Name:
Date:
Instructor:
What is Theory?
Use this textbox to define theory in terms families could understand. If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Two Developmental Theories
Use this textbox to explain two developmental theories that will drive your work with young children. If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Use this textbox to discuss the connection between your chosen theories and using developmentally appropriate practice to support your work with young children. If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Connection between theories & DAP
Page 2
Explain three resources for families to help them understand your chosen theories. Be sure to include a link to each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to explain one resource that would be a quick read for families on the go. (Explain why you chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly resources and therefore does not need to be included on your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
Use this textbox to explain one resource that would be more detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly resources and therefore does not need to be included on your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to explain one resource that would be user-friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents, grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly resources and therefore does not need to be included on your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Page 3
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be sure to address the following:
Discuss why it is important for you to help families understand developmental theory.
Explain why it is important to research and theorize about childhood.
Describe how your stance on theory will evolve over the next five years.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
Page 4
Two Genetic Factors
Use this textbox to describe two genetic factors that can influence prenatal development. If .
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ECE 313 Week 1 Assignment Family Partnerships
(Collaboration with Parents and Community )
Family Partnerships. Chapter 1 focuses on the family-centered approach to early childhood education, highlighting the importance of the partnership between the family, the early childhood program, and the community to maximize a child’s development and learning. For this assignment, you will create a one- to two-page fact sheet (not including title and reference pages) you can provide to the families in your program that
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word.docxhirstcruz
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word minimum for each) Annotated Citations. With the exception of the first, these references will be based on topics obtained from the Language Development Hypotheses in the list provided at the end of this survival document, and again in the Class Requirement Section online. You may use the same Topic for all, or different Topics for each. The choice is yours.
The First annotated citation will be on the Topic of the "Legal and Ethical Dimensions of the Use of Information." This information can be obtained from the Internet using a search engine such as Google Scholar. The annotated citation should be in APA format as much as possible, and should include the URL (address) of the Internet site; or a citation of the book or article if that was used. The annotation should provide a short overview of the article and/or list the most critical points. Please note that this one citation can relate to any topic and not only Language Development.
The second two of these citations will be full Text articles or books obtained through Databases of professional books and journals available at, or online through the CSUN Library. For more information on how to find these databases please see the discussion in the Class Requirements Section Online. These citations will be reported in APA format. Included in the annotation portion of each citation will be a paragraph, which briefly summarizes the article (you can usually get this information from the abstract), and answers following questions. If the answer is not available, you simply state that fact:
1. What is the background (authority) of the author (viz., degree and type of education, affiliated institution, history of research in the area as perhaps reflected by past articles in the bibliography)?
2. Who is the intended audience (i.e., professionals, laypersons, women etc.)?
3. How does this work compare or contrast with others you may have cited or be aware of? If you are not aware of any others, simply state that as the situation.
4. What is the scope and relevance of this work to the selected topic (hypothesis)? What the heck do I mean by that? Well, is it highly or only vaguely relevant to the hypothesis; and is it of minor or major importance.
The Last Two citations will be obtained through the Internet using search engines provided online such as "Google Scholar." These citations will follow an APA format as closely as possible, including the URL information. Included in each citation will be a paragraph, which briefly summarizes the site, and addresses the following questions related to, for the purpose of this exercise, the voracity of the Website. If the answers are not available in the site information, simply state so:
1. Is the site owner/manager's identity available and is it associated with a reputable organization, company or educational institution?
2. What is the background (authority) of th.
State Standards vs. Developmentally Appropriate Practices. Write a two- to three-page paper in which you address one of the following scenarios:
1. You are an elementary school principal who is committed to ensuring that students experience a developmentally appropriate environment. Not all of your kindergarten teachers really understand how to use developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) to create such an environment yet. You are also tasked with introducing and enforcing the use of a new state-mandated, textbook-based reading curriculum to your kindergarten teachers. The curriculum is based on the State Content Standards
Ece 611 Enthusiastic Study / snaptutorial.comStephenson60
The document provides instructions for three different writing assignments related to early childhood education. The first asks students to write a short article from the perspective of a principal introducing a new state-mandated reading curriculum to kindergarten teachers while maintaining developmentally appropriate practices. The second asks students to identify four learning centers they would include in a preschool classroom and explain how each center supports learning. The third prompts students to analyze the role of technology in early childhood education and make recommendations for teachers and parents regarding its use.
When new parents are expecting a baby, they rarely consider the possibility that the baby could have significant challenges. For those who have children with severe, multiple disabilities, planning for the future is a critical, lifelong process and requires considerable investments of time and effort, while potentially causing significant stress to the parents. With advances in our understanding, there are many more resources available to children and families than there were previously.
This document contains information and assignments for an early childhood education course (ECE 332). It includes links to download course materials and assignments related to child development theories, the benefits of preschool, developmental milestones from conception to age 1, and creating learning centers and activities to promote optimal brain development in young children. The document provides context and discussion prompts for various weekly topics in the course.
Jefferson is a 6-year-old boy with cerebral palsy and epilepsy who uses a wheelchair and augmentative communication device. His parents are concerned about his future as he enters school. Research suggests both genetic and environmental factors may influence disabilities. Jefferson would likely benefit from supportive services to maximize his prognosis. Growing up in the 1940s, his future would have been more challenging due to fewer available resources at that time.
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Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
ECE 313 Week 1 Assignment Family Partnerships
(Collaboration with Parents and Community )
Family Partnerships. Chapter 1 focuses on the family-centered approach to early childhood education, highlighting the importance of the partnership between the family, the early childhood program, and the community to maximize a child’s development and learning. For this assignment, you will create a one- to two-page fact sheet (not including title and reference pages) you can provide to the families in your program that
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word.docxhirstcruz
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word minimum for each) Annotated Citations. With the exception of the first, these references will be based on topics obtained from the Language Development Hypotheses in the list provided at the end of this survival document, and again in the Class Requirement Section online. You may use the same Topic for all, or different Topics for each. The choice is yours.
The First annotated citation will be on the Topic of the "Legal and Ethical Dimensions of the Use of Information." This information can be obtained from the Internet using a search engine such as Google Scholar. The annotated citation should be in APA format as much as possible, and should include the URL (address) of the Internet site; or a citation of the book or article if that was used. The annotation should provide a short overview of the article and/or list the most critical points. Please note that this one citation can relate to any topic and not only Language Development.
The second two of these citations will be full Text articles or books obtained through Databases of professional books and journals available at, or online through the CSUN Library. For more information on how to find these databases please see the discussion in the Class Requirements Section Online. These citations will be reported in APA format. Included in the annotation portion of each citation will be a paragraph, which briefly summarizes the article (you can usually get this information from the abstract), and answers following questions. If the answer is not available, you simply state that fact:
1. What is the background (authority) of the author (viz., degree and type of education, affiliated institution, history of research in the area as perhaps reflected by past articles in the bibliography)?
2. Who is the intended audience (i.e., professionals, laypersons, women etc.)?
3. How does this work compare or contrast with others you may have cited or be aware of? If you are not aware of any others, simply state that as the situation.
4. What is the scope and relevance of this work to the selected topic (hypothesis)? What the heck do I mean by that? Well, is it highly or only vaguely relevant to the hypothesis; and is it of minor or major importance.
The Last Two citations will be obtained through the Internet using search engines provided online such as "Google Scholar." These citations will follow an APA format as closely as possible, including the URL information. Included in each citation will be a paragraph, which briefly summarizes the site, and addresses the following questions related to, for the purpose of this exercise, the voracity of the Website. If the answers are not available in the site information, simply state so:
1. Is the site owner/manager's identity available and is it associated with a reputable organization, company or educational institution?
2. What is the background (authority) of th.
State Standards vs. Developmentally Appropriate Practices. Write a two- to three-page paper in which you address one of the following scenarios:
1. You are an elementary school principal who is committed to ensuring that students experience a developmentally appropriate environment. Not all of your kindergarten teachers really understand how to use developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) to create such an environment yet. You are also tasked with introducing and enforcing the use of a new state-mandated, textbook-based reading curriculum to your kindergarten teachers. The curriculum is based on the State Content Standards
Ece 611 Enthusiastic Study / snaptutorial.comStephenson60
The document provides instructions for three different writing assignments related to early childhood education. The first asks students to write a short article from the perspective of a principal introducing a new state-mandated reading curriculum to kindergarten teachers while maintaining developmentally appropriate practices. The second asks students to identify four learning centers they would include in a preschool classroom and explain how each center supports learning. The third prompts students to analyze the role of technology in early childhood education and make recommendations for teachers and parents regarding its use.
When new parents are expecting a baby, they rarely consider the possibility that the baby could have significant challenges. For those who have children with severe, multiple disabilities, planning for the future is a critical, lifelong process and requires considerable investments of time and effort, while potentially causing significant stress to the parents. With advances in our understanding, there are many more resources available to children and families than there were previously.
This document contains information and assignments for an early childhood education course (ECE 332). It includes links to download course materials and assignments related to child development theories, the benefits of preschool, developmental milestones from conception to age 1, and creating learning centers and activities to promote optimal brain development in young children. The document provides context and discussion prompts for various weekly topics in the course.
Jefferson is a 6-year-old boy with cerebral palsy and epilepsy who uses a wheelchair and augmentative communication device. His parents are concerned about his future as he enters school. Research suggests both genetic and environmental factors may influence disabilities. Jefferson would likely benefit from supportive services to maximize his prognosis. Growing up in the 1940s, his future would have been more challenging due to fewer available resources at that time.
For more course tutorials visit
www.tutorialrank.com
Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool
For more course tutorials visit
www.tutorialrank.com
Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
Theory and Behavior. After reading Chapters 1 and 2 select a Theorist whose work most closely aligns with your thoughts regarding early development. Describe the theorist’s work and discuss how their work aligns with your
For more course tutorials visit
www.tutorialrank.com
Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
Req#1Children who watch Television spend less time reading or draw.docxlaurieellan
Req#1
Children who watch Television spend less time reading or drawing than children who don’t.
Paper of Minimum 1500 words of Language Development Hypotheses: ' Children who watch Television spend less time reading or drawing than children who don’t.'
. The Paper is to include a discussion, based on a minimum of three articles, books or chapters in a book (excluding the class Textbook), which describe, discuss, support and/or refute the hypothesis. A minimum of three citations with references in APA format will be included at the end of the paper.
Also at the end of the paper will be included a short Appendix which will answer three questions:
1. What were the databases used to find each article. (For example in the Communicative Disorders Multisearch example shown below we searched ten Data Bases but found most of our articles inPubMed.)
2. What was the search strategy which was used, i.e., the search words used in each database to find the articles. (In the example below, we used the terms “Television and (Language Development). We put the last two terms in brackets so that the computer would link Television to both terms and not just “Language.”)
3. Was each article cited an example of Primary or Secondary research? As defined by the Library at UC Berkley, “Primary sources were either created during the time period being studied, or were created at a later date by a participant in the events being studied (as in the case of memoirs) and they reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period.”
“ A secondary source is a work that interprets or analyzes an historical event or phenomenon. It is generally at least one step removed from the event. Examples include scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, and textbooks.”
Req# 2--TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION AND PRACTICE:
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word minimum) Annotated Citations. With the exception of the first, these will be based on topics obtained from the Language Development Hypotheses in the list provided at the end.
The First annotated citation will be on the Topic of the “Legal and Ethical Dimensions of the Use of Information.” This information can be obtained from the Internet using a search engine such as Google Scholar. The annotated citation should be in APA format and should include the URL (address) of the of the internet site. The annotation should provide an overview of the discussion and/or list the most critical points.
The second two of these citations will be obtained through Databases of professional books and journals available online through the CSUN Library. For more information on how to find these databases please see the discussion in the Class Requirements Section Online. These citations will be reported in APA format. Included in the annot.
