines protect against strains of influenza A and B. Adenoviruses cause respiratory illnesses like the common cold via lytic infection of epithelial cells. Immunity to adenoviruses is strong and type-specific.
This document discusses the pathophysiology of digestion. It covers:
1. The main functions of the digestive tract include digestion, protection from pathogens, waste excretion, blood cell production, acid-base and water-salt regulation, hormone production, and vitamin synthesis by gut microbes.
2. Digestion can be disturbed by factors like bulky/extreme temperature foods, alcohol, toxins, radiation, parasites, and diseases of the digestive organs or other body systems.
3. Common digestive disorders include peptic ulcer, gastroesophageal reflux, inflammatory diseases of the stomach and intestines, and cancers. Taste, appetite, secretion, motility and absorption issues within the mouth, esoph
psyhogenic Disorders 4rth Course 2nd semester psychiatryKaran Deep
This document summarizes psychogenic diseases, which result from acute or long-term psychic trauma and manifest as both mental and physical disorders. It describes several types of psychogenic diseases including neurotic disorders like neurasthenia and hysteria, as well as situational psychoses, somatoform disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychogenic diseases are caused by psychic trauma that affects a person's existence. They can develop due to a person's constitution or previous harmful influences. The document provides classifications and details on specific psychogenic diseases and their symptoms.
This document discusses how increased cognitive stimulation from technology may reduce aging and age-related disease. It proposes that the information load of modern society places hormetic stress on neurons, activating the neuronal stress response and diverting repair resources from the germline to neurons. This allows neurons to repair age-related damage and function better for longer. The neuronal stress response produces factors that induce apoptosis in the germline, further reducing resources allocated to it. Over time, this could reverse the natural tendency to prioritize germline repair over somatic repair and potentially eliminate aging and its associated diseases.
Write a 625- to 700-word letter to your future self about what you.docxambersalomon88660
Write a 625- to 700-word letter to your future self about what you will need to know to be an effective adult educator.
Address the following in your letter:
· Current developments in workplace learning in both formal and informal settings
· Challenges regarding motivation that facilitators might face, and how to motivate adult learners in an adult learning environment
· Digital age benefits and challenges
· Ethics and values in the adult learning environment
Include at least two citations and references.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
Running Head: SCHIZOPHRENIA
SCHIZOPHRENIA 2
Critical Review: Schizophrenia
Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Course:
Professor’s name:
Date:
Introduction
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that affects almost all elements of a patient's life. The disease is characterized by hallucination, cognitive impairment, social withdrawal, delusions. All these characteristics are usually seen in Schizophrenia patients. In most cases, a patient is unable to think straight, distinguish fantasy from reality and also can be over-reactive when they interact with others. All the above symptoms can be explained based on the neurological mechanisms of a patient's mental illness. Over the recent past, there have been various researches linking psychology and neuroscience in search of information on the causes of schizophrenia in patients. “There has been evidence that the disorder is as a result of impaired activation on three brain networks between frontotemporal, front parietal and front striatal that serve in cognitive functioning and coordinating cognition and emotion” (Tritsch et al., 2016).
Theory
Neurotransmitters are basically chemical elements that are secreted by the neurons. The function of these neurotransmitters is actually found in the name of the elements, and that is to transmit messages from one neuron to the other. There are several types of these neurotransmitters and our main point of focus in this case will be those that are actually associated with schizophrenia and the very first and common one is Dopamine. As we have seen this condition affects the thinking of the patient and at some point are not in a position to distinguish between fantasy and the realities of life, now this is one element of an individual that is controlled by dopamine, dopamine is actually responsible for the movement of thoughts within an individual now these thoughts are actually what helps an individual to make some distinction between the facts and fantasy that is why you find an individual is not actually able to make distinction between fantasy and reality when they are affected as a result of schizophrenia.
The other neurotransmitter that is involved with this disorder is glutamate,.
1-ENDOCRINOLOGY-Part-I.PPT PART OF THE HUMAN BODYbarilloanfhal
What Is Endocrinology?
The Basics
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine that deals with the endocrine system, which controls the hormones in your body. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in the field of endocrinology. Endocrinologists diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions affecting the endocrine system, including diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, osteoporosis, growth hormone deficiency, infertility, cholesterol problems, hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity and more.
How the Endocrine System Works
The endocrine system’s glands and organs release hormones that regulate a number of vital functions of our body. These glands include the hypothalamus, pineal body, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, testes and ovaries.
The hormones in your body all have specific jobs to complete. There are up to 40 different hormones circulating in your blood at any time. Once released into the bloodstream, a hormone travels throughout the body until it reaches its specific destination(s) to perform its function. These destinations, called targets, can be located either on other endocrine glands or on other organs and tissues in the body.
When a hormone reaches its target, it tells that part of your body what work to do, when to do it and for how long. Hormones are often referred to as the “messengers” because they help different parts of the body communicate. Overall, they are involved in many different processes in the body, including:
Blood sugar control
Growth and development
Metabolism (the process of getting and maintaining energy in the body)
Regulation of heart rate and blood pressure
Sexual development and function
Reproduction
Mood
What Happens When the Endocrine System Does Not Work?
Hormonal function is a balancing act. Too much or too little of one hormone can have an impact on the release of other hormones. If this hormonal imbalance occurs, some of your body’s systems will not work properly.
These imbalances can often be corrected by the body itself. Your body has built-in mechanisms to keep track of and respond to any changes in hormone levels to bring them back to normal and restore the balance.
Sometimes, however, this system goes wrong and there can be a problem that the body can’t fix itself. In this case, a primary care physician will refer you to an endocrinologist, who is an expert in treating frequently complex (and often chronic) conditions which can involve several different systems within the body.
The Anatomy of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system is made up of a collection of glands. Each gland has a specific function in the body, and all these glands work together to regulate vital functions of our body.
Adrenal glands
Located just above the kidneys, adrenal glands are responsible for the secretion of several hormones which maintain the body’s salt and water balance that in turn regulate blood pressure, help the body cope with and respond to stress, regulate body meta
The document discusses diseases of the nervous system. It begins by defining the nervous system and its main functions, which include maintaining posture, movement, and internal regulation. It then describes the different parts of the nervous system and their roles. The document emphasizes that differentiating between primary nervous system diseases and secondary diseases is important for determining proper diagnosis and treatment. It outlines some common nervous system diseases and how they may present based on excessive or depressed nervous activity. Finally, it discusses specific clinical manifestations that may indicate nervous system diseases, such as abnormalities in mental state, movement, posture, sensation, and autonomic function.
Neurology is a clinical discipline that developed in the 18th century to study the nervous system. It uses specialized investigation methods and has distinguished various neurological disorders. The nervous system regulates and coordinates the organism's activity and interaction with the external environment through interconnected nerve structures. It consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord develop from ectoderm and mesoderm tissues during embryogenesis. Neurological examinations evaluate mental status, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination and gait to localize pathology. Neurological disorders are common causes of illness and can affect the brain, spinal cord or nerves.
The Puerperium & Lactation Parturition Fetal Attachmen.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Puerperium & Lactation
Parturition
Fetal Attachment & Gestation
Early Embryogenesis &
Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy
Ovulation & Fertilization
Cyclicity
Tract Function
Puberty
Prenatal
Development
... " ( \
' '
Spermatogenesis
Tract Function
Pub erty
Prenatal
Development
Take Home Message
Hormones m·e secreted by endocrine glands or nerves. They enter tlte blood and cause
cells in target tissues containing specific receptors to secrete new products or new hormones.
Hormones and their products are necessm y for successful reproduction. Protein hormones
act via plasma membrane receptors am/ exert effects in the cytoplasm of the target cell. Ste-
roid hormones act through nuclear receptors that regulate transcription factors that cause
gene expression t'slow responses", days to weeks) in target cells. Steroid hormones also
act through plasma m embrane receptors that cause "rapid responses" (minutes to hours) in
target tissues. Both types of hormones cause changes in tlzeftmction oftlze target cells.
Reproduction is regu lated by a remarkable
interplay between the nervous system and the en-
docr-ine system. These two systems interact in a
consistent display of teamwork to initiate, coordinate
and regul ate all reproductive f unctions. In order
to understand and appreciate the role of these two
systems, we must fi rst focus on the contro l that each
system exerts independently.