ECE 332 TUTOR Lessons in Excellence--ece332tutor.comthomashard86
This document contains summaries of 14 modules for an early childhood education course covering topics like preschool benefits, child development theories, brain development, motor skills milestones, the importance of play, and adapting child development for future generations. Key assignments include debates on nature vs nurture influences, designing learning centers, and short stories demonstrating understanding of infant development from birth to age 1.
For more classes visit
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Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool.
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
Theory and Behavior. After reading Chapters 1 and 2 select a Theorist whose work most closely aligns with your thoughts regarding early development. Describe the theorist’s work and
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
This document contains information about an Early Childhood Education course including assignments on various topics related to child development such as preschool benefits, developmental theories, conception to birth, developmental milestones, and creating a classroom plan based on Piaget's stage theory. It provides discussion questions, assignments, and readings for each week of the course.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxtaishao1
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflec ...
CE320Language Development in the Young ChildUnit 3 S.docxtidwellveronique
This document contains the content of an online seminar discussion for a course on language development in young children. It discusses topics like sharing books with infants, using symbolic gestures with toddlers, and applying sign language. It provides learning objectives, key terms, discussion questions, and references for students to review language development milestones and caregiver strategies to support early language acquisition.
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Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
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www.snaptutorial.com
Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
CCMH 504 Enthusiastic Study / snaptutorial.comGeorgeDixon87
This document outlines assignments for an online course on lifespan development theories and counseling. It includes assignments on:
1. Summarizing theories like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
2. Creating a crisis scenario involving a person's developmental stage, family role, and changes causing conflict.
3. Analyzing how parenting styles influence a child's sense of self.
4. Reflecting on one's own adolescent experiences and insights.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxamirawaite
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
(Links to an external site.)
Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supporte.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxlanagore871
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
(Links to an external site.)
Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supporte.
Revised February 10, 2019 Child Observation PSYU 323 .docxhealdkathaleen
This document provides instructions for a child observation assignment. Students are asked to observe a child between 1 month and 12 years old for at least 60 minutes, taking detailed notes on the child's behaviors without making judgments. They then categorize the behaviors into social, fine motor, gross motor, and cognitive skills categories. Students apply developmental theories from two theorists to analyze the child's development and compare the observed behaviors to the theories. The assignment aims to help students develop observation and analytic skills applicable to various professions.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-old chi.docxdelciegreeks
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supported by at least five scholarly sources in addit.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-old.docxMalikPinckney86
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supported by at least five scholarly sources i.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-o.docxtjane3
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writin.
You will be doing a Health Policy Analysis Power Point on a releva.docxalisondakintxt
You will be doing a Health Policy Analysis Power Point on a relevant medical issue in the Metro Detroit Area. Choose ONE.
You must include 1-2 scholarly sources WITHING THE PAST 5 YEARS to support the BACKGROUND, LANDSCAPE, OPTIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS. IF YOU THIS IS NOT INCLUDED I WILL ASK THAT YOU RE-DO THE ASSIGNMENT
SPEAKER NOTES ARE REQUIRED
Research a healthcare issue that has been identified in your local community. Develop a power point presentation with speaker notes. You will then use the power point during your Kaltura recording. Structure a health policy analysis presentation that addresses the following topics particular to your health problem.
· Problem Statement
· Background
· Landscape
· Options
· Recommendations
Problem statement: Defines the problem addressed in the analysis
Background: Provides factual information needed to understand the problem
Landscape: Reviews the various stakeholders and their concerns
Options: Describes and analyzes several options to address the problem
Recommendation: Offers one option as the best action to pursue
.
Which of the three major sociological approaches to understanding so.docxalisondakintxt
Which of the three major sociological approaches to understanding social problems related to work and the economy do you most prefer? Why?
Requirements (due Wednesday
before midnight):
Be Substantive.
Minimum of 250-words to 500-words (must have footnotes)
Must provide scholarly or current events in text citation (textbook, other scholarly/peer-reviewed sources found in the school's library database, internet sources ending in .gov or .edu; or newspapers) – Minimum of 2 references
Address current political climate and election
.
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Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
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Tutorial Purchased: 4 Times, Rating: A+
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
Req#1Children who watch Television spend less time reading or draw.docxlaurieellan
Req#1
Children who watch Television spend less time reading or drawing than children who don’t.
Paper of Minimum 1500 words of Language Development Hypotheses: ' Children who watch Television spend less time reading or drawing than children who don’t.'
. The Paper is to include a discussion, based on a minimum of three articles, books or chapters in a book (excluding the class Textbook), which describe, discuss, support and/or refute the hypothesis. A minimum of three citations with references in APA format will be included at the end of the paper.
Also at the end of the paper will be included a short Appendix which will answer three questions:
1. What were the databases used to find each article. (For example in the Communicative Disorders Multisearch example shown below we searched ten Data Bases but found most of our articles inPubMed.)
2. What was the search strategy which was used, i.e., the search words used in each database to find the articles. (In the example below, we used the terms “Television and (Language Development). We put the last two terms in brackets so that the computer would link Television to both terms and not just “Language.”)
3. Was each article cited an example of Primary or Secondary research? As defined by the Library at UC Berkley, “Primary sources were either created during the time period being studied, or were created at a later date by a participant in the events being studied (as in the case of memoirs) and they reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period.”
“ A secondary source is a work that interprets or analyzes an historical event or phenomenon. It is generally at least one step removed from the event. Examples include scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, and textbooks.”
Req# 2--TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION AND PRACTICE:
An Annotated Bibliography will be developed including Five (100 word minimum) Annotated Citations. With the exception of the first, these will be based on topics obtained from the Language Development Hypotheses in the list provided at the end.
The First annotated citation will be on the Topic of the “Legal and Ethical Dimensions of the Use of Information.” This information can be obtained from the Internet using a search engine such as Google Scholar. The annotated citation should be in APA format and should include the URL (address) of the of the internet site. The annotation should provide an overview of the discussion and/or list the most critical points.
The second two of these citations will be obtained through Databases of professional books and journals available online through the CSUN Library. For more information on how to find these databases please see the discussion in the Class Requirements Section Online. These citations will be reported in APA format. Included in the annot.
ECE 332 TUTOR Lessons in Excellence--ece332tutor.comthomashard86
This document contains summaries of 14 modules for an early childhood education course covering topics like preschool benefits, child development theories, brain development, motor skills milestones, the importance of play, and adapting child development for future generations. Key assignments include debates on nature vs nurture influences, designing learning centers, and short stories demonstrating understanding of infant development from birth to age 1.
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool.
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
Theory and Behavior. After reading Chapters 1 and 2 select a Theorist whose work most closely aligns with your thoughts regarding early development. Describe the theorist’s work and
For more classes visit
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Benefits of Preschool. As an early childhood professional, you will often be asked questions from parents and community members regarding the benefits of sending their children to preschool. After reading Chapter 1 and drawing from your experience, discuss the benefits of a preschool education
This document contains information about an Early Childhood Education course including assignments on various topics related to child development such as preschool benefits, developmental theories, conception to birth, developmental milestones, and creating a classroom plan based on Piaget's stage theory. It provides discussion questions, assignments, and readings for each week of the course.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxtaishao1
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflec ...
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This document contains the content of an online seminar discussion for a course on language development in young children. It discusses topics like sharing books with infants, using symbolic gestures with toddlers, and applying sign language. It provides learning objectives, key terms, discussion questions, and references for students to review language development milestones and caregiver strategies to support early language acquisition.
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Write a 750- to 1050-word paper summarizing learning theories. In your paper, discuss the following:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
CCMH 504 Enthusiastic Study / snaptutorial.comGeorgeDixon87
This document outlines assignments for an online course on lifespan development theories and counseling. It includes assignments on:
1. Summarizing theories like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
2. Creating a crisis scenario involving a person's developmental stage, family role, and changes causing conflict.
3. Analyzing how parenting styles influence a child's sense of self.
4. Reflecting on one's own adolescent experiences and insights.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxamirawaite
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
(Links to an external site.)
Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supporte.
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this p.docxlanagore871
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
(Links to an external site.)
Links to an external site.
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supporte.
Revised February 10, 2019 Child Observation PSYU 323 .docxhealdkathaleen
This document provides instructions for a child observation assignment. Students are asked to observe a child between 1 month and 12 years old for at least 60 minutes, taking detailed notes on the child's behaviors without making judgments. They then categorize the behaviors into social, fine motor, gross motor, and cognitive skills categories. Students apply developmental theories from two theorists to analyze the child's development and compare the observed behaviors to the theories. The assignment aims to help students develop observation and analytic skills applicable to various professions.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-old chi.docxdelciegreeks
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supported by at least five scholarly sources in addit.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-old.docxMalikPinckney86
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven to nine double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writing.
Must be supported by at least five scholarly sources i.
Final PaperYour good friends have just adopted a four-year-o.docxtjane3
Final Paper
Your good friends have just adopted a four-year-old child. At this point, the only socialization decision they have made is that the child is going to preschool. Imagine that you are an expert in your chosen field. Your friends have come to you for advice and to devise a plan to raise their child. They ask you to be frank with them and give them specific examples to support your opinions. They are determined to raise this child to the best of their ability. Since they are new parents, they need advice on everything!
The Final Paper should include the following:
Summarize Bronfenbrenner's ecological model and describe why it is important for them to be aware of this theory.
Suggest and explain a parenting style/philosophy (authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive) that you believe will be most beneficial for the child and the family.
Explain which childcare (nanny, center-based, or family-based care) option (before/during/after preschool) you think is best for the child and why. Be sure to include discussion of the social factors that influence the likelihood of the family selecting a particular form of childcare.
Share specific suggestions, including at least two to implement safe technology use in the home. Explain how the media can (both positively and negatively) influence the child.
Discuss the importance of culture and ethnicity in the development of the self-concept. Share your ideas of ways that the new parents can create opportunities for the child to learn about his or her culture.
Describe at least two researched methods to increase the child's self-esteem and positive attitude.
Differentiate between the importance of socialization that occurs in the home and at school. Explain the importance of each venue as a positive haven for the child.
Explain the importance of the teacher’s role in the child's life. Give examples of how the school and the teacher will affect the child's socialization.
Share the importance of positive peer interactions. Give two examples for the parents to implement at home to foster friendships.
The conclusion of the Final Paper should include the following:
Brief discussion of the student’s future profession and how understanding the nature of families and children in relation to society is important for that profession.
Discussion of how the student’s knowledge of the theories of socialization will impact his or her work in the future profession.
Discussion of how the student’s understanding of child development will assist him or her in the chosen profession.
The Final Paper:
Must be seven double-spaced pages in length, not including the title page, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the
Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)
.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of Final Paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must be well organized and reflect college-level writin.
Similar to Name DateInstructorWhat is TheoryUse this text.docx (20)
You will be doing a Health Policy Analysis Power Point on a releva.docxalisondakintxt
You will be doing a Health Policy Analysis Power Point on a relevant medical issue in the Metro Detroit Area. Choose ONE.
You must include 1-2 scholarly sources WITHING THE PAST 5 YEARS to support the BACKGROUND, LANDSCAPE, OPTIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS. IF YOU THIS IS NOT INCLUDED I WILL ASK THAT YOU RE-DO THE ASSIGNMENT
SPEAKER NOTES ARE REQUIRED
Research a healthcare issue that has been identified in your local community. Develop a power point presentation with speaker notes. You will then use the power point during your Kaltura recording. Structure a health policy analysis presentation that addresses the following topics particular to your health problem.
· Problem Statement
· Background
· Landscape
· Options
· Recommendations
Problem statement: Defines the problem addressed in the analysis
Background: Provides factual information needed to understand the problem
Landscape: Reviews the various stakeholders and their concerns
Options: Describes and analyzes several options to address the problem
Recommendation: Offers one option as the best action to pursue
.
Which of the three major sociological approaches to understanding so.docxalisondakintxt
Which of the three major sociological approaches to understanding social problems related to work and the economy do you most prefer? Why?
Requirements (due Wednesday
before midnight):
Be Substantive.
Minimum of 250-words to 500-words (must have footnotes)
Must provide scholarly or current events in text citation (textbook, other scholarly/peer-reviewed sources found in the school's library database, internet sources ending in .gov or .edu; or newspapers) – Minimum of 2 references
Address current political climate and election
.
Throughout the course we have examined that the African American com.docxalisondakintxt
Throughout the course we have examined that the African American communities have changed drastically as more Americans have become aware of the injustices faced by millions of people of color. Analyzing African American history, examine the historical processes that led to Black Lives Matters.
.
Understanding Culture
Food, Faith, & Culture
Dr. Fred Foy Strang
For this exercise you are conducting anthropological “field research” through participation,
participant observation, and data recording. This is a simple foray into the field so it does not
include a formal literature review or establishment of hypotheses. Our task is simply to
experience and reflect upon a ‘hands-on’ opportunity for actual observation, data recording, and
preliminary analysis.
Food is an important part of everyone’s culture. Food is also connected to religious
observance and spiritual ritual for many different faiths, including Christianity, Judaism,
Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. The role of food in cultural practices and religious beliefs is
complex and varies among individuals and communities.
Focus on the Issue (Food, Faith, & Culture)
• To examine local and non-indigenous cultural influences reflected at various at public
eateries?
• To discover where these distinctives find convergence or how local culture is
reflected in the eatery/food.
• To observe social dynamics and cultural practices in public eateries and postulate
connections to local culture and/or religion.
Focus on Observation
What are the surroundings? What are people wearing? What language(s)/dialect(s) is/are
spoken? What customs are observed? Who is involved in these customs? What do you
notice about the participants (workers/owners/customers).
Focus on Interaction
Who is serving you? What do you observe about their work? Are their other people
involved in the establishment? What are their roles? You are encouraged to engage in ‘non-
directive interviewing’ on the topic of food and its relationship to culture & religion. (This is
simply getting a responder to talk and converse about a certain subject as opposed to
‘directive interviewing’ which asks specific questions or utilizes surveys.)
Focus on Participation
Place an order for something to eat. How is the food you ordered and will eat related to the
cultural influences you are observing? How do you pay for your food and recognize the
service you received?
Focus on Analysis
(This will be a minimum of 4 double spaced pages and a maximum of 7).
Document your research in a formal report format. Include in your analysis preliminary
answers to the initial issues. Finally, postulate a relationship between food, culture and faith.
What questions require further research? What kind of research might that be?
.
The Elderly populationPowerPoint Presentation.Discuss the as.docxalisondakintxt
The Elderly population
PowerPoint Presentation.
Discuss the aspects of your chosen vulnerable population.
Discuss the reason why is this group considered vulnerable.
Discuss what are the most common communicable diseases in this population, and why.
Discuss barriers to healthcare and access to care for your vulnerable population.
Use information technology to identify resources that will improve health outcomes of the vulnerable population.
Examine evidence based practices that improve health outcomes of the vulnerable population.
Discuss how the issues this group is facing relates to the community/public health nursing.
Minimum 10/maximum 15 slides, including speaker notes, excluding the title and reference slides.
.
The leader of your organization just resigned because they were arre.docxalisondakintxt
The leader of your organization just resigned because they were arrested. You are now in charge of guiding the organization through the process of picking a new leader. Which model of leadership will you pick and why? Make the case for one by comparing and contrasting with the others. 5-7 scholarly sources.
.
The Star Model™The Star Model™ framework for organization .docxalisondakintxt
The Star Model™
The Star Model™ framework for organization design is the foundation on which a
company bases its design choices. The framework consists of a series of design policies
that are controllable by management and can influence employee behavior.
The policies are the tools with which management must become skilled in order
to shape the decisions and behaviors of their organizations effectively.
POLICIES STRATEGIES
They are general statements
that guide organizational
decision-making.
They are specific plans made
to achieve specific goals.
They don´t require action plan. They require action plan.
They are standing plans made
for repetitive activities.
They are single use plan made
for non- repetitive activities.
They are guidelines to
managerial action and decision
making.
They guide commitment of
organizational resources in a
specific direction.
They are made for smooth
conduct of the organization as
a whole.
The are made for achieve a
specific objective.
Strategies and Policies:
Both strategies and policies help to make decisions to achieve
organisational goals.
Clear strategies and policies provide right direction and guidance to organizational goals and plans.
The Star Model™
Strategy.
Strategy is the company’s formula for winning. The company’s strategy specifies:
goals and objectives, values, missions, and the basic direction of the company.
The strategy specifically delineates the products or services to be provided, the
markets to be served, and the value to be offered to the customer. It also specifies
sources of competitive advantage.
Area Description
Specialization.
It refers to the type and numbers of job specialties used in
performing the work.
Shape.
It refers to the number of people constituting the
departments (that is, the span of control) at each level of the
structure.
Distribution of power.
In its vertical dimension, refers to the classic issues of
centralization or decentralization. In its lateral dimension, it
refers to the movement of power to the department dealing
directly with the issues critical to its mission.
Departmentalization.
Is the basis for forming departments at each level of the
structure. The standard dimensions include functions,
products, workflow processes, markets, customers, geography.
The Star Model™
Structure.
The structure of the organization determines the placement of power and authority
in the organization. Structure policies fall into four areas:
The Star Model™
Processes.
-Information and decision processes cut across the organization’s structure.
-Management processes are both vertical and horizontal.
Horizontal Processes.Vertical Processes.
VP allocate the scarce resources of
funds and talent. Vertical processes
are usually business planning and
budgeting processes.
HP are designed around the workflow,
such as new product development or the
entry and fulfillment of a customer
order.
The Star Model™
Rewards.
Th.
STUDENT REPLIESDISCUSSION 2STUDENT REPLY #1 Darlene Milan On.docxalisondakintxt
STUDENT REPLIES
DISCUSSION 2
STUDENT REPLY #1 Darlene Milan
One major technological advancement I think will affect profiling practices in the future is CGT (Criminal Geographic Targeting). CGT is a computerized geographic profiling technique used in police investigations of complex serial crimes (Rossmo, 1995). A criminal analysis technique that uses the locations of a connected series of crime sites to determine the most probable area of the offender's residence. According to Rossmo, geography plays an important role in the offender's selection of suitable victims, which is why this program will be important in the future. The CGT produces a map showing specific details, for example, patrol saturation, grid and area searches, police information and record systems, outside agency databases, and zip code prioritization. This process includes investigation reports, witness statements, autopsy reports, and psychological profiles (1995). In addition, a detailed examination of a crime scene, interviews with lead investigators, crime analysts, and demographic data (Holmes & Holmes, 2004).
The computer revolution has arrived in our world and is becoming the next major advance in our arsenal of weapons against crime. The computer revolution has dramatically influenced the criminal justice system and is used to track crimes and criminals. The future of computerized monitoring, for example, is that of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which uses a tracking system called the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). In addition, computerized profiling may soon help law enforcement personnel define efficiently the types of personalities associated with violent crimes such as murder, rape, and serial murder (Holmes & Holmes, 2004).
References
Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (2009). Profiling violent crimes: An investigative tool (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
STUDENT REPLY #2 Shaquanta Frazier
I think the technology advancements in criminal profiling in the future and I do believe that GPS and Drones will be more effective in the future because with GPS it can give the location of the suspect, it helps with high-speed chases, and it even help the law enforcement where the victim was last seen through their cellphones tower and GPS systems. GIS systems help with keeping track of police vehicles and give the department their location at any time. Drones give more adapt process of the suspect and it can help you cover more area to help in locating the suspect, give you more details of crime and help in finding evidence that law enforcement missed during their first investigation. Drones can reach harder places and can be beneficial to the crime scene.
References:
Legal Technology Advancements for the Criminal Justice System
Legal technology for the criminal justice system has evolved and allow them to work more efficiently. Learn more about the new legal tech.
Practice Panther
Significance Test
A significance test (hyp.
the elderly populationIdentify a vulnerable population or a comm.docxalisondakintxt
the elderly population
Identify a vulnerable population or a community health issue and use what you have learned during this course using EBP to guide health technology, community resources, screening, outreach, referral and follow up to improve health outcomes in the community.
Must address all of the topics.
At least 200 words minimum 350 words maximum.
APA format, including a minimum of two references within a 5 year span.
.
TECH460Module 2Organization Profile and Problem Statement.docxalisondakintxt
TECH460
Module 2
Organization Profile and Problem Statement
RubricCriteriaTotalSelection of Organization 30Identification of products and services40Analysis of potential improvements40Problem statement40Total150
The Organization
Coca Cola was founded in 1892 by John Pemberton.
Coca Cola does sell 2800 products in more than 200 countries.
It is one of the largest corporation in USA and biggest distributor of beverage in the world.
In 1978 , Coca Cola was the only company allowed to sell cold packaged in China.
Coca Cola invest heavily in the betterment of their corporation and keeping the employees up to date.
Still Coca Cola has got a lot of issues that they need to take into consideration.
Products and Services
Coca Cola Market, manufacture and sell rea, coffee, plant based drinks, juice dairy, sports drinks, water, soft drinks, finished beverages and concentrated syrups.
The product is available in more than 200 territories and countries.
Some of the most prominent drinks in the company includes.
Sprite
Vitamin WATER
Fuze Tea
Gold Peak Teas
Smartwater
Areas for Improvement with Technology
Dealing with rivals
Continuous market research using high technologies.
Continuous competitor analysis using AI or ML.
Integration of Customer Focus
Incorporating CRM using technology can enhance customer focus.
Management can effectively communicate with customers.
Sales promotion
Improving sales promotion using blockchain technology.
Using IoT for sales promotion.
Supplier Relationship Management
Using SRM software for managing supplier relationships.
Problem Statement
Coca Cola Company needs to focus on incorporating technology to enhance customer focus.
It is possible that incorporating CRM, also known as customer relationship management, into daily technical operations can help the company in becoming more customer-focused. It refers to a system that enables businesses to control their interactions with customers.
For instance, Coca-Cola may achieve this aim by implementing customer relationship management software. This would enable management to communicate with customers more successfully.
The management of the company will be able to identify consumer complaints more quickly, which will allow them to quickly and effectively address these problems.
With the combination of Internet of Things IoT and CRM, Coca-Cola Company can collect the customer data in a more efficient and effective way.
References
Li, B., & Li, Y. (2017). Internet of things drives supply chain innovation: A research framework. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 9(3), 71-92.
Chin, J., Callaghan, V., & Allouch, S. B. (2019). The Internet-of-Things: Reflections on the past, present and future from a user-centered and smart environment perspective. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Smart Environments, 11(1), 45-69.
De Cremer, D., Nguyen, B., & Simkin, L. (2017). The integrity challenge of the Internet-of-Things (IoT): on understanding its dark .
Step 1Select ONE of the following viral agents for your assignme.docxalisondakintxt
Step 1
Select ONE of the following viral agents for your assignment.
Human papillomavirus, Influenza A, Hepatitis B, Rotavirus, Norovirus, Varicella-zoster, Ebola, Zika virus, West Nile virus
Step 2
Research the chosen viral agent to examine the anatomical structures and diseases associated with it.
Step 3
Using the template below, answer the following:
Where the organism is normally found and how is it spread?
What are the virulence factors of the organism?
What are the symptoms and incubation period of the infection caused by the organism?
How would you diagnose an infection caused by the organism?
Describe how the organism infects different organs and how the immune system responds to infection.
What is the current treatment plan for the infections caused by the organism and the treatment success rate?
What populations are most at risk for infection?
What environments and sources are associated with the organism?
What are some public health implications of the infection caused by the agent?
What precautions can the public take to prevent infections?
Assignment File(s)
Unit 3 Virus Template
[Word document
.
The Christianity ReligionAdiesa BurgessD.docxalisondakintxt
The Christianity Religion
Adiesa Burgess
Dr. Mixon
PSYC-401
11 November 2022
The Christianity Religion
Christianity is the largest religion in the world. It involves a large number of people globally who adhere to it. The religion has a number of customs and tenets that have to do with dying, bereavement, rites of grieving, burial and cremation. One of the most active areas of inquiry worldwide has been attempting to comprehend how different religions view death. This subject is significant since everyone must undergo death at some point in their lives. Students that are studying religion and culture will find this information useful. Additionally, this information will be extremely helpful to anyone who is interested in Christianity or, more specifically, death.