Neural control requires:
• simple neural reflexes or
• neuroendocrine reflexes
The fimdamental responsibility ofthe nervous
system is to translate or transduce external stimuli
into neural signals that bring about a change in the re-
productive organs and tissues. The primary pathways
of nervous involvement are a simple neura l reflex and
a neuroendocrine reflex. The fimctiona l components
of these two pathways are sensory neurons (afferent
neurons taking neural signals toward the spinal cord),
the spinal cord, efferent neurons (nerves leaving the
sp inal cord and traveling to the target tissue) and
target tissues (See Figure 5-1). Target tissues are
those organs that respond to a specific set of stimuli
or hormone.
The bas ic difference between the si mp le
neural reflex and the neuroendocrine reflex is the
type of de livery system each u ses . For example,
a simple neural reflex employs nerves that release
their neurotransmitters (messengers) directly onto
the target tissue. In other words, the target tissue is
directly innervated by a neuron and responds to a
neurotransmitter. In contrast, a neuroendocrine reflex
requires that a neurohormone (a substance released
by a neuron) e nter the blood and act on a remote target
tissue. Neurons releasing neurohonnones are also
called neurosecretory cells . D irect innervation of
the target tissue does not exist in the neuroendocrine
reflex. Instead, the neurohormone in the blood is the
messenger between the neurosecretory cell and the
target .
The Role Of Cytokines On Immune PrivilegeKaty Allen
- Immune privilege sites like the brain actively suppress inflammation to protect delicate tissues from damage. Cytokines play a role in maintaining this immune privilege.
- Experiments on mice found that chronic early-life stress impaired microglial function and rewired the brain's stress response pathways, causing depression-like behaviors in adulthood. Treating the stress hormone CRH reversed these effects.
- Exposure to toxins in tobacco smoke during development can alter brain cell proliferation, synaptic activity, and microglial function, potentially leading to neurological and cognitive impairments.
CELL INJURY, CELLULAR ADAPTATIONS, MECHANISM OF CELL I NJURYMithun Venugopal
The document discusses various types of cell injury and adaptation. It describes reversible and irreversible cell injury, as well as different types of cellular adaptation such as hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. The main causes of cell injury are identified as hypoxia/ischemia, toxins, infectious agents, immunological reactions, genetic abnormalities, nutritional imbalance, physical agents, and aging. Adaptations allow cells to modify their structure and function to avoid injury when under stress.
CELL INJURY, CELLULAR ADAPTATIONS, MECHANISM OF CELL I NJURYMithun Venugopal
The document discusses various types of cell injury and adaptation. It describes reversible and irreversible cell injury, as well as different types of cellular adaptation such as hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. The main causes of cell injury are identified as hypoxia/ischemia, toxins, infectious agents, immunological reactions, genetic abnormalities, nutritional imbalance, physical agents, and aging. Adaptations allow cells to modify their structure and function to avoid injury when under stress.
1.1 Basic principles of Cell injury.pptxMUNEZEROEvase
This document provides an overview of basic principles of cell injury and adaptation. It defines key terms like homeostasis, feedback systems, and causes of cellular injury. The main mechanisms of cellular injury include damage to the cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, and nucleus. Cells can adapt to injury through processes like atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia, which refer to changes in cell size and number. The document also discusses examples of homeostasis maintenance through negative and positive feedback systems.
Post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) is defined as recurrent seizures occurring after traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI accounts for 10-20% of epilepsy cases. Risk factors for early PTE include GCS <10, intracranial hematoma, and seizures within 24 hours of injury. Risk factors for late PTE include penetrating injury, intracranial hematoma, early PTE, and age over 35. Temporal lobes are the most common localization. Standard anticonvulsants are used to treat established PTE but prophylaxis is ineffective at preventing late PTE. Surgery may be considered for refractory late PTE if the seizure focus is well-localized.
1) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) involves delivering electricity to the brain to induce a seizure. It is a standard psychiatric treatment used to improve abnormal mental states.
2) ECT was developed in the 1930s-1940s as an alternative to inducing seizures through chemicals. It gained acceptance after Italian scientists successfully applied electricity to a patient's scalp in 1938.
3) The exact mechanisms of how ECT works are unclear but theories involve effects on neurotransmitter systems, neuroendocrine functions, anticonvulsant properties, and psychological factors. Modern ECT aims to optimize safety and efficacy.
Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder that affects about 1% of the population. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and behavior. It is believed to have genetic and environmental causes. Treatment involves antipsychotic medications, which help control symptoms by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. Older antipsychotics controlled positive symptoms but had side effects, while newer atypical antipsychotics also help negative symptoms but can cause weight gain and metabolic issues. Patients require lifelong treatment and monitoring to help prevent relapses.
The nervous system, parts, function, illness and diseasesMariel Flores
The nervous system is the body's information gatherer, storage center and control system. It collects information from inside and outside the body and sends it to the brain for analysis, then sends signals to initiate responses. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves connecting to the rest of the body). The peripheral system includes the somatic system for voluntary movement and autonomic system for involuntary functions like heart rate. The autonomic system has the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions that work in opposition to regulate normal and stress responses. Common nervous system diseases include Alzheimer's, which causes dementia, and Parkinson's, characterized by movement issues from dopamine neuron loss.
Genes may encode for subtle molecular abnormalities rather than directly causing mental illnesses. These abnormalities could alter neurodevelopment or neuronal components, increasing risk for conditions like schizophrenia. A genotype could code for an abnormality linked to abnormal brain activity, a biological endophenotype, which may then relate to psychiatric symptoms. Both genetic and environmental factors like stress, trauma, or lifestyle influence whether symptoms develop.
The document provides information on seizures, convulsions, and epilepsy. It defines these terms and describes the different types of seizures including partial/focal seizures and generalized seizures. It discusses the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic evaluation, and management of seizures which includes anti-seizure medications, surgery, and vagus nerve stimulation. Nursing care focuses on protecting the individual during a seizure and observing/reporting seizure characteristics. Complications include prolonged seizures known as status epilepticus.
Respiratory viruses infections in childrenNehaFathima11
This document discusses respiratory viruses, focusing on influenza viruses and adenoviruses. It describes the structure and classification of influenza viruses, how they cause antigenic drift and shifts, and their replication cycle. Symptoms of influenza include fever, muscle aches and cough. Influenza is diagnosed via antigen detection, virus isolation, and serology. Treatment includes adamantane derivatives and neuraminidase inhibitors. Vaccines protect against strains of influenza A and B. Adenoviruses cause respiratory illnesses like the common cold via lytic infection of epithelial cells. Immunity to adenoviruses is strong and type-specific.
This document discusses the pathophysiology of digestion. It covers:
1. The main functions of the digestive tract include digestion, protection from pathogens, waste excretion, blood cell production, acid-base and water-salt regulation, hormone production, and vitamin synthesis by gut microbes.
2. Digestion can be disturbed by factors like bulky/extreme temperature foods, alcohol, toxins, radiation, parasites, and diseases of the digestive organs or other body systems.
3. Common digestive disorders include peptic ulcer, gastroesophageal reflux, inflammatory diseases of the stomach and intestines, and cancers. Taste, appetite, secretion, motility and absorption issues within the mouth, esoph
This document discusses various drugs that act on the central nervous system. It begins with an overview of the central neurotransmitters and how drugs act in the CNS. It then covers general anesthetics like ether, halothane, xenon, and intravenous agents. It discusses pre-anesthetic medications, hypnotic drugs, antiseizure medications, and antiparkinsonic drugs. For antiseizure drugs, it covers classifications and examples like carbamazepine. For antiparkinsonic drugs, it discusses classifications like those acting on dopamine and acetylcholine, and examples like levodopa and anticholinergics.
Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects.[2] Medically they are primarily used for pain relief, including anesthesia.[3] Other medical uses include suppression of diarrhea, replacement therapy for opioid use disorder, reversing opioid overdose, and suppressing cough.[3] Extremely potent opioids such as carfentanil are approved only for veterinary use.[4][5][6] Opioids are also frequently used non-medically for their euphoric effects or to prevent withdrawal.[7] Opioids can cause death and have been used for executions in the United States.