Christians consider that a person's physical existence begins at birth and ends at death. They have a steadfast conviction that there is only one journey through this world, and it ends in death. Christians believe that each person only experiences death once during their lifetime and that it can happen to anyone at any time. Anyone can die, regardless of their age or gender; in other words, whether you're young or old, male or female, you must pass away. They hold the view that God, their heavenly and spiritual father, decides who lives and who dies as well as planning everyone's death (Vail III & Soenke 2018). They refer to death as God's will, which they are obligated to accept despite their heart desires. They believe there is life after death. They hold the view that after passing away, the souls of the deceased begin a new existence.
Undoubtedly, one of the most frequently discussed subjects in literature is death. Themes like pain and grief, love, perseverance, illness, and immortality are frequently depicted in combination with death and are hence closely tied to it. Death typically has themes of pain and grief, particularly when it affects persons who were close to the departed. Mourning stems from suffering and grief (Vail III & Soenke 2018). Mourning is the sentiment of sadness for another person's passing. Christians believe that after a death, the bereaved person's immediate family should get together and grieve with them. They view it as something that has an impact on society as a whole. They pray for God to comfort the family members during the period of grieving. They also give God, who they believe is in charge of the departed, the soul of the individual who has passed away.
Once an individual has passed away a ceremony is carried out to celebrate the life of the deceased person, a funeral ceremony. Some of the ceremonies are held publicly or privately depending on the choice of the family members. During the ceremony, they share about the person’s life and bury their body. After the funeral ceremony, the body is either buried or cremated. Burring involves covering the body underground while cremation involves burning the body into ashes. Death is a stage.
Review the term Significance Test in the Statistics Visual Learner.docxalisondakintxt
Review the term Significance Test in the "Statistics Visual Learner" media piece.
When a newspaper or magazine article reports the results of a study and draws a conclusion without also reporting whether the results are statistically significant, what are the possible reasons for doing so? How seriously should you take the conclusion offered in such a study? Discuss.
.
Research Paper PresentationWith the information you gathered.docxalisondakintxt
Research Paper Presentation
With the information you gathered for your Research Paper, you will now create an intriguing visual presentation and present it to the class.
Presentation should include following slides-
Introduction (1 slide)
literature review (2 slide)
Analysis of the literature (1slide)
Discussion paragraphs 1, 2, 3 (2 slide)
Conclusion (1slide)
Title page and reference list (2 slides)
Your presentation should be between 5-7 minutes long; practice it several times beforehand!
.
Step 1 You are a registered nurse who works with wound-care patien.docxalisondakintxt
Step 1
You are a registered nurse who works with wound-care patients. J. S. is a 34-year-old woman who had a mastectomy six weeks ago. She developed a staph infection, and the surgical site was debrided as part of the treatment.
You now care for J. S. at her home and photograph her wound. The photos are sent to the multidisciplinary care team at the wound center. The team makes changes in the treatment plan based on your assessment and photographs of the wound. A physician in a nearby state also has a weekly video conference with J. S. about the plan of care.
.
Objectives Unacceptable Below Average Acceptable Above Average.docxalisondakintxt
Objectives Unacceptable Below Average Acceptable Above Average Exemplary Score
0 Points 20 Points
Student did not make any
post in the discussion board
Student posts were on time
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No reference to any course
reading
Makes reference to
assigned readings; attempts
to cite the source
Makes references to course
and/or outside reading
material but citations do not
conform to an acceptable
citation format
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format course and/or
outside reading in initial
posting only
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format either course
materials or external
readings in initial posts and
responses
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No postings for which to
evaluate language and
grammar
Poorly written initial posting
and responses including
frequent spelling, structure,
and/or grammar errors
Communicates in friendly,
courteous, and helpful
manner with some spelling,
grammatical, and/or
structural errors
Contributes valuable
information with minor
grammatical or structural
errors
No spelling, structure, or
grammar errors in any
posting; Contributes to
discussion with clear,
concise comments
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No initial posting
Response was not on topic,
the message was unrelated
to assignment, and post was
less than 150 words
The initial posting did not
adequately address the
question posed in the forum;
superficial thought and
preparation
Initial posting demonstrates
sincere reflection and
answers most aspects of the
forum; full development
Initial posting reveals a solid
understanding of all aspects
of the task; uses factually
and relevand information;
and the length of the posting
is at least 150 words
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
Student did not participate in
this forum
Student participated on but
did not respond to other
student posts
Student participated but only
responded to one
Student participated and
commented on two other
student's posts
Student actively
participated, responded to at
least two other students'
posts, and replied to other
students' comments on their
original post.
Total Score 0
Frequency of
Participation
Reference to
Course Readings
Language and
Grammar
DISCUSSION FORUM RUBRIC
Timeliness of
Forum Posting
Quality of Initial
Posting
Module 6: Suicide
Suicide: Definition
An individual Act to cause his or her own death
(No one else is involved)
WITH
The Intention to Die
Suicide
• Suicide is one of the leading causes of death
in the world
o It is estimated that 700,000 people die of it each
year, with 31,000 suicides per year in the U.S.
alone
• Many more unsuccessfully attempt suicide
than actually succeed
o Such attempts are called “parasuicides”
Suicide
• It is difficult to obtain accurate figures on
suicide rates
o Many “accidents” may be inte.
Marketing Plan Analysis and Presentation Part 1– Rese.docxalisondakintxt
Marketing Plan Analysis and Presentation: Part 1– Research
Company Name: Meta
Brand Story:
Meta is a cutting-edge technology company that is focused on the growth of communities, virtual realities, and thriving businesses in the future. Their new brand name reflects their dedication to bringing the metaverse to life in the not-too-distant future. The corporation once went by the name Facebook, and it is well-known for owning a number of well-known social media platforms, including Facebook and Instagram, which it continues to do so well even now. Their slogan, "Connection is evolving, so are we," is meant to convey that they are committed to fulfilling their purpose of bringing people together through a variety of channels of online communication (Meta, 2022). The corporation provides both merchandise (virtual reality gear, for example) and access to online communities in which users may collaborate with one another by exchanging information, photographs, and other forms of content. In addition, Meta is putting its efforts into the development of future technologies that will increase the level of online interactions to a whole new level. Through continuous innovation, the company continues to pursue its mission which targets to bring people together(de Oliveira Santini et al., 2020). From its website the company has made clear its commitment to diversity by ensuring that its employees reflect the diverse users of its platforms. The company has indicated on its website that its values and principles include moving fast, being bold, focus on impact, build social value and be open(Meta, 2022). The rate at which Meta is innovating is nothing short of these values as the company is moving fast toward the future of social media.
Company Vision:
“Help bring the metaverse to life.”
Company Mission:
“Bring people together.”
Company Marketing Objectives:
Raise brand awareness
Promote unity and community
Provision of helpful services while generating profits
Company Marketing Strategies and Tactics:
In order for them to achieve these marketing goals, it is necessary for them to follow through with the plans and techniques that they have devised. Meta's mission is to keep people protected and out of harm's way through increased brand awareness (Kretschmer et al., 2020). When the organization starts to get more traction, Meta's plan to secure people's information will already be in place and ready to use (Meta, 2021). The partnership with spark foundry is one of the strategies that meta is utilizing. A media management agency, Spark Foundry helps in the advertising of companies through strategic thought leadership, media innovation, and cross-channel methods. In order to contribute toward the goal of fostering togetherness. Facebook's goal of making the world a better place is aligned with the community Meta project's goals. Meta intends to continue expanding its brand by participating in community activities (Kretschmer et al., 2020). They will co.
Learning Objectives By the end of this presentation, you will b.docxalisondakintxt
Learning Objectives: By the end of this presentation, you will be able to…
describe Loftus’ studies demonstrating how the power of suggestion plays a role in the misinformation effect and in creating false memories.
describe the history of unintentional memory manipulation in therapy; describe how memories might be intentionally manipulated to change present maladaptive behavior.
describe findings from the innocence project on the nature and rates of errors in eyewitness testimony.
describe cognitive processes that contribute to eyewitness error and how police procedures inadvertently capitalized on these processes.
Our Fallible Memories
I. The Power of Suggestion
A. To Alter Memories: The Misinformation Effect
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
B. To Create Memories: False Memories
Lost in the Shopping Mall
False Memories of Traumatic Events
C. To Alter Present Maladaptive Behavior: Better Parenting Though Lies
D. Meet the Expert:
Elizabeth Loftus
Our Fallible Memories
I. The Power of Suggestion
II. Errors in Eyewitness Testimony
A. Demo G. Wells’
Bomber On the Roof
B. nature and rates of error (from
the innocence project)
C. cognitive processes that contribute to eyewitness error
error at perception & attention: weapons focus
Our Fallible Memories
Weapons Focus (Stanny & Johnson, 2000)
I. The Power of Suggestion
II. Errors in Eyewitness Testimony
A. Demo G. Wells’
Bomber On the Roof
B. nature and rates of error (from
the innocence project)
C. cognitive processes that contribute to eyewitness error
error at perception & attention: weapons focus
error due to source monitoring: “sixpack” fosters familiarity at lineup
errors due to suggestion: assuming the perpetrator is present
errors due to construction: filling-in-the-blanks
D. Meet the Expert:
Scott Fraser
Our Fallible Memories
media1.mp4
image2.png
image3.png
image4.png
Learning Objectives: By the end of this presentation, you will be able to…
describe the various sources of information from which memories are constructed; identify the source responsible for constructing memory in Barlett’s “War of the Ghosts” study
explain how source misattribution in Jacoby’s “Famous Overnight Experiment” illustrates that memory is constructed from various sources.
define and describe the relationships among: expectations, schema, script and stereotype; explain how the “Office” and “Rumor” Studies demonstrate the role of expectancies in memory construction.
discuss memory construction in the broader context of challenges the mind must overcome and identify implication for false memories and confidence
Constructing Memories
I. Introduction
A. Createmem Astound Demo
B. A Classic Illustration: Bartlett’s (1932) “War of the Ghosts” Experiment
British participants read a Canadian Indian folktale…
over a period of time (u.
RACE, ETHNICITY, AND THE DEATH PENALTYConstitutionality.docxalisondakintxt
RACE, ETHNICITY, AND THE DEATH
PENALTY
Constitutionality
Public Opinion
Empirical Evidence
OVERVIEW
• Current statistics
• Who’s on death row?
• Constitutionality of capital punishment
• Supreme Court case law
• Public attitudes towards capital punishment
• Racialized support
• Empirical evidence of racial bias?
• Race of defendant
• Race of victim
• Contemporary issues
Virginia abolished the death
penalty in 2021.
Current state status:
• Death penalty = 24
• No death penalty = 23
• Governor imposed
moratorium = 3
Death Penalty Information Center, 2021
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT STATISTICS
• 1890-1984
• 5,726 executions – 54% (2,915) non-White
• Between 1976 and 2021 (post-Furman)
• 1,538 people executed
• 55.6% White, 34.3% Black, 8.4% Hispanic
• Five states have accounted for nearly two-thirds of all executions since 1977
• Texas, Virginia, Oklahoma, Florida, and Missouri
• 2,508 inmates under a death sentence as of April 1, 2021
• 98% male
• 42.37% White, 41.29% Black, 13.5% Latinx
• 51 females under a sentence of death in 2021
• 58.8% White, 23.5% Black; 11.7% Latina
BJS, 2021; Death Penalty Information Center, 2021
CONSTITUTIONALITY
• The Eighth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution prohibits “cruel and unusual punishments”
• Interpretations of cruel and unusual left up to the Supreme Court
• The Fourteenth Amendment provides equal protection of the law
• Legal challenges cite racial disparities in capital cases
• Furman v. Georgia (1972)
• Ruled the death penalty unconstitutional under existing administration practices
• Violation of Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments
• 5 to 4 decision; all 9 judges wrote separate opinions
• The death penalty was being applied in an arbitrary and capricious manner
• Little uniformity across states
• Lack of appropriate guidance for jurors informing when the sentence was appropriate
• The degree of discretion available opened the door for discrimination
• 3 of 5 judges in the majority cited racial discrimination in the application of the penalty
Walker et al., 2018
CONSTITUTIONALITY (CONT’D)
• Capital punishment was essentially illegal between 1972 and 1976
• Furman invalidated death penalty statutes in 39 states, DC, and the federal government
• Vacated 765 cases involving death row inmates
• Gregg v. Georgia (1976)
• Guided discretion statutes addressed the arbitrary and capricious concerns
• Requiring jurors to consider specific aggravating and mitigating circumstances sufficiently narrowed
the pool of death eligible cases
• Narrowed death-eligible offenses with mandatory death penalty ruled unconstitutional
• Coker v. Georgia (1977)
• Capital punishment for rape is unconstitutional
• Although not cited by the majority, between 1930 and the 1970s, 405 Black men were
executed in the South for rape, compared to 48 Whites
Walker et al., 2018
PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
• Public opinion matters
• CJ actors weigh public opi.
Part 1 Major Events DocumentationScenario You visit a retail.docxalisondakintxt
Part 1: Major Events Documentation
Scenario: You visit a retail establishment, shop around, and finally carry several products to one of the point of sale (POS) terminals distributed openly around the store. You produce a credit card, the salesclerk processes the transaction, bags your goods, and hands you the receipt. On your way to the exit, a store employee asks to see your receipt and checks the contents of the store bag. Document each of the major events just described and explain them in terms of the PCI compliance standard. Include this report in your assignment.
Part 2: PCI Compliance
This part of the assignment will cover PCI. Please refer to the attached file in your responses.
Respond to and address the following in essay style:
1. Suppose HGA’s mainframe, depicted in Figure B-1, stored cardholder data in the private databases. What steps should be taken to protect that data in order to be PCI compliant?
2. HGA’s mainframe has network connectivity. Assuming that cardholder data is transmitted across these networks, describe how data should be protected in transmission.
3. Users are located at various sites connected to the HGA network. Suggest appropriate access controls to restrict unauthorized users from looking at cardholder data.
4. The PCI specification notes that all systems and network devices connected to a system that stores, transmits, or processes cardholder data is in scope and must comply with PCI specifications. To avoid having the whole network subject to PCI specifications, how would you segment the network to reduce the scope of compliance?
Assignment Requirements:
Submit your assignment in the usual double-spaced APA-styled report. At least four pages of material are expected beyond the title page, table of contents, abstract, and references page.
· Answers contain sufficient information to adequately answer the questions
· No spelling errors
· No grammar errors
CRSS Network Diagram
Copyright Rasmussen, Inc. 2013. Proprietary and Confidential.
1
1
image3.png
image5.png
FedRAMP Security Assessment Plan (SAP)
Third Party Assessment
Prepared by
<Your Name>
for
Country Roads Space Systems
&
NASA
CRSS Information Systems. Administration and Classified Networks
Version #.#
<DATE>
MOCK Plan
CRSS Information Systems. Administration and Classified Networks | Version #.# Date
Controlled Unclassified Information Page | 10
System Assessment Plan
Prepared by
Identification of Organization that Prepared this Document
Student NameEnter Your Name
Rasmussen Email AddressEnter Rasmussen Email Address
ClassEnter Class Name
Course and SemesterEnter Section Number and Semester
Prepared for
Identification of Cloud Service Provider
Organization NameNASA
Street Address300 E St. SW
Suite/Room/BuildingIA Office Floor 2
City, State ZipWashington DC 20546
Revision History
Date
Description
Version of SSP
Author<Date><Revision Description><Version><Author><Date><Revision Description><Versi.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
Name DateInstructorWhat is TheoryUse this text.docx
1. Name:
Date:
Instructor:
What is Theory?
Use this textbox to define theory in terms families could
understand. If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the
reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Two Developmental Theories
Use this textbox to explain two developmental theories that will
drive your work with young children. If you use scholarly
sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
2. Use this textbox to discuss the connection between your chosen
theories and using developmentally appropriate practice to
support your work with young children. If you use scholarly
sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Connection between theories & DAP
Page 2
Explain three resources for families to help them understand
your chosen theories. Be sure to include a link to each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to explain one resource that would be a quick
read for families on the go. (Explain why you chose this
resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
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detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
3. resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to explain one resource that would be user-
friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents,
grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
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Page 3
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be
sure to address the following:
Discuss why it is important for you to help families understand
developmental theory.
Explain why it is important to research and theorize about
childhood.
Describe how your stance on theory will evolve over the next
five years.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
4. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
Page 4
Two Genetic Factors
Use this textbox to describe two genetic factors that can
influence prenatal development. If you use scholarly sources
5. here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
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Two Environmental Factors
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influence prenatal development. If you use scholarly sources
here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
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Use this textbox to discuss how you will use Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems theory to support families during the
prenatal and newborn stage. If you use scholarly sources here,
add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
6. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
Page 5
Explain three resources for families to support them during the
prenatal and newborn stage of development. Be sure to include
a link to each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be a quick
read for families on the go. (Explain why you chose this
resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
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detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be user-
friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents,
grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
7. * This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
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Page 6
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be
sure to address the following:
Explain the role of an educator in supporting the prenatal
development of families in their care.
Describe how the ideas you shared in the parent handout section
of this assignment are supported by the theory you aligned with
in your Week 1 Discussion: Child Development Theories.
Discuss how an understanding of each family’s cultural context
can make you a more effective educator during this time frame.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
8. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
Page 7
Cognitive and Language Development
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development are connected. If you use scholarly sources here,
add them to the reference list on page 17.
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Motor and Social Development
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influences infant and toddler social experiences. If you use
scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page
17.
9. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Use this textbook to describe how you will create a learning
environment that fosters the development of self-regulation,
secure attachment, and self-control. If you use scholarly sources
here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Learning Environment
Page 8
Explain three resources for families to support them during the
infant and toddler stage of development. Be sure to include a
link to each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be a quick
read for families on the go.
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
10. reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be more
detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be user-
friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents,
grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Page 9
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be
sure to address the following:
Explain your role as an educator in providing developmental
activities that support physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
growth from 2 months to 2 years.
Describe what it means to be a socially-emotionally competent
11. infant and toddler caregiver.
Discuss how you will foster relationships that promote
cognitive and language development in infants and toddlers.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
12. Page 10
Piaget & Vygotsky
Use this textbox to discuss how the theories of Piaget and
Vygotsky will influence the ways you support cognitive
development in the preschool years. If you use scholarly
sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Learning Centers
Use this textbox to explain your philosophy of why learning
centers are a developmentally appropriate method for
supporting the physical development of preschoolers. If you use
scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page
17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Use this textbox to describe your philosophy of supporting
vocabulary development of preschoolers. If you use scholarly
sources here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
13. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Philosophy of Vocabulary Development
Page 11
Explain three resources for families to support them during the
preschool stage of development. Be sure to include a link to
each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be a quick
read for families on the go. (Explain why you chose this
resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be more
detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
14. User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be user-
friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents,
grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resource does not count as one of your required scholarly
resources and therefore does not need to be included on your
reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Page 12
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be
sure to address the following:
Explain why the development of empathy and sympathy are
essential to fostering strong peer relations among preschoolers.
Discuss how you will use information shared with you by
families (i.e. historical, biological, environmental, societal,
familial, and cultural influences) to support their preschooler’s
development.
Describe how you will differentiate instruction to support the
unique needs of preschoolers across all developmental domains.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
15. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
Page 13
The Role of Resilience
Use this textbox to discuss what resilience is and the important
role it plays in social-emotional growth during early childhood.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
16. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Positive Parenting
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social-emotional growth during early childhood. If you use
scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list on page
17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Use this textbox to describe how you will utilize brain breaks in
your learning environment to support cognitive and social-
emotional needs in early childhood. If you use scholarly sources
here, add them to the reference list on page 17.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Brain Breaks in your Learning Environment
Page 14
Explain three resources for families to support them during the
early childhood stage (ages 6-8) of development. Be sure to
17. include a link to each resource.
Quick read resource for families on the go
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be a quick
read for families on the go. (Explain why you chose this
resource and provide a link.)
* This resources does not count as one of your required
scholarly resources & therefore does not need to be included on
your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Detailed resource for families who want to learn more
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be more
detailed for families who want to learn more. (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resources does not count as one of your required
scholarly resources & therefore does not need to be included on
your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
User-friendly resource for diverse families
Use this textbox to provide one resource that would be user-
friendly for diverse families (e.g., ELL, single parents,
grandparents raising grandchildren, etc.). (Explain why you
chose this resource and provide a link.)
* This resources does not count as one of your required
scholarly resources & therefore does not need to be included on
your reference page.
**Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Page 15
18. Page 16
Use this textbox to write your reflection. In your reflection, be
sure to address the following:
Describe your role in helping families to understand the various
influences on child development.
Discuss how developmental theories provide the foundation for
early learning, growth, and development.
Explain, using an example, how you will ensure you are
implementing developmentally appropriate practice to foster
growth and development.
Summarize how you will ensure your learning environment
nurtures the physical, socio-emotional, and cognitive growth of
diverse learners.
Explain how you revised your handouts from Weeks 1 - 4 based
on your instructor’s feedback and additional information you
have learned throughout the course.
If you use scholarly sources here, add them to the reference list
on page 17.
19. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
Reflection:
Use this textbox for your references. Make sure all references
are formatted according to APA Style.
20. **Delete all the text in this box before you begin your response.
image1.png
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image7.png
21. Great Gator Gifts (GGG) launched a Touchdown Club, where
Gator fans can create a
“wish list” of Gator items. Every year, at the beginning of
football season, GGG sends a
link to the spouse of each member of the Touchdown Club with
a reminder to kick the
season off with a special Gator gift. GGG attracted new
customers at a cost of $25.00
each and tracked their purchases over a 4-year period. The
average annual purchase
was $500.00, with a gross margin of 60% and annual per capita
marketing expense of
$50.00. GGG uses a discount rate of 8%, and the observed
annual retention rate of
Touchdown Club members was 50%. What was GGG’s 4-year
CLV?
Sheet1Data GivenNew Customers??Acquisition
Cost/customer$25Revenue/customer$500Gross Margin
%60%Mktg Exp Per Capita$50Discount Rate8%Retention
22. Rate50%Time4
YearsYear1234TotalRevenue500500500500COGS200200200200
Gross Maring
%60%60%60%60%Contribution300300300300Marketing
Expense50505050Cash Flow250250250250Discount
RateRetention Rate (zero @ Y1Expected NPVCumulative
NPV25Acquisition CostCLV
Computational Formula
C = Cash Flow
d = Discount rate
t = Time period
r = Retention probability
A = Acquisition cost
image1.png
CHAPTER 1 HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH
STRATEGIES
WHAT’S AHEAD IN CHAPTER 1
1.1 The Field of Child Development
Domains of Development • Periods of Development
1.2 Basic Issues
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? • One Course of
Development or Many? • Relative Influence of Nature and
Nurture? • A Balanced Point of View
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT: Resilient Children
1.3 Historical Foundations
Medieval Times • The Reformation • Philosophies of the
Enlightenment • Scientific Beginnings
1.4 Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories
The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behaviorism and Social
Learning Theory • Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
23. 1.5 Recent Theoretical Perspectives
Information Processing • Developmental Neuroscience •
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology •
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • Ecological Systems Theory •
Development as a Dynamic System
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH: Family Chaos Undermines
Children’s Well-Being
1.6 Comparing Child Development Theories
1.7 Studying the Child
Common Research Methods • General Research Designs •
Designs for Studying Development • Improving Developmental
Designs
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES: Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a
New Land
1.8 Ethics in Research on Children
The youngest of six children, Reiko Nagumo was born in Los
Angeles in 1934 to Japanese-immigrant parents who had become
naturalized U.S. citizens. On December 7, 1941, when Reiko
was in second grade, the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, an
event that caused the United States to declare war on Japan and
enter World War II. In the days that followed, Reiko’s best
friend, Mary Frances, approached her at school and said,
“Reiko, my mama told me to tell you that I’m not allowed to
play with you anymore because you’re Japanese, and we’re at
war with Japan.”