Opioid
Drug class
Side effects of opioids may include itchiness, sedation, nausea, respiratory depression, constipation, and euphoria. Long-term use can cause tolerance, meaning that increased doses are required to achieve the same effect, and physical dependence, meaning that abruptly discontinuing the drug leads to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.[8] The euphoria attracts recreational use, and frequent, escalating recreational use of opioids typically results in addiction. An overdose or concurrent use with other depressant drugs like benzodiazepines commonly results in death from respiratory depression.[9]
Opioids act by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. These receptors mediate both the psychoactive and the somatic effects of opioids. Opioid drugs include partial agonists, like the anti-diarrhea drug loperamide and antagonists like naloxegol for opioid-induced constipation, which do not cross the blood-brain barrier, but can displace other opioids from binding to those receptors.
Because opioids are addictive and may result in fatal overdose, most are controlled substances. In 2013, between 28 and 38 million people used opioids illicitly (0.6% to 0.8% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65).[10] In 2011, an estimated 4 million people in the United States used opioids recreationally or were dependent on them.[11] As of 2015, increased rates of recreational use and addiction are attributed to over-prescription of opioid medications and inexpensive illicit heroin.[12][13][14] Conversely, fears about overprescribing, exaggerated side effects, and addiction from opioids are similarly blamed for under-treatment of pain.[15][16]Opioids include opiates, an older term that refers to such drugs derived from opium, including morphine itself.[17] Other opioids are semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs such as hydrocodone, oxycodone and fentanyl; antagonist drugs such as naloxone; and endogenous peptides such as the endorphins.[18] The terms opiate and narcotic are sometimes encountered as synonyms for opioid. Opiate is properly limited to the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy although some include semi-synthetic derivatives.[17][19] Narcotic, derived from words meaning 'numbness' or 'sleep', as an American legal term, refers to cocaine okay..
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver tissue.[3][5] Some people or animals with hepatitis have no symptoms, whereas others develop yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice), poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.[1][2] Hepatitis is acute if it resolves within six months, and chronic if it lasts longer than six months.[1][6] Acute hepatitis can resolve on its own, progress to chronic hepatitis, or (rarely) result in acute liver failure.[7] Chronic hepatitis may progress to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and liver cancer.[3]
Hepatitis
Alcoholic hepatitis.jpg
Alcoholic hepatitis as seen with a microscope, showing fatty changes (white circles), remnants of dead liver cells, and Mallory bodies (twisted-rope shaped inclusions within some liver cells). (H&E stain)
Specialty
Infectious disease, gastroenterology, hepatology
Symptoms
Yellowish skin, poor appetite, abdominal pain[1][2]
Complications
Scarring of the liver, liver failure, liver cancer[3]
Duration
Short term or long term[1]
Causes
Viruses, alcohol, toxins, autoimmune[2][3]
Prevention
Vaccination (for viral hepatitis),[2] avoiding excessive alcohol
Treatment
Medication, liver transplant[1][4]
Frequency
> 500 million cases[3]
Deaths
> One million a year[3]
Hepatitis is most commonly caused by the virus hepatovirus A, B, C, D, and E.[2][3] Other viruses can also cause liver inflammation, including cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and yellow fever virus. Other common causes of hepatitis include heavy alcohol use, certain medications, toxins, other infections, autoimmune diseases,[2][3] and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).[8] Hepatitis A and E are mainly spread by contaminated food and water.[3] Hepatitis B is mainly sexually transmitted, but may also be passed from mother to baby during pregnancy or childbirth and spread through infected blood.[3] Hepatitis C is commonly spread through infected blood such as may occur during needle sharing by intravenous drug users.[3] Hepatitis D can only infect people already infected with hepatitis B.[3]
Hepatitis A, B, and D are preventable with immunization.[2] Medications may be used to treat chronic viral hepatitis.[1] Antiviral medications are recommended in all with chronic hepatitis C, except those with conditions that limit their life expectancy.[9] There is no specific treatment for NASH; physical activity, a healthy diet, and weight loss are recommended.[8] Autoimmune hepatitis may be treated with medications to suppress the immune system.[10] A liver transplant may be an option in both acute and chronic liver failure.[4]
Worldwide in 2015, hepatitis A occurred in about 114 million people, chronic hepatitis B affected about 343 million people and chronic hepatitis C about 142 million people.[11] In the United States, NASH affects about 11 million people and alcoholic hepatitis affects about 5 million people.[8][12] Hepatitis results in more than a million deaths a year.
The document provides methodological recommendations for students on the topic of feeding techniques for children in their first year of life. It discusses feeding with a spoon, bottle, and feeding tube. The key learning objectives are for students to understand the anatomical features of the digestive system in young children, learn various feeding techniques, and be able to properly evaluate and advise on feeding methods. The document also outlines the structural organization and content of the educational materials on this topic.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
Kosmoderma Academy, a leading institution in the field of dermatology and aesthetics, offers comprehensive courses in cosmetology and trichology. Our specialized courses on PRP (Hair), DR+Growth Factor, GFC, and Qr678 are designed to equip practitioners with advanced skills and knowledge to excel in hair restoration and growth treatments.
Mercurius is named after the roman god mercurius, the god of trade and science. The planet mercurius is named after the same god. Mercurius is sometimes called hydrargyrum, means ‘watery silver’. Its shine and colour are very similar to silver, but mercury is a fluid at room temperatures. The name quick silver is a translation of hydrargyrum, where the word quick describes its tendency to scatter away in all directions.
The droplets have a tendency to conglomerate to one big mass, but on being shaken they fall apart into countless little droplets again. It is used to ignite explosives, like mercury fulminate, the explosive character is one of its general themes.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
Ear and its clinical correlations By Dr. Rabia Inam Gandapore.pptx
Nervous system pathology.ppt
1. Associate Professor of Pathophysiology Department
Spirina Maria Aleksandrovna
mas.dokuments@yandex.ru
2. The nervous system doesn't have the
reserves of oxygen and glucose
60% of all glucose consumed in an
organism it is utilized by the nervous
system
20% of all consumed oxygen fall to the
share of a brain
15% of all blood expelled by heart come
to a brain
3. The younger cells are most
sensitive to a hypoxia and to the
starvation
The mental disturbance is revealed
already when PaO2 in arterial
blood decreases to 40 — 50 mm
hg. When PaO2 falls lower than 30
mm hg, through 20 seconds there
is a loss of consciousness, and still
through 20 seconds the electric
activity of a brain disappears.
4. The cerebral blood flow is normal of 50 — 60
ml/min on 100 g of weight irrespective of
fluctuations of the average arterial tension
ranging from 45 to 170 mm hg.
The global changes of a cerebral blood flow
arise or at strong falling of the arterial tension
(lower than 45 mm hg), or at the cerebral
edema.
The brain tissues keep the viability at the
depression of a blood flow to 1/3 from normal
(to 15 — 20 ml/min. on 100 g of weight) within
30 — 60 min and only after this the changes in
a brain become irreversible.
5. A pathological process in a
nervous system leading to
disorder of its activity, and also an
organism in general including
behavior and mentality, begins
with the damage of histological
elements of a nervous system,
first of all the neurones
(membranes, receptors, ion
channels, secondary
intermediaries, the genetic
device).
6. the ability of neurones to
reorganize the synoptic contacts
to cells targets;
the ability of a nervous system
to training and to the formation
of new skills.
7.