The only Japanese student in her class, Reiko became the target
of her classmates’ harassment, including name-calling, hitting,
and spitting. Still, Mary Frances remained Reiko’s friend at
school, becoming her protective, side-by-side partner as the
children transitioned between their homeroom and the school
library—a kindness encouraged by the girls’ classroom teacher.
After returning from winter break in January of 1942, Mary
Frances approached Reiko excitedly and invited her over to see
the gifts she had received at Christmastime.
24. “But you’re not allowed to play with me,” Reiko reminded Mary
Frances.
“Oh, my mama won’t know,” Mary Frances replied. “She works
at the hospital, and I have a key.”
After school, the two friends ran to Mary Frances’s home, but
as they entered, they heard her Uncle Bill approaching through
another door. Quickly, Mary Frances directed Reiko to hide
behind the sofa, but Uncle Bill, hearing the girls talking, found
Reiko, dragged her out, and told her to go home and never come
back. Then he threatened, “Mary Frances, I’m going to punish
you.”
Soon after, the U.S. government issued an executive order
requiring tens of thousands of American citizens of Japanese
ancestry to be relocated from their homes to internment camps.
Reiko, her parents, and her siblings were rounded up with other
Japanese Americans, herded onto busses, and transported to a
holding center where, for three months, all eight family
members slept in the same room on canvas bags they had
stuffed with hay. Then, the incarcerated citizens boarded trains
for Heart Mountain Relocation Center in Wyoming, where they
were held for three years.
An active, curious child, Reiko was overcome with sadness at
being separated from her home and daily routines. Her parents,
despite the trauma of their desolate surroundings and denial of
their Constitutional rights, managed to provide their children
with affection and support, including encouragement to do well
academically in the camp’s makeshift school using barracks as
classrooms. Soon, Reiko’s buoyancy returned: She passed time
playing “school” and “library” with other camp children and
made playing cards, checkerboards, and other games out of
cardboard. Charitable organizations sent in teachers with whom
25. Reiko forged close relationships.
When the war ended in 1945, Reiko and her family moved back
to their former neighborhood. Memories of peer mistreatment
caused Reiko to fear returning to school, but as she set foot in
the play yard, a teacher welcomed her and made her feel safe.
Reiko soon found Mary Frances—the only child who reached
out and took her hand in friendship.
In the years that followed, Reiko and Mary Frances lost contact.
Reiko went on to earn bachelor’s and master’s degrees in
nursing and pursued an adventurous international opportunity as
a public health nurse before returning to California to work in a
hospital neonatal intensive care unit. Now retired, she regularly
gives talks to schoolchildren about her wartime experiences of
internment and what we can learn from history. Reiko never
forgot Mary Frances, who befriended her during a time of
intense prejudice against anyone Japanese. As she grew old,
Reiko began to search for her. Seventy years after the two
friends had last seen each other, they were reunited (Elk Grove
Unified School District, 2018; PBS, 2018).
• • •
Reiko’s story raises a wealth of fascinating issues about child
development:
What determines the physical, mental, and behavioral attributes
that Reiko and Mary Frances share with their agemates and
those that make each child unique?
How did Reiko manage to sustain an active, curious disposition
despite the trauma of internment? What enabled Mary Frances
to remain Reiko’s steadfast friend in the face of adult and peer
condemnation?
In what ways are children’s home, school, and neighborhood
experiences the same today as they were in Reiko and Mary
26. Frances’s generation, and in what ways are they different?
How do historical events—for Reiko, wartime persecution and
dislocation—affect children’s development and well-being?
These are central questions addressed by child development, a
field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change
from conception through adolescence. Child development is part
of a larger, interdisciplinary field known as developmental
science, which includes all changes we experience throughout
the lifespan (Lerner et al., 2014; Overton & Molenaar, 2015).
The interests and concerns of the thousands of investigators
who study child development are enormously diverse. But all
have a common goal: to describe and identify those factors that
influence the consistencies and changes in young people during
the first two decades of life. ■
1.1 THE FIELD OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
1.1a Describe the field of child development, along with factors
that stimulated its expansion.
1.1b Explain how child development is typically divided into
domains and periods.
The questions just listed are not just of scientific interest. Each
has applied, or practical, importance as well. In fact, scientific
curiosity is just one factor that led child development to become
the exciting field it is today. Research about development has
also been stimulated by social pressures to improve the lives of
children. For example, the beginning of public education in the
early twentieth century led to a demand for knowledge about
what and how to teach children of different ages. The interest of
pediatricians and nurses in improving children’s health required
an understanding of physical growth and nutrition. The social
service profession’s desire to treat children’s emotional and
behavior problems and to help them cope with challenging life
circumstances, such as the birth of a sibling, parental divorce,
poverty, bullying in school, or racial and ethnic prejudices,
required information about personality and social development.
And parents have continually sought advice about child-rearing
27. practices and experiences that would promote their children’s
development and well-being.
Our large storehouse of information about child development is
interdisciplinary. It has grown through the combined efforts of
people from many fields. Because of the need to solve everyday
problems concerning children, researchers from psychology,
sociology, anthropology, biology, and neuroscience have joined
forces with those from education, family studies, medicine,
public health, and social service, to name just a few. Together,
they have created the field of child development as it exists
today—a body of knowledge that is not just scientifically
important but also relevant and useful.
1.1.1 Domains of Development
To make the vast, interdisciplinary study of human constancy
and change more orderly and convenient, development is often
divided into three broad domains: physical, cognitive, and
emotional and social. Refer to Figure 1.1 for a description and
illustration of each. In this text, we will largely consider the
three domains in the order just mentioned. Yet the domains are
not really distinct. Rather, they combine in an integrated,
holistic fashion to yield the living, growing child. Furthermore,
each domain influences and is influenced by the others. For
example, in Chapter 5 you will see that new motor capacities,
such as reaching, sitting, crawling, and walking (physical),
contribute greatly to infants’ understanding of their
surroundings (cognitive). When babies think and act more
competently, adults stimulate them more with games, language,
and expressions of delight at their new achievements (emotional
and social). These enriched experiences, in turn, promote all
aspects of development.
You will encounter instances of the interwoven nature of all
domains on nearly every page of this text. In its margins, you
will find occasional Look and Listen activities—opportunities
28. for you to see everyday illustrations of development by
observing what real children say and do or by attending to
everyday influences on children. Through these experiences, I
hope to make your study of development more authentic and
meaningful.
Also, at the end of major sections, look for Ask Yourself, a
feature designed to help deepen your understanding. Within it, I
have included Connect questions, which help you form a
coherent, unified picture of child development; Apply
questions, which encourage you to apply your knowledge to
controversial issues and problems faced by parents, teachers,
and children; and Reflect questions, which invite you to reflect
on your own development and that of people you know well.
1.1.2 Periods of Development
Besides distinguishing and integrating the three domains,
another dilemma arises in discussing development: how to
divide the flow of time into sensible, manageable parts.
Researchers usually use the following age periods, each of
which brings new capacities and social expectations that serve
as important transitions in major theories:
The prenatal period: from conception to birth. In this nine-
month period, the most rapid time of change, a one-celled
organism is transformed into a human baby with remarkable
capacities for adjusting to life in the surrounding world.
Infancy and toddlerhood: from birth to 2 years. This period
brings dramatic changes in the body and brain that support the
emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual
capacities; the beginnings of language; and the first intimate
ties to others. Infancy spans the first year. Toddlerhood spans
the second, during which children take their first independent
steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy.
Early childhood: from 2 to 6 years. The body becomes longer
and leaner, motor skills are refined, and children become more
29. self-controlled and self-sufficient. Make-believe play blossoms,
reflecting and supporting many aspects of psychological
development. Thought and language expand at an astounding
pace, a sense of morality becomes evident, and children
establish ties with peers.
Middle childhood: from 6 to 11 years. Children learn about the
wider world and master new responsibilities that increasingly
resemble those they will perform as adults. Hallmarks of this
period are improved athletic abilities; participation in organized
games with rules; more logical thought processes; mastery of
fundamental reading, writing, math, and other academic
knowledge and skills; and advances in understanding the self,
morality, and friendship.
Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years. This is the intervening period
between childhood and adulthood. Puberty leads to an adult-
sized body and sexual maturity. Thought becomes increasingly
complex, abstract, and idealistic, and schooling is directed
toward entry into higher education and the world of work.
During this period, young people establish autonomy from the
family and define personal values and goals.
For many contemporary youths in industrialized nations, the
transition to adult roles has become increasingly prolonged—so
much so that some researchers have proposed an additional
period of development called emerging adulthood that extends
from age 18 to the mid- to late-twenties. Although emerging
adults have moved beyond adolescence, they have not yet fully
assumed adult responsibilities. Rather, during the college years
and sometimes beyond, these young people intensify their
exploration of options in love, career, and personal values
before making enduring commitments (Arnett, 2015). Perhaps
emerging adulthood is your period of development.
With this introduction in mind, let’s turn to some basic issues
that have captivated, puzzled, and sparked debate among child
development theorists. Then our discussion will trace the
emergence of the field and survey major theories.We will return
30. to each contemporary theory in greater depth in later chapters.
1.2 BASIC ISSUES
1.2 Identify three basic issues on which theories of child
development take a stand.
Research on child development did not begin until the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. But ideas about how
children grow and change have a much longer history. As these
speculations combined with research, they inspired the
construction of theories of development. A theory is an orderly,
integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and
predicts behavior. For example, a good theory of infant–
caregiver attachment would (1) describe the behaviors of babies
around 6 to 8 months of age, when they start to actively seek
the affection and comfort of a familiar adult, (2) explain how
and why infants develop this strong desire to bond with a
familiar caregiver, and (3) predict the consequences of this
emotional bond for future relationships.
Theories are vital tools for two reasons. First, they provide
organizing frameworks for our observations of children. In
other words, they guide and give meaning to what we see.
Second, theories that are verified by research often serve as a
sound basis for practical action. Once a theory helps us
understand development, we are in a much better position to
know how to improve the welfare and treatment of children.
As we will see later, theories are influenced by the cultural
values and belief systems of their times. But theories differ in
one important way from mere opinion or belief: A theory’s
continued existence depends on scientific verification. Every
theory must be tested using a fair set of research procedures
agreed on by the scientific community, and findings that verify
the theory must endure, or be replicated over time.
Within the field of child development, many theories offer
31. different ideas about what children are like and how they
change. The study of child development provides no ultimate
truth because investigators do not always agree on the meaning
of what they see. Also, children are complex beings; they
change physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. No
single theory has explained all these aspects. But the existence
of many theories helps advance knowledge because researchers
are continually trying to support, contradict, and integrate these
different points of view.
Although there are many theories, we can easily organize them
by looking at the stand they take on three basic issues: (1) Is the
course of development continuous or discontinuous? (2) Does
one course of development characterize all children, or are there
many possible courses? (3) What are the roles of genetic and
environmental factors in development? Let’s look closely at
each of these issues.
1.2.1 Continuous or Discontinuous Development?
A mother reported with amazement that her 20-month-old son
Angelo had pushed a toy car across the living room floor while
making a motorlike sound, “Brmmmm, brmmmm,” for the first
time. When he hit a nearby wall with a bang, Angelo let go of
the car, exclaimed, “C’ash!” and laughed heartily.
“How come Angelo can pretend, but he couldn’t a few months
ago?” his mother asked. “And I wonder what ‘Brmmmm,
brmmmm’ and ‘Crash!’ mean to Angelo. Does he understand
motorlike sounds and collision the same way I do?”
Angelo’s mother has raised a puzzling issue about development:
How can we best describe the differences in capacities and
behavior between small infants, young children, adolescents,
and adults? As Figure 1.2 on page7 illustrates, most major
theories recognize two possibilities.
32. One view holds that infants and preschoolers respond to the
world in much the same way as adults do. The difference
between the immature and the mature being is one of amount or
complexity. For example, little Angelo’s thinking may be just as
logical and well-organized as our own. Perhaps (as his mother
reports) he can sort objects into simple categories, recognize
whether he has more of one kind than of another, and remember
where he left his favorite toy at child care the week before.
Angelo’s only limitation may be that he cannot perform these
skills with as much information and precision as we can. If this
is so, then Angelo’s development is continuous—a process of
gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were
there to begin with.
Figure 1.2 Is development continuous or discontinuous? (a)
Some theorists believe that development is a smooth,
continuous process. Children gradually add more of the same
types of skills that were there to begin with. (b) Other theorists
think that development takes place in discontinuous stages.
Children change rapidly as they step up to a new level and then
change very little for a while. With each step, the child
interprets and responds to the world in a qualitatively different
way.
According to a second view, Angelo’s thoughts, emotions, and
behavior differ considerably from those of adults. His
development is discontinuous—a process in which new ways of
understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific
times. From this perspective, Angelo is not yet able to organize
objects or remember and interpret experiences as we do.
Instead, he will move through a series of developmental steps,
each with unique features, until he reaches the highest level of
functioning.
Theories that accept the discontinuous perspective regard
development as taking place in stages—qualitative changes in
33. thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific
periods of development. In stage theories, development is much
like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a
more mature, reorganized way of functioning. The stage concept
also assumes that children undergo periods of rapid
transformation as they step up from one stage to the next,
alternating with plateaus during which they stand solidly within
a stage. In other words, change is fairly sudden rather than
gradual and ongoing.
Does development actually occur in a neat, orderly sequence of
stages? This ambitious assumption has faced significant
challenges (Collins & Hartup, 2013). Later in this chapter, we
will review some influential stage theories.
1.2.2 One Course of Development or Many?
Stage theorists assume that people everywhere follow the same
sequence of development. For example, in the domain of
cognition, a stage theorist might try to identify the common
influences that lead children to represent their world through
language and make-believe play in early childhood, to think
more logically and systematically in middle childhood, and to
reason more systematically and abstractly in adolescence.
At the same time, the field of child development is becoming
increasingly aware that children grow up in distinct contexts—
unique combinations of personal and environmental
circumstances that can result in different paths of change. For
example, a shy child who fears social encounters develops in
very different contexts from those of an outgoing agemate who
readily seeks out other people. Children in non-Western village
societies have experiences in their families and communities
that differ sharply from those of children in large Western
cities. These varying circumstances foster different intellectual
capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others
(Kagan, 2013a; Mistry & Dutta, 2015).
34. As you will see, contemporary theorists regard the contexts that
shape development as many-layered and complex. On the
personal side, these include heredity and biological makeup. On
the environmental side, they include both immediate settings
(home, child-care center, school, neighborhood) and
circumstances that are more remote from children’s everyday
lives (community resources, societal values, historical time
period). Furthermore, new evidence is increasingly emphasizing
mutually influential relations between individuals and their
contexts: Children not only are affected by but also contribute
to the contexts in which they develop (Elder, Shanahan, &
Jennings, 2015). Finally, researchers today are more conscious
than ever before of cultural diversity in development.
1.2.3 Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?
In addition to describing the course of child development, each
theory takes a stand on a major issue about its underlying
causes: how to characterize the relative influence of genetic and
environmental factors in development? This is the age-old
nature–nurture controversy. By nature, we mean the hereditary
information we receive from our parents at the moment of
conception. By nurture, we mean the complex forces of the
physical and social world that influence our biological makeup
and psychological experiences before and after birth.
Although all theories grant roles to both nature and nurture,
they vary in emphasis. Consider the following questions: Is the
older child’s ability to think in more complex ways largely the
result of a built-in timetable of growth, or is it heavily
influenced by stimulation from parents and teachers? Do
children acquire language because they are genetically
predisposed to do so or because parents intensively teach them
from an early age? And what accounts for the vast individual
differences among children in height, weight, physical
coordination, cognitive abilities, personality traits, and social
35. skills? Is nature or nurture more responsible?
A theory’s position on the roles of nature and nurture affects
how it explains individual differences. Theorists who emphasize
stability—that children who are high or low in a characteristic
(such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at
later ages—typically stress the importance of heredity. If they
regard environment as important, they usually point to early
experiences as establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior.
Powerful negative events in the first few years, they argue,
cannot be fully overcome by later, more positive ones (Bowlby,
1980; Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010). Other theorists, taking
a more optimistic view, see development as having substantial
plasticity throughout life—as being open to change in response
to influential experiences (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger,
2006; Overton & Molenaar, 2015).
Throughout this book, you will see that investigators disagree,
often sharply, on the question of stability versus plasticity.
Their answers have great applied significance. If you believe
that development is largely due to nature, then providing
experiences aimed at promoting change would seem to be of
little value. If, on the other hand, you are convinced of the
importance of early experience, then you would intervene as
soon as possible, offering high-quality stimulation and support
to ensure that children develop at their best. Finally, if you
think that environment is profoundly influential throughout
development, you would provide assistance any time children or
adolescents face difficulties, in the belief that, with the help of
favorable life circumstances, they can recover from negative
events.
1.2.4 A Balanced Point of View
So far, we have discussed basic issues of child development in
terms of solutions favoring one side or the other. But as we
trace the unfolding of the field in the rest of this chapter, you
36. will see that the positions of many theorists have softened.
Today, some theorists believe that both continuous and
discontinuous changes occur. Many acknowledge that
development has both universal features and features unique to
the individual and his or her contexts. And a growing number
regard heredity and environment as inseparably interwoven,
each affecting the potential of the other to modify the child’s
traits and capacities (Lerner et al., 2014; Overton & Molenaar,
2015). We will discuss these contemporary ideas about nature
and nurture in Chapter 2.
Biology and EnvironmentResilient Children
John and his best friend, Gary, grew up in a rundown, crime-
ridden urban neighborhood. By age 10, each had experienced
years of family conflict followed by parental divorce. Reared
from then on in mother-headed households, John and Gary
rarely saw their fathers. Both dropped out of high school and
were in and out of trouble with the police.
Then their paths diverged. By age 30, John had fathered two
children with women he never married, had spent time in prison,
was unemployed, and drank alcohol heavily. In contrast, Gary
had returned to finish high school, had studied auto mechanics
at a community college, and became manager of a gas station
and repair shop. Married with two children, he had saved his
earnings and bought a home. He was happy, healthy, and well-
adapted to life.
A wealth of evidence shows that environmental risks—poverty,
negative family interactions and parental divorce, job loss,
mental illness, and drug abuse—predispose children to future
problems (Masten, 2013). Why did Gary “beat the odds” and
come through unscathed?
Research on resilience—the ability to adapt effectively in the
37. face of threats to development—is receiving increased attention
as investigators look for ways to protect young people from the
damaging effects of stressful life conditions (Wright & Masten,
2015). This interest has been inspired by several long-term
studies on the relationship of life stressors in childhood to
competence and adjustment in adolescence and adulthood. In
each study, some individuals were shielded from negative
outcomes, whereas others had lasting problems (Werner, 2013).
Four broad factors seemed to offer protection from the
damaging effects of stressful life events.
Personal Characteristics
A child’s genetically influenced characteristics can reduce
exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for
early stressful events. High intelligence and socially valued
talents (in music or athletics, for example) increase the chances
that a child will have rewarding experiences at school and in the
community that offset the impact of a stressful home life.
Temperament is particularly powerful. Children who have
easygoing, sociable dispositions and who can readily inhibit
negative emotions and impulses tend to have an optimistic
outlook on life and a special capacity to adapt to change—
qualities that elicit positive responses from others. In contrast,
emotionally reactive and irritable children often tax the patience
of people around them (Wang & Deater-Deckard, 2013). For
example, both John and Gary moved several times during their
childhoods. Each time, John became anxious and angry, whereas
Gary looked forward to making new friends.
A Warm Parental Relationship
A close relationship with at least one parent who provides
warmth, appropriately high expectations, monitoring of the
child’s activities, and an organized home environment fosters
resilience (Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). But this factor (as well as
other sources of social support) is not independent of children’s
personal characteristics. Children who are self-controlled,
38. socially responsive, and able to deal with change are easier to
rear and more likely to enjoy positive relationships with parents
and other people. At the same time, children may develop more
attractive dispositions as a result of parental warmth and
attention (Luthar, Crossman, & Small, 2015).
Social Support Outside the Immediate Family
The most consistent asset of resilient children is a strong bond
with a competent, caring adult. For children who are not close
to either parent, a grandparent, aunt, uncle, or teacher who
forms a special relationship with the child can promote
resilience (Masten, 2013). Gary received support in adolescence
from his grandfather, who listened to Gary’s concerns and
helped him solve problems.
Associations with rule-abiding peers who value school
achievement are also linked to resilience (Furman & Rose,
2015). But children who have positive relationships with adults
are far more likely to establish these supportive peer ties.
Community Resources and Opportunities
Community supports—good schools, convenient and affordable
health care and social services, libraries, and recreation
centers—foster both parents’ and children’s well-being. In
addition, engaging in extracurricular activities at school and
religious youth groups, scouting, and other organizations teach
important social skills, such as cooperation, leadership, and
contributing to others’ welfare. As participants acquire these
competencies, they gain in self-reliance, self-esteem, and
community commitment (Leventhal, Dupéré, & Shuey, 2015).
As a college student, Gary volunteered for Habitat for
Humanity, joining a team building affordable housing in low-
income neighborhoods. Community involvement offered Gary
opportunities to form meaningful relationships, which further
strengthened his resilience.
39. A 16-year-old student at a high school for the arts walks off
stage after performing a musical number and is congratulated by
a returning student with a leading role in the successful show,
“Motown the Musical.” Personal characteristics (such as
exceptional talent), a strong bond with an adult (like this
successful performer), and skill-building extra-curricular
activities foster resilience in this teenager.
Lara Cerri/Tampa Bay Times/ZUMA Press
Research on resilience highlights the complex connections
between heredity and environment (Masten, 2016). Armed with
positive characteristics, which stem from native endowment,
favorable rearing experiences, or both, children and adolescents
can act to reduce stressful situations. But when many risks pile
up, they are increasingly difficult to overcome (Evans, Li, &
Sepanski Whipple, 2013). To fortify children against the
negative effects of risk, interventions must not only reduce risks
but also enhance children’s protective relationships at home, in
school, and in the community.
Finally, as you will see later in this text, the relative impact of
early and later experiences varies greatly from one domain of
development to another and even—as the Biology and
Environment box on page 10 indicates—across individuals!
Because of the complex network of factors contributing to
developmental change and the challenges of isolating the effects
of each, more researchers are envisioning it from a
developmental systems perspective—as a perpetually ongoing
process that is molded by a complex network of
genetic/biological, psychological, and social influences (Lerner,
2015). Our review of child development theories will conclude
with influential systems theories.
Ask Yourself
40. Connect ■ Provide an example of how one domain of
development (physical, cognitive, or emotional/social) can
affect development in another domain.
Apply ■ Review Reiko’s story in the introduction to this
chapter. What factors likely contributed to her resilience in the
face of wartime persecution, relocation, and internment?
Reflect ■ Describe an aspect of your development that differs
from a parent’s or a grandparent’s when she or he was your age.
How might differing contexts be responsible?
1.3 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
1.3 Describe major historical influences on theories of child
development.
Contemporary theories of child development are the result of
centuries of change in Western cultural values, philosophical
thinking about children, and scientific progress. To understand
the field as it exists today, we must return to its early
beginnings—to ideas about children that long preceded
scientific child study but that linger as important forces in
current theory and research.