8. Internal causes
Exogenous factors
The Risk factors of damage of a nervous
system (condition):
the intensity, the duration, the frequency of influence
of this factor;
the condition of a nervous system at the time of
action of the pathogenic agent
a condition of a hematoencephalic barrier
9. THE EXTERNAL CAUSES
The examples of pathogenic agents:
* The
mechanical
injury
* the ionizing
radiation
* A hypoxia
* The ethanol
* The organophosphoric
compound
* An abused drug
* The
neurotropic agents
(a strychnin, a curare)
* the microbes
(neurophilic exo-
and endotoxins of
microbes, for example
diphtheritic,
tetanic,
botulinic)
* A word
The daunt images
(“wraith”),
feelings
* The stressful
situations
chemical biological psychogenic
physical
The reasons of the nervous
system disturbances (1)
10. the biologically active
substance imbalance
and their effects
(neurotransmitters,
hormones, cytokines)
an
excessive
activation
of the free-
radical lipid
peroxidation
the disturbances
of vital activities and
structures of
tissues, organs and its
systems, bringing
to disorder:
the
disturbance
of the
thermal
homeostasis
in
organism
THE INTERNAL CAUSES
the circulation
of
blood and of
neurolymph in
brain and
spinal cord
the balance of
ions
and liquids
inside and out of
neuron
the
metabolism
in the
neuron
the structure and
the rheology of
blood and of
neurolymph
The reasons of the nervous
system disturbances (2)
11. THE CONDITIONS DEFINING the PATOGENICITY OF NEUROTROPIC
FACTORS
the force, the
duration,
the frequency,
the frequency of the
influences
the state of a
hematoencephalic
barrier
the state of a
nervous system
at the moment
of a factor action
12. The results of influences of
causal factors
The
functional
disturbances
of a nervous
system
The organic
disturbances
of a nervous
system
13. the autolysis of
the
neurone
components
nonspecific
THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF NEURON DAMAGE
(1)
the
membranes
damage
the disorder
of a protein
biosynthesis
the
imbalance of
ions and of
liquids
the
neurone
apoptosis
the disturbance
of the
power
providing
14. specific
THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF NEURON DAMAGE
(2)
the
transport of
mediator
disturbance
on the axis
cylinder
the
inactivations
disorder
and the
mediator
excisions
from a
synapse
the
disturbance
of mediator
allocations
in the
synaptic cleft
a mediator
interactions
disturbances
with a receptor
the
biosynthesis
of
neuro
mediator
disorder
15. THE AFFERENT DISTURBANCES are the disorders
of a perception of various influences and a signalling
transduction from afferent structures to the nervous centers.
THE CENTRAL DISTURBANCES are the disorders of
the analysis processes of the afferent signals, of the synthesis
and of the generation of an efferent signal by the nervous
centers.
THE EFFERENT DISTURBANCES are the disorders of a
signalling transduction from the center and their perception by
the executive structures.
16. The pathological process in a nervous system
begins with its damage (it is caused by the action of
factors of various nature).
The damages are expressed in various destructive
and desintegrative phenomena, in disturbances of
chemical processes.
These phenomena ⇒ condition and cause of
pathological process. Development is carried out by
the endogenic mechanisms arising again after and
owing to damage.
The emergence of endogenic mechanisms
represents a stage of an endogenization of
pathological process without which process can't
develop!
17. The role of a hematoencephalic barrier.
Besides damaging, there are also sanogenetic
mechanisms preventing the emergence of
pathological changes in nervous system or
stopping these changes.
The anti-system selectively prevents the
development of the corresponding pathological
system or suppresses its activity (an example: the
antinociceptive system emitting the β-endorphines
and enkephalins causing an analgesia).
The genetically caused or acquired failure of anti-
system is the contributing factor and a condition of
development of pathological process.
18. After each pathological process in the nervous system
there are structurally functional changes which can
remain in the form of the traces hidden in usual
conditions
They aren't shown → 1) because of their weakening, 2)
because of the mechanisms of a compensation and a
tonic brake control from various structures of a nervous
system and, in particular, from anti-systems.
At action of the new pathogenic agents activating the
hidden changes and breaking the control mechanisms,
the specified changes can functionally be shown → the
emergence of these or those symptoms. Such reactions
call afterimpression.
19. The damage of nervous system formations ⇒ the disturbance
or a loss of their function.
If the defect is shown clinically: it means that the pathological
changes became appreciable that the mechanisms of
compensatory defect lap are already insufficient ⇒! the pathological
process at this stage reached already an appreciable development.
Around a damage zone in spinal or in a brain there is an inhibition
zone. It has a protective value, but on the other hand ⇒ it enlarges
and increases the functional defect.
! The restoration of function happens not due to neogenesis of
neurons, and due to normalization of the damaged cells and
decrease of inhibition of other neurons.
The weakening and the loss of function can be bound only to deep
inhibition of the nervous education performing function (hysterical
paralyzes, the inspired loop functions).
20. The neurones are under the constant tonic brake
control which doesn't allow to react to the
numerous casual impulses arriving from various
sources.
The deficiency of inhibition can be primary owing to the
direct damage of brake mechanisms (a tetanin,
Strychninum) or secondary ⇒ the excessive activity of
neurons caused by the depolarizing agents and other
factors overcomes the inhibitory control.
The mechanisms of brake control are sensitive to
various pathogenic influences and the adverse
conditions ⇒ Therefore the deficiency of inhibition
and a disinhibition of neurons take place practically
at all forms of pathology of a nervous system.
21. It represents a complex of the changes arising in postsynaptic
neurons, organs and tissues in connection with the termination of
nervous influences on these structures.
In a muscle it is shown by a disappearance of the end plate on muscle
fiber where there is a cholinergic device, and the emergence of the
acetylcholine receptors throughout a muscle fiber ► ⇑ a sensitivity of a
fiber to Acetylcholinum is observed. The result → the fibrillary
contractions of a denervated muscle.
In a denervated muscle there is the range of enzymes of fetal type ► the
return of muscular tissue to fetal stages of development the result of a
loop of the controlling, trophic nerve influences → there is a
disinhibition of the genetic device of muscle fibers.
The common pattern of a syndrome → ⇑ the increase of the sensitivities of
denervated structures not only to mediators, but also to other biologically
active substances and pharmacological agents.
It can arise not only after a nerve break, but also at many forms of
pathology, under the influence of pharmacological agents, under the
blockade of neuroceptors.
22. The impulsation coming to a neurone from any source is
an afferent impulsation for this neurone. The cessation
of this afferentation ⇒ a neuron deafferentation.
There is no a full deafferentation of a neuron, because
the neurons possess a huge number of entrances of
impulsation from various sources.
At a partial deafferentation there is a rising of
excitability of a neuron and a disturbance of the
locks. The partial deafferentation of neurons can take
place at various diseases of the nervous system.
23. The neuron and the its structure form a regional trophic contour in
which there is a constant mutual exchange of the trophic factors
that are called trofogenes or trofins
The dystrophic disturbances (ulcers) are a consequence of
deficiency in denervated tissues of the trophic factors controlling
the genetic device. There are changes of activity of a genome of
denervated structures ⇒ synthesis of proteins is broken and the
blasted intracellular structures aren't filled, the new proteins appear.
An important role is played by a pathogenic trophic factor
(pathotrofogen) arising in patholologically changed cells and the
inducing pathological states (degenerin, a β-amyloid)
24. The generator represents the unit of the hyperactive
neurons producing an intensive, uncontrollable stream
of impulses.
It is a typical pathological process in the nervous
system.
The initial mechanisms of the emergence are
• stabile, an appreciable depolarization of neurons;
• disturbance of the neuron inhibition;
• partial deafferentation of neurons;
• trophic disorders;
• alteration of neurons and change of their medium and environment
25. The obligate condition of formation and activity
- a failure of locks in populations of its neurons.
The generator can develop self-sustaining and
even the increasing activity, without needing in
additional stimulation from the periphery or from
other sources.
The meaning of the generators of the
patholologically intense exaltation - the
emergence of a neuropathological syndrome
The generator can arise practically in all
departments of the nervous system
The activation of the generator provokes attacks at
neuropathological syndromes.
26. Afferent impulse before coming to the highest departments of a
nervous system passes the intermediate centers (for example,
being in a spinal cord)
Through these intermediate centers the signal can be carried out
without change (simple relay transfer), but in some cases the
signal in the intermediate centers can be strengthened or
weakened.
The intensifying is carried out at the expense of the neurons, capable
to generate a volley of impulses in response to the arrived single
incentive, and due to existence of direct and return (exponential)
connections of neurones. The signal becomes weaker because of
the brake signals.
The force and the duration of exaltation of the intermediate center at
the same time increases.
27. At a dominant the center of exaltation involves to
itself the exaltation from different departments of
the nervous system, but sends this exaltation on
some one way to a concrete effector.
At the phenomenon of a station of universal
departure phenomenon the station is excited from
one afferent source, but sends exaltation to
different departments.
28. - The pathological reflexes are called the
reflex reactions which limit organism
devices, break its equilibration in the
environment.
- - Unconditional
- - Acquired
29. deep oppression of the
brain functions
loss of consciousness
absence of reflexes
disorders of the vital
functions
30. Progressing dysfunction of central neurons
which govern body organs and systems
Minimal excitation of neurons, which is
necessary for breathing, blood circulation and
other body functions
31. 1. Initial injury of the CNS (stroke, trauma).
2. Endocrine diseases (diabetic, hypocorticoid, hypopituitary,
hypothyreoid, thyreotoxic, hypoglycemic).
3. Intoxications , caused by organ failure (kidney, liver, pancreas)
and exogenous intoxications (alcohol, drugs, poisons).
4. Different types of hypoxia
5. Water and electrolytes imbalance
32. 1.Disorder of cellular breath and an exchange
of energy in the brain.
Hypoxia
Anemia
Disorders of brain blood circulation
Blockade of respiratory enzymes by
cytotoxic poisons, acidosis (in diabetic and
uraemic cоma)
Deficiency of power substances or blockade
of their recycling (starvation, hypoglycemic
coma).
33. 2.Disorder of synaptic transmission in the central nervous
system. It may be connected with:
a) disorder of synthesis, transport, deposition and
secretion of neuromediators;
b) replacement of neuromediators by pseudomediators;
c) excessive activation of inhibition postsynaptic
receptors;
d) blockade stimulating postsynaptic receptors. This
mechanism has the great value in development of
hepatic, uremic and toxic comas.
34. 3.Disorder of electrolyte balance
Changes in cellular membrane potentials
Disturbances of neuron membranes
polarization
Infringement of osmotic pressure.
35. Swelling and edema of brain
Increase of intracranial pressure
Disturbances of hemodynamic and liquor
dynamic
Severe hypoxia
36.
37. the disturbance
of the
movement
coordinations
– an ataxy
the depression
of a motive
activities and forces
muscular
constrictions at
the movement –
a hypodynamia
The typical forms OF NEUROGENIC CONTROL DISORDERS OF
MOVEMENTS
the restriction
of
movements
volume
and rates –
a hypokinesia
a redundancy of
the automatic
movements
– a hyperkinesia
38. The types of the hypokinesias
by prevalence
by expression by the casualty
nervous
structures
by changes in
the myogenic
tonus
a paresis central
spastic
A monoplegia
a paralysis A paraplegia peripherical
hyposthenic
A triplegia extrapyramidal
rigid
A tetraplegia
neuromuscular
A hemiplegia
39. THE SIGNS OF THE CENTRAL PARALYSIS
the
pathological
segmentary
reflexes
A clonus
A hyperreflexia A synkinesis
a muscular
hypertonia of
spastic
type
* consensual
muscular
reductions
* the series
of fast
rhythmical
reductions of
muscles
40. a degeneration of the
muscular
fibers
a redundancy of the
passive movements
in paralyzed
extremities
THE SIGNS OF THE peripherical PARALYSIS
A muscular
hypotonia
A decrease of
the muscular
irritability
A hypo- or
a muscle
atrophy
A hypo- or a
areflexia
41. THE SIGNS OF THE EXTRAPYRAMIDAL PARALYSIS
the muscular
hypertonia of a
plastic type
A muscle
tension A postural reflex
A
catalepsy
42. A masklike face
The parkinsonism
(a damage of the extrapyramidal system)
Tremor of
hands
43. THE ETIOLOGICAL FACTORS
the inhibition of
Acetylcholinum release in a
synapse,
its increased destruction by
cholinesterases
the hypoconcaveation
of the
holinoretseptor
myocytes
the decrease of
holinoretseptor number
on myocytes
(their blockade by the
antibodies)
the damageof the
holinoretseptors by
antibodies
the damage of
myocytes by
antibodies and by
the cytotoxic cells
THE DEVELOPMENT MECHANISMS OF THE
NEUROMUSCULAR PARALYSES (MYASTHENIAS)
44. By the damaged
areas of the nervous
system
By the prevalence
THE TYPES OF THE HYPERKINESIAS
* The
convulsions
* A chorea
*a tremor
*a palmus
* An athetosis
* A dystonic
torticollis
By the predominance of
“fast” or
“slow” movement s
stem
“fast” local
“slow”
cortical subcortical gеneral
45. The convulsions are the sudden constructions of
muscles of various intensity, duration and
prevalence.
Clonic. The short-term and irregular reductions of
separate groups of muscles, through small periods.
The widespread expressed clonic fits designate as
the fits.
Tonic. The long muscular contractions, with
"hardening" of a trunk or extremities in various
compelled provisions.
Admixed.
46. The chorea is the chaotic, fast, spasmodic,
violent reductions of various groups of
muscles. It is observed at a long ischemia of a
brain, at an atherosclerotic lesion, at a
rheumatic encephalitis, at the craniocerebral
injuries.
47. The tremor is a hyperkinesia of trembling type. It is
characterized by consensual, stereotypic rhythmic
oscillating motions of a body or its parts as a result of
the repeating reductions and relaxations of muscles.
It arises mainly at a brainstem lesion. It is observed
at organic lesions of a brain (multiple sclerosis,
Wilson-Konovalov's disease, an encephalitis, a blood
supply disorder), at the exogenous intoxication of an
organism (alcohol, Hydrargyrum, Morphinum).
48. The tic is the fast consensual stereotypic
reductions of a muscle or groups of muscles
causing the violent movements (for example, a
nictitation, a partially closed eyes, a
gesticulation).
It is observed generally at a lesion of extrapyramidal
system as a result of an encephalitis,
intoxications, including the medecines (for
example, at the use of psychopharmacological
agents), and also at some alienations.
49. The athetosis is the consensual stereotypic,
slow worm-shaped movements resulting from
simultaneous long activation of muscles of
agonists and antagonists. Most often distal
departments of extremities are damaged.
The dystonic torticollis is a deformation of a
neck and the wrong position of the head (an
inclination in one way) as a result of a long
spastic stricture of muscles of a neck.
50. The ataxy is the locomotar disorders which
are characterized by the disturbance of a
spatial coordination of any movements. At
the same time the force of muscles is almost
not changed.
The following organs take part in
coordination of movements: a spinal cord, a
mesencephalon, a thalamus, a cerebellum,
the frontal departments of a cerebral cortex,
a labyrinth.
51. THE TYPES OF ATAXY
(BY THE DEPENDENCE OF THE DAMAGED AREA)
The damaged area
* the back columns
of spinal cord
* the back roots
of spinal cord
* a visual hillock
* the peripheric
nerves
* a cerebellum
* the ways of a
cerebellum
* cortex of frontal
and/or temporal
occipital
areas
* a brainstem
* the area IV of a
brain ventricle
sensitive
(dorsal)
vestibular
(labyrinthine)
cortical
cerebellar
52. A static form is a lack of coordination and
equilibriums in a standing and sitting
positions.
A dynamic form is a disturbance of
performance of various movements by
extremities, especially by arms.
A staticolocomotory form is a disorder of
coordination at standing and walking.
53. THE TYPICAL FORMS OF THE DISORDERS OF SENSATION
The damage of a
sensation type
the disturbance of the
adequacy
feelings
caused by it
stimulus
the disturbance of
intensity stimulus
perceptions
contact
distant
A thermalgia
A hypesthesia
A polyesthesia
An anaesthesis
exteroceptor A hyperesthesia An allodynia
interoceptor
A synesthesia
A hyperpathia
A paresthesia
54. The general mechanisms of the cacesthesia
“receptor”
the change of the
sensitivities
receptors threshold
“central”
the inhibition
or the blockade
of the
impulse
exaltations
“conductive”
decreased
increased
the change of the
sensitivities
neurones threshold
the change of
the receptors
numbers
the hypo -
hypersensitization of
the
receptors
the disturbance of
the
formations
feelings
55. The types of the hypesthesia and the anaesthesis
on the level of a sensory
system lesion
conductive
receptor
the "area" of a sensory
system lesion
central
fractional
total
osmetic
tactile
otopharyngeal
algesic
astereognosis
topoanaesthesis
other
56. The pain is the special type of sensitivity
which is formed under the influence of a
pathogenic stimulus, characterized by the
unpleasant feelings, and also essential
changes in an organism up to serious
violations of its vital activity and even death.
The pain can have alarm and pathogenic
value.
57.
58. The value of the pain
alarm pathogenic
the reason and/or
pathogenesis
component of a
pathological
process
a mobilization
of the
organism
protective
reaction
a restriction
of the
organism
functions
59. The reasons of the pain
Physical (the
mechanical
trauma, the
raised or the
lowered
temperature, a
high dose of UF,
an electric
current, a prelum
of the edema).
Chemical (hit on
a skin or
mucosas of
strong acids,
alkalis, oxidizers;
the accumulation
in a tissue of
salts of a calcium
or potassium).
Biological (a high
concentration of
kinin,
Histaminum,
serotonin).
60. The types of the pain
Epicritical ("fast",
"first",
"precautionary")
pain results from the
influence of stimuli
of small and
average force.
Protopathic ("slow",
"burdensome",
"ancient") pain
arises under the
influence of strong,
"destructive", "large-
scale" stimuli.
61. the property of pain epicritical protopathic
the pain source skin, mucous the internals
a latent time short long
a duration after
elimination
It quickly stops It is observed very long
a threshold of sensitivity low high
a localization exact diffuse
62. The nociceptive system
The perceiving device:
- Nociceptors - the free
nervous terminations
which are activated only
at action of the
nociceptive agents
- Superstrong influence
on mechano-, chemo -
thermoreceptors can
also lead to formation of
feeling of pain
The carrying-out ways:
- Afferent conductors of
pain get into a spinal
cord through back roots
and contact to
intercalary neurones of
back horns.
- In a spinal cord the
convergence of
exaltation for different
types of painful
sensitivity ("false" pain)
is possible
Central nervous structures:
- Epicritical pain - result of
ascension of a painful
impulsation on a
thalamocortical way to
neurones of a
somatosensory zone of a
big brain cortex. The
subjective feeling of pain is
formed in a cortex
- Protopathic pain - result of
neurones of a forward
thalamus and subthalamic
structures
63. The integrated feeling of pain at the person
is formed with simultaneous participation of
the cortical and subcortical structures
perceiving an impulsation about protopathic
and epicritical pain, and also about other
types of influences. In a cerebral cortex
there are a selection and integration of
information on painful influence,
transformation of feeling of pain into
suffering, formation of the purposeful,
realized "painful behavior".
64. The antinociceptive system
The neurogenic
mechanisms: the
descending ways from
neurones of gray substance
around ventricles of a brain,
a tire of the bridge, an
amygdaloid nucleus, a
hippocampus, separate
kernels of a cerebellum, a
reticular formation quashing
feeling of pain
The humoral mechanisms:
are presented by opioidergic,
serotoninergic,
noradrenalinergic systems of
a brain.
65. The vegetative (autonomous) nervous system
regulates the vital functions:
respiration,
blood circulation,
digestion,
metabolism,
body temperature,
reproduction.
66.
67. the disturbance of mechanisms of a
regulation of arterial pressure;
the dysfunctions of external respiration;
the disorders of a diaphoresis (dyshydrosis);
the disturbance of the salivations;
the disorders of functions of a bladder and
intestine;
the disturbance of pupillary reflexes.
68. The neurosis is a reaction of the person to a
difficult situation which is often not solvable.
Mainly, the developing of neurosises start by
a neurotic conflict, i.e. such relation of the
person to a concrete situation which makes
impossible and "excessive" its rational
decision.
69. biological
• A genetic predisposition.
• a sex (the neurosis arises
less often at men).
• the age (the neurosis
develops more often in the
pubertatny and climacteric
periods).
• the constitutional features
of the person (the
asthenics are more
damaged of neurosises).
• The postponed and current
diseases reducing the
resistance of an organism.
social
• .The features of
professional activity (the
information overloads, the
monotony of labor
operations).
• the education level
• an unsuccessful marital
status.
• the unsatisfactory living
conditions.
• the features of the sex
education, etc.
• inconvenient workplace or
transport.
psychogenic
• the personal features (an
individual way of thinking, of
the perception, of the
behavior and response to
influences at this person).
• Mental injuries in the
childhood.
• The psychoinjuring situations
(a serious illness or loss of
relatives, the office or
"academic" difficulties).
• the formation of neurosis
70. The compulsion
neurosis The neurasthenia
The hysteric
neurosis
The CAUSES of the
EMERGENCE OF NEUROTIC STATES
AND SOME OF THEIR IMPLICATIONS
THE DISSOCIATION BETWEEN:
• needs of the person
and
• impossibility of
their realization
THE DISSOCIATION BETWEEN:
• the overestimated demands
of person to people around
and
• the impossibility
to realize them
THE DISSOCIATION BETWEEN:
• the overestimated demands
to person and
• the impossibility
to realize them
The signs
* the agoraphobia
*the social phobias
*The obessive and compulsive
disorders
* the simple phobias
* Inadequate (affective)
behavior
* The expressed vegetative
disorders
* The disturbances of movements
* the sensory disorders
* the sex deviations
* The vegetative disorders
* The increased excitability,
fatigability, "emaciation"
* The excessive irritability, fierines
* the performance decrement
* the instability of mood
* the disorders of a dream
71. The reason: a dissociation ("conflict")
between desires, aspirations, needs of the
person and impossibility of their realization
for moral or other reasons.
At the same time in a cerebral cortex the
pathological center of exaltation is formed.
Usually it occurs after one of episodes when the
person forgot to make something important (to
switch off gas, to close a door, to feed the child,
etc.) or transferred a condition of a pavor (height,
a stopping of the elevator, vulnerability).
72. All kinds of obsessional states are
characterized by the repeating sensation of
fear, phobias of something and/or someone:
certain objects, activity, situations. The
beginning of neurosis of obsessional states
is formed on the mechanism of a conditioned
reflex. After a condition of emergence the
phobias extend.
73. The types:
- Social phobias are the repeating absurd phobia, a pavor to fall into a
difficult or humiliating state in society: during the public
performance, reading a lecture, at examination, on a visit. Quite
often it really leads to failure and fixes a phobia.
- Obsessive and compulsive disorders are the obsessional, repeating,
"climbing" in the head ideas, thoughts, "orders" to make this or that
action. The person resists it, realizing and being afraid of
undesirability, absurdity and senselessness of such action (for
example, murders of a favourite being, the relative; the constant
washing of arms because of a pavor to catch or be soiled;the infinite
check of yourself—the closed door, the switched off gas, etc.).
- Simple phobias are the constant unmotivated pavors and/or
aspiration to avoid situations which can realize these fears (a
claustrophobia, a cancerophobia).
74. The group of disorders is characterized by
imitation, but not simulation, by the patients of
illnesses and by rich somatoform disturbances.
The last is shown by excessive attention to the
health, unreasonable alarm for it, conviction
available of illness which actually is absent. At
hysteria, as a rule, there is "desire of illness" and
high suggestibility. A polymorphism of hysterical
disorders, their deliberate, demonstrative and
exaggerated character is explained by it.
75. the inadequate behavior. Affectivity,
impressionability, suggestibility and
autosuggestibility, instability of mood, forgetfulness.
Hysterical emotional and affective disorders are
followed by theatricality and affectedness of
experiences, their confinedness to certain situations.
People with hysterical neurosis try to make an
impression of very busy, significant, influential
persons, being the center of events. Actually they
are, as a rule, persons fine, perfunctory, fussy,
dependent on other people.
76. the vegetative disorders (for example, hypo - or
hypertensive reactions, a dyspnea, inflows of "a
hot blood", tachycardia, an arrhythmia, a
sweating, the dyspeptic disorders).
the motive disorders. Convulsive attacks are
possible (without a loss of consciousness and
bruises!), the transient paresis and paralyzes;
the short-term aphonia because of paralysis of
vocal chords is possible.
77. the sensory disturbances. Hysterical
neurosis quite often is followed by a transient
blindness, deafness, a loss of an olfaction, of
taste, by the paresthesias.
the sex deviations (for example, impotency,
depression of a libido).
78. the reason: a dissociation ("conflict")
between demands to (as a rule,
overestimated) and impossibility to realize
them. It causes an overstrain and failure of
process of cortical exaltation.
79. the vegetative disorders (the disturbances of a heart
rhythm, the hypo-or hypertensive reactions, the
gastrointestinal disorders, the increased sweating).
The increased excitability, fatigability and emaciation of a
nervous system.
Excessive irritability, fieriness, impatience.
the disorders of attention, disturbance of its concentration.
The reduced working capacity, slackness.
the instability of mood, it is frequent a depression.
the disorders of a dream (a backfilling disturbance, an
uneasy dream, the unpleasant dreamings).
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Editor's Notes
The nervous system as the main regulating system of an organism, participates in a pathogenesis of each disease. According to Sechenov, working"counter to the blasting influences of the environment", the nervous system carries out the protective and adaptive role. An example of such protective and adaptive reactions from the nervous system that you all perfectly know: tussis, vomiting, the protective inhibition.
At the same time. In process of many diseases the nervous system becomes a lesion object that is followed by the disturbance of integrative processes, by the emergence of pathological reflexes, by the disturbance of processes of exaltation in synapses and in neurones. As the results, there is not only the depression of the protective and adaptive function, but also the nervous system becomes a source of a pathological impulsation, exerting a harmful destructive effect on an organism.
At the heart of various disturbances of activity of the nervous system (since the simplest elementary reactions and finishing the most complex work of a cerebral cortex), there is the change of the main nervous processes – the processes of exaltation and inhibition and the processes of nervous impulse on synapses and neurones.
It is necessary to distinguish the following factors which are capable to lead to the pathology of thr nervous system:
the exo - and internal factors capable to cause the immediate damage of nervous cells.
1. Infectious agents. Here along with a banal microflora the special role belongs to the so-called neuroviral infections (causing such diseases as a rabies, encephalitis, poliomyelitis, etc.)
2. The pathogenic agents leading to damage of nervous cells are intoxications. And here the role of the bacterial toxins causing such hardest diseases as tetanus is very big. Among the other substances leading to intoxications it is necessary to allocate the alcohol, the drugs, some alkaloids, for example, Strychninum, the poisons of snakes, many industrial poisons, such as Hydrargyrum, etc.
Among physical factors the ionizing radiation and a mechanical trauma are essential. Mechanical damage of the nervous system causes a development of cicatrixes, of tumors, hemorrhages, traumatic edemas which cause to secondary damages and formation of long current pathological processes. Mechanical damage of the nervous system including, a birth trauma, is one of the most often damage reasons.
The pathology of the nervous system can develop under the influence of "extraordinary" disease-producing influences on extero-and the interoreceptor device. The emergence of mental disturbance disorders at the dogs who survived a flood to Pavlov's laboratories is a classical example of this pathology.
"Extreme disease-producing properties also can belong to the signals arriving through the second alarm system, defiant strong negative emotions (insults, a sore news, etc.). The listed forms of pathogenic influences on the nervous system (immediate and reflex, through blood supply disturbance) are often combined. So bacterial toxins cause damage of the brain cells and the blood supply disturbance.
The major internal cause leading to damage of nervous cells is the autoimmune processes. You remember that the gray is primary autoallergen, it is caused by the fact that its formation happens behind a histo-haematinic barrier which damage can provoke a development of pathological process.
The factors which are initially breaking a metabolism of a nervous cell concern to the second group of factors which lead to development of pathology of the nervous system. The most important of them are disturbances of blood supply of nervous tissue and the disturbance of process of the liquor movement. The nervous system is very sensitive to a disadvantage of oxygen and power substrates as it has no own stocks of a glycogen therefore the disturbance of blood supply of a brain very quickly brings to extremely serious damage of the nervous system. The ischemic stroke is shown by paralyzes and disturbances of sensitivity. The disturbance of a blood supply of a tissue of a brain can be provoked by a spastic stricture of arteries, by a clottage and by an embolism of blood vessels, by prelums their cicatrixes, tumors, and also bones of a skull and spine column, for example, at osteochondrosis.
Appreciable and hardly reversible disturbances of nervous activity can arise under the influence not only strong, but also weak pathogenic factors at certain regimens of their influence. For example, small doses of alcohol, drugs, medicines are capable to cause the higher nervous activity disturbances, the movement disturbances, the disturbance of sensitivities and other disorders.
The condition of a nervous system at the time of action of the pathogenic agent. It is defined by its genetic features (for example, the higher nervous activity type) and the previous structurally functional damages. On such background the patogenicity of the damaging influences is enlarged.
The condition of a hematoencephalic barrier. The pathological permeability of a hematoencephalic barrier for exo - and internal causes can arise at action of the ionizing radiation, intoxication alcohols, microbial toxins, in refrigerating conditions of an organism, development of difficult stressful situations, various depressed cases. A special value, a rising of permeability of a hematoencephalic barrier has for disturbance of immune autonomy of a brain and development of conditions of an immune autoaggression with a lesion of a nervous system (for example, multiple sclerosis, an encephalomyelitis).
The disturbances of power supply of neurones
The decrease of entering in cells of a glucose and oxygen (an anoxemia, a hypoglycemia, anemia, depression of a cerebral circulation, augmentation of a diffusive way of a glucose and 02 from a vessel to neurones at wet brain).
The decrease of the activity of enzymes of biological oxidation (a poisoning with cyanides and salts of serious metals, avitaminoses In, influence of radiation, high temperature, products of the broken exchange).
The dissociation of processes of oxidation and phosphorylation (excess in neurones of Sa2 + and accumulation of fatty acids).
The disturbance of transport of energy from places of education the makroenergetic of bonds to places of an expenditure of energy (damage of membranes).
The disorders of synthesis of protein in neurones.
The deficiency of amino acids, the power supply disturbances, the decrease of the activity of enzymes of a proteosynthesis.
The disorders of synthesis of protein lead to catastrophic consequences for all parties of vital activity of nervous cells and as a result — to their death.
The imbalance of ions and liquid in neurones.
The ionic homeostasis of neurones is provided the employment of a volatile potassium, sodium, calcium and other ion channels.
The typical implications of an ionic imbalance: accumulation of Na + and Sa2 + in neurones and excess of K+ in extracellular space.
The consequences: permanent depolarization, rising of osmotic pressure in neurones, their swelling and the subsequent death.
The damage of membranes of a neurone.
The apoptosis of neurones.
The reasons: a hypoxia of nervous tissue of any type (the atherosclerosis, the tumors), an intracellular acidosis.
The mechanisms of damage of a neurone are closely interconnected and exponentiate each other, forming vicious circles (circulus vitiosus).
The reasons of the nervous influence weakening:
1. a mechanical injury of a cerebrum and/or spinal medulla, and also organ and tissue nervous; the inflammatory processes; the tumors; the degenerative processes; the disturbances of a circulation (most often — an ischemia, and also a venous hyperemia, a stasis).
2. the depression of intensity of excitative process (for example, at a narcosis); the hyper activation of the kernels of a nervous system exerting brake impact on effectors.
3.the traumatic interruption (partial or full) of the signalling transduction; the disorders of the transduction on axons and/or akson transport; the disorders of a nervous influences perception.
The basic points of the doctrine about a dominant were formulated by Ukhtomsky.
The dominant is a predominating exaltation center in the nervous system which coordinates and subordinates a work of the nervous centers and the reflex device in general. The dominant center represents set of the neurons having the following properties: 1) low-threshold. 2) a high level of excitation.3) the abilities to summation (the exaltation accumulation). 4) to attract exaltation from the receptor fields not inherent to this center (for example, everything reminds the hungry person of food).5) the dominant is capable to brake the surrounding centers.6). The last sign of dominant exaltation playing a special role in pathology is its inactivity.
The pathological dominant, in difference from a physiological dominant, represents the exaltation center. The pathological dominant creates conditions for tightening or renewal of pathological process in an organism. As an example we will sort a motive and sensitive pathological dominant.
One of types of a motive dominant arises after injuries, brain contusions, after flu, and other diseases. The dominant takes a subcortex and a brain stem and leads to a long tremor of muscles of extremities of a neck and trunk. The tremor has larger amplitude that in certain cases results in impossibility of performance by the person of purposeful actions. The tremor sharply amplifies at any actions and at hurried breathing.
The sensory painful dominant arises at hurt of nervous trunks and at long boring impulses from area of the cut or injured nerve (for example, at a prelum by a cicatrix, by a tumor). Painful impulses frame the center of the congestive exaltation which is transferred to the periphery in the form of severe pains to extremities in a subcortex and the corresponding zones of a cortex. It seems to the patient that needles stick into it, burns down it. Such state is called a burning pain. Unpleasant feelings amplify at foreign stimulants – sound, light, tactile. The phantom-limb pains are close to the burning pain. It is a state when the paatient feel a pain in the area of stump. Initially the phantom-limb pains arises at the formation of a neuroma on the peripheric extremity of the afferent nerve innervating the amputated extremity. The intensive and long afferent impulsation leads to the formation in a nervous system of dominant congestive exaltation which for the functioning won't need the supporting afferent impulsation. Therefore the excision of primary reason which caused a burning pain or the phantom-limb pains (the cicatrix or a neuroma) after a formation of a dominant doesn't eliminate a pain syndrome.
The other mechanism of disturbance of integrative processes in a nervous system is the phenomenon of the station of universal departure. When the brake mechanisms are oppressed, there is an intensifying device disinhibition.
The similar phenomenon are observed in normal state.
However, in normal state this regulatory system after achievement of biologically useful result stops the existence. For example: the animal was scratched, so it removed the factor which caused a this reflex – and this system slows down. In the conditions of pathology at deep disturbance of brake mechanisms when intensity of the exaltation developed by the station of departure surpasses a certain measure, the intermediate centers of a spinal cord turn into the independent generator of patholologically strengthened, long and intensive exaltation. For example: the creation of the generator of pathological intensifying in an afferent link of a scratched reflex – in response to very mild boring, causes pathological rippling, up to a rupture of tissues and a denudation of bones.
So, the dominant and this phenomenon can be compared to a funnel in which the movement is carried out the diversely: at a dominant from a wide part i.e. from all directions in a narrow funnel; at the phenomenon from a narrow funnel in a wide part i.e. extensively.
One of implications of disturbance of integrative processes in a nervvous system are the pathological reflexes. The pathological reflexes are called the reflex reactions which limit organism devices, break its equilibration in the environment. The pathological reflexes arise usually in the damaged nervous system because of the normal reflex activity is first of all the adaptive act. As well as physiological reflexes, the pathological reflexes can be acquired and unconditional. An example of an instinctive pathological reflex can be pathological changes in the form of the ulcers in an oral cavity, a stomatitis arising at the expense of a pathological impulsation from abdominal organs after operations.
The acquired pathological reflex formation of the dominant center in the field of the center, for example, is the cornerstone of a flexors of an arm. The dominant center develops at the expense of the intensive afferent impulsation arising owing to wound of nerves, a prelum their cicatrixes, poisonings with a tetanin. Besides, the dominant center can initially be created and as protective reaction for example at fractures, joint inflammations. At the same time it creates conditions for the quietest provision of a sick extremity. However the long flexion passes into a contracture. At the same time reduction of muscles of a flexor cause pain that in its turn supports a dominant flexor.
1. Cоmas at initial injury and diseases of the central nervous system (insult, craniocerebral trauma).
2. Cоmas in the endocrine diseases that apper as at insufficiency of some glands of internal secretion (diabetic, hypocorticoid, hypopituitary, hypothyreoid), and at their hyperfunction (thyreotoxic, hypoglycemic).
3. Toxic cоmas are observed at endogenic ( uraemia, hepatic insufficiency, toxicoinfections, pancreatitis) and exogenic intoxications (alcoholic poisonings, barbiturate poisoning, phosphororganic poisoning.
4. Different types of hypoxia
5. Water and electrolytes imbalance
The main pathogenetic mechanisms
1. Disorder of cellular breath and an exchange of energy in brain. A basis of them is hypoxia, anemia, disorders of brain blood circulation, blockade of respiratory enzymes by cytotoxic poisons, acidosis (at diabetic and uraemic cоma), deficiency of power substances or blockade of their recycling (starvation, hypoglycemis coma). In development of brain hypoxia disorders of microcirculation play role. Owing to hypoxia it is broken oxidizing phosphorelation, the content and use АТP and creatinphosphate decreases.
2. Disorder of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. It may be connected with:
a) disorder of synthesis, transport, deposition and secretion of neuromediators;
b) replacement of neuromediators by pseudomediators;
c) excessive activation of inhibition postsynaptic receptors;
d) blockade stimulating postsynaptic receptors. This mechanism has the great value in development of hepatic, uremic and toxic comas.
3. Disorder of electrolyte balance with changes of cellular potentials and process of polarization of neurons membranes, and also infringement of osmotic pressure.
The neurogenic disorders of movements are the pathological changes of movements quantity, their speed and coordination.
The hypokinesias are the restriction of volume and rate of any movements.
The hyperkinesias are the performance of excess consensual movements.
The hypodynamias are the depression of muscular contractions force at the movement.
The ataxy is a lack of movement coordination.
the hypokinesias are the restrictions of volume, quantity and rate of movements which, as a rule, combined with depression of a physical activity and force of muscular contractions — a hypodynamia
the paresis is a decrease of amplitude, rate, force and the quantity of any movements.
the paralysis is a total absence of any movements.
the hypokinesias is depending on prevalence:
a monoplegia is a paralysis or a paresis of one extremity (an arm or a leg).
a paraplegia is a paralysis or a paresis of both arms or both legs.
a hemiplegia is a paralysis or a paresis of the left or right half of a body.
a tetraplegias is a paralysis or a paresis of arms and legs.
the hypokinesias are depending on change of a tonus of muscles:
Spastic. The tonus of muscles of one group (the flexors of arms, extensors of legs) is raised.
Rigid. a long tonus of one or several groups of antagonistic muscles ("a waxy rigidity") is raised.
hyposthenic. The tonus of muscles in the innervation of the damaged nervous trunk or the center is lowered.
Depending on casualty of the nervous structures allocate the following hypokinesia forms:
Central,
Peripheric,
Extrapyramidal,
Myasthenic (neuromuscular)
a hyperreflexia.
a muscular hypertonia.
the pathological reflexes (for example, a Babinski's reflex, Rossalimo's reflex, Bekhterev's reflex).
a clonus is a high extent of rising of tendinous and muscular reflexes.
the synkineses are the consensual muscular contractions arising in the paralyzed extremity at exercise of any movements by other extremity.
a depression of a muscle tone (a hypotension).
a redundancy of the passive movements in the paralyzed extremity.
Hypo - or an areflexia.
Hypo - or an atrophy of muscles.
a degeneration of muscles with the replacement with their fatty and connecting tissue.
a depression of excitability of muscles.
a rising of a muscles tonus on rigid type.
the emergence of the postural reflexes (a nystagmus of eyes or of head at rotation of body).
a catalepsy is a long hardening of a trunk or an extremity in the given situation.
There are no pathological reflexes and the expressed hyperreflexia.
The signs:
The muscle weakness,
a fast fatigability of muscles at an exercise stress.
The sensitive ataxy develops owing to a failure or lack of afferent signals from the nervous terminations in muscles or tendons about the provision of separate parts of a body, extent of reductions of muscles, rate of their movements, resistance to these movements.
The cerebellar ataxy.
The cortical ataxy. It is a result of neurones damage of a frontal or temporal zone of a cortex of a big brain.
Vestibular (labyrinthine) ataxy arises, for example, at an encephalitis, at tumors, in the area of a brainstem or the IV ventricle.
The theory of pain control explains how unpainful stimuli can overpower rising painful feelings. A painful, harmful stimulus triggers primary afferent fiber and transmits it into the brain. Increased cell transmission activity leads to increased perceived pain. On the other hand, decreasing cell transmission activity reduces perceived pain. In this gate control theory, a closed "gate" means blocked access of cells, which reduces the feeling of pain. When an input to the transmission cells is allowed, an open "gate" describes that enables pain sensation.
The feeling of pain is a signal of real or potential danger to damage an organism.
The mobilization of an organism for protection against the pathogenic agent. The behavioural reaction to pain, is referred or on "leaving" from action of the damaging factor, or on its elimination (extraction from a skin of a foreign matter, etc.).
The restriction of function of an organ or organism in general. The sensation of pain at a myocardial infarction is followed by the death pavor. It forces the patient to limit a physical activity. And it in turn significantly reduces a hemodynamic load on the injured heart.
The pain quite often is the reason and/or a component of a pathogenesis of various illnesses and morbid states (for example, pain as a result of a trauma can cause shock; the pain at an inflammation of nervous trunks causes dysfunction of tissues and organs, the development of the general reactions of an organism: a rising or a depression of the arterial tension, a dysfunction of heart, of kidneys).