1.3.1 Medieval Times
At least since medieval times—the sixth through the fifteenth
centuries—childhood has been regarded as a separate period of
life. Medieval painters often depicted children wearing loose,
comfortable gowns, playing games, and looking up to adults.
Written texts contained terms that distinguished children under
age 7 or 8 from other people and that recognized even young
teenagers as not fully mature. By the fourteenth century,
manuals offering advice on many aspects of child care,
including health, feeding, clothing, and games, were common
(Heywood, 2013; Lett, 1997). Laws recognized that children
needed protection from people who might mistreat them, and
courts exercised leniency with lawbreaking youths because of
their tender years (Hanawalt, 1993).
1.3.2 The Reformation
41. In the sixteenth century, the Puritan belief in original sin gave
rise to the view that children were born evil and stubborn and
had to be civilized (Heywood, 2013). Harsh, restrictive child-
rearing practices were recommended to tame the depraved child.
Children were dressed in stiff, uncomfortable clothing that held
them in adultlike postures, and disobedient students were
routinely beaten by their schoolmasters. Nevertheless, love and
affection for their children prevented most Puritan parents from
using extremely repressive measures (Moran & Vinovskis,
1986).
As the Puritans emigrated from England to the New World, they
brought the belief that child rearing was one of their most
important obligations. Although they continued to regard the
child’s soul as tainted by original sin, they tried to teach their
sons and daughters to use reason to tell right from wrong
(Clarke-Stewart, 1998). As they trained their children in self-
reliance and self-control, Puritan parents gradually adopted a
moderate balance between severity and permissiveness.
1.3.3 Philosophies of the Enlightenment
The seventeenth-century Enlightenment brought new
philosophies that emphasized ideals of human dignity and
respect. Conceptions of childhood were more humane than those
of the past.
John Locke
The writings of British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704)
served as the forerunner of a twentieth-century perspective that
we will discuss shortly: behaviorism. Locke viewed the child as
a tabula rasa—Latin for “blank slate.” According to this idea,
children begin as nothing at all; their characters are shaped
entirely by experience. Locke (1690/1892) saw parents as
rational tutors who can mold the child in any way they wish
through careful instruction, effective example, and rewards for
good behavior. He was ahead of his time in recommending
42. child-rearing practices that present-day research supports—for
example, the use of adult attention and approval as rewards,
rather than money or sweets. He also opposed physical
punishment: “The child repeatedly beaten in school cannot look
upon books and teachers without experiencing fear and anger.”
Locke’s philosophy led to a change from harshness toward
children to kindness and compassion.
Look carefully at Locke’s ideas, and you will see that he
regarded development as continuous: Adultlike behaviors are
gradually built up through the warm, consistent teachings of
parents. His view of the child as a tabula rasa led him to
champion nurture—the power of the environment to shape the
child. And his faith in nurture suggests the possibility of many
courses of development and of high plasticity at later ages due
to new experiences. Finally, Locke’s philosophy characterizes
children as doing little to influence their own destiny, which is
written on “blank slates” by others. This vision of a passive
child has been discarded. All contemporary theories view
children as active, purposeful beings who contribute
substantially to their own development.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In the eighteenth century, French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712–1778) introduced a new view of childhood.
Children, Rousseau claimed, are not blank slates to be filled by
adult instruction. Instead, they are noble savages, naturally
endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for
orderly, healthy growth. Unlike Locke, Rousseau believed that
children’s built-in moral sense and unique ways of thinking and
feeling would only be harmed by adult training. His was a
child-centered philosophy in which the adult should be
receptive to the child’s needs at each of four stages: infancy,
childhood, late childhood, and adolescence.
Rousseau’s philosophy includes two influential concepts. The
43. first is the concept of stage, which we discussed earlier. The
second is the concept of maturation, which refers to a
genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth. In
contrast to Locke, Rousseau saw children as determining their
own destinies. And he viewed development as a discontinuous,
stagewise process that follows a single, unified course mapped
out by nature.
1.3.4 Scientific Beginnings
The study of child development evolved quickly in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Early observations of
children were soon followed by improved methods and theories.
Each advance contributed to the firm foundation on which the
field rests today.
Darwin: Birth of Scientific Child Study
British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) joined an
expedition to distant parts of the world, where he observed
infinite variation among plant and animal species. He also saw
that within a species, no two individuals are exactly alike. From
these observations, he constructed his famous theory of
evolution.
The theory emphasized two related principles: natural selection
and survival of the fittest. Darwin (1859/2003) explained that
certain species survive in particular parts of the world because
they have characteristics that fit with, or are adapted to, their
surroundings. Other species die off because they are less well-
suited to their environments. Individuals within a species who
best meet the environment’s survival requirements live long
enough to reproduce and pass their more beneficial
characteristics to future generations. Darwin’s emphasis on the
adaptive value of physical characteristics and behavior
eventually found its way into important developmental theories.
During his explorations, Darwin discovered that early prenatal
44. growth is strikingly similar in many species. Other scientists
concluded from Darwin’s observation that the development of
the human child followed the same general plan as the evolution
of the human species. Although this belief eventually proved
inaccurate, efforts to chart parallels between child growth and
human evolution prompted researchers to make careful
observations of all aspects of children’s behavior. Out of these
first attempts to document an idea about development, scientific
child study was born.
The Normative Period
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), one of the most influential
American psychologists of the early twentieth century, is
generally regarded as the founder of the child-study movement
(Cairns & Cairns, 2006). Inspired by Darwin’s work, Hall and
his well-known student Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) devised
theories based on evolutionary ideas. They regarded
development as a maturational process—a genetically
determined series of events that unfold automatically, much like
a flower (Gesell, 1933; Hall, 1904).
Hall and Gesell are remembered less for their one-sided theories
than for their intensive efforts to describe all aspects of child
development. They launched the normative approach, in which
measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals,
and age-related averages are computed to represent typical
development. Using this procedure, Hall constructed elaborate
questionnaires asking children of different ages almost
everything they could tell about themselves—interests, fears,
imaginary playmates, dreams, friendships, everyday knowledge,
and more. Similarly, through observations and parent
interviews, Gesell collected detailed normative information on
the motor achievements, social behaviors, and personality
characteristics of infants and children.
Gesell was also among the first to make knowledge about child
45. development meaningful to parents by telling them what to
expect at each age. If, as he believed, the timetable of
development is the product of millions of years of evolution,
then children are naturally knowledgeable about their needs. His
child-rearing advice, in the tradition of Rousseau, recommended
sensitivity to children’s cues (Thelen & Adolph, 1992). Along
with Dr. Spock’s Baby and Child Care, Gesell’s books became a
central part of a rapidly expanding popular literature for
parents.
The Mental Testing Movement
While Hall and Gesell were developing their theories and
methods in the United States, French psychologist Alfred Binet
(1857–1911) was also taking a normative approach to child
development, but for a different reason. In the early 1900s,
Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon were asked by Paris
school officials to find a way to identify children with learning
problems who needed to be placed in special classes. To address
these practical educational concerns, Binet and Simon
constructed the first successful intelligence test.
Binet began with a well-developed theory of intelligence.
Capturing the complexity of children’s thinking, he defined
intelligence as good judgment, planning, and critical reflection
(Sternberg & Jarvin, 2003). Then he created age-graded test
items that directly measured these abilities.
In 1916, at Stanford University, Binet’s test was adapted for use
with English-speaking children. Since then, the English version
has been known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
Besides providing a score that could successfully predict school
achievement, the Binet test sparked tremendous interest in
individual differences in development. Comparisons of the
scores of children who vary in gender, ethnicity, birth order,
family background, and other characteristics became a major
focus of research. And measures of intelligence rose quickly to
46. the forefront of the nature–nurture controversy.
1.4 MID-TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEORIES
1.4 Describe theories that influenced child development
research in the mid-twentieth century.
In the mid-twentieth century, the field of child development
expanded into a legitimate discipline. A variety of theories
emerged, each of which continues to have followers today. In
these theories, the European concern with the child’s inner
thoughts and feelings contrasts sharply with the North American
academic focus on scientific precision and concrete, observable
behavior.
1.4.1 The Psychoanalytic Perspective
By the 1930s and 1940s, parents on both sides of the Atlantic
increasingly sought professional help in dealing with children’s
emotional difficulties. The earlier normative movement had
answered the question, What are children like? Now another
question had to be addressed: How and why do children become
the way they are? To treat psychological problems, psychiatrists
and social workers turned to an emerging approach to
personality development that emphasized each child’s unique
history.
According to the psychoanalytic perspective, children move
through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts
between biological drives and social expectations. How these
conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to learn,
to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Among the
many contributors to the psychoanalytic perspective, two were
especially influential: Sigmund Freud, founder of the
psychoanalytic movement, and Erik Erikson.
Freud’s Theory
Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese physician, sought a cure for
emotionally troubled adults by having them talk freely about
47. painful events of their childhoods. Working with these
recollections, he examined his patients’ unconscious
motivations and constructed his psychosexual theory, which
emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and
aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy
personality development.
In Freud’s theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and
superego—become integrated during five stages, summarized in
Table 1.1. The id, the largest portion of the mind, is the source
of basic biological needs and desires. The ego, the conscious,
rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect
the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways.
Between 3 and 6 years of age, the superego, or conscience,
develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of
society. Now the ego faces the increasingly complex task of
reconciling the demands of the id, the external world, and
conscience—for example, the id impulse to grab an attractive
toy from a playmate versus the superego’s warning that such
behavior is wrong. According to Freud, the relations established
between id, ego, and superego during the preschool years
determine the individual’s basic personality.
Table 1.1 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s
Psychosocial Stages Compared
APPROXIMATE AGE
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE
Birth–1 year
Oral: If oral needs are not met through sucking from breast or
bottle, the individual may develop such habits as thumb
48. sucking, fingernail biting, overeating, or smoking.
Basic trust versus mistrust: From warm, responsive care, infants
gain a sense of trust that the world is good. Mistrust occurs if
infants are neglected or handled harshly.
1–3 years
Anal: Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing
urine and feces. If parents toilet train before children are ready
or make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may
appear in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Using new mental and
motor skills, children want to decide for themselves. Parents
can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and
not forcing or shaming the child.
3–6 years
Phallic: As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation,
Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls
arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To
avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same-
sex parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego
is formed, and children feel guilty when they violate its
standards.
Initiative versus guilt: Through make-believe play, children
gain insight into the person they can become. Initiative—a
sense of ambition and responsibility—develops when parents
support their child’s sense of purpose. If parents demand too
much self-control, children experience excessive guilt.
6–11 years
50. Old age
Integrity versus despair: Integrity results from feeling that life
was worth living as it happened. Older people who are
dissatisfied with their lives fear death.
Freud (1938/1973) believed that during childhood, sexual
impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital
regions of the body. In each stage, parents walk a fine line
between permitting too much or too little gratification of their
child’s basic needs. If parents strike an appropriate balance,
children grow into well-adjusted adults with the capacity for
mature sexual behavior and investment in family life.
Freud’s theory was the first to stress the influence of the early
parent–child relationship on development. But his perspective
was eventually criticized. First, it overemphasized the influence
of sexual feelings in development. Second, because it was based
on the problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults in
nineteenth-century Victorian society, it did not apply in other
cultures. Finally, Freud had not studied children directly.
Erikson’s Theory
Several of Freud’s followers improved on his vision. The most
important is Erik Erikson (1902–1994), who expanded the
picture of development at each stage. In his psychosocial
theory, Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating
between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a
positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and
skills that make the individual an active, contributing member
of society. A basic psychological conflict, which is resolved
along a continuum from positive to negative, determines healthy
or maladaptive outcomes at each stage. As Table 1.1 shows,
Erikson’s first five stages parallel Freud’s stages, but Erikson
added three adult stages. He was one of the first to recognize
51. the lifespan nature of development.
Unlike Freud, Erikson pointed out that normal development
must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation.
For example, in the 1940s, he observed that the Yurok Indians
of the U.S. northwest coast deprived newborns of breastfeeding
for the first 10 days, instead feeding them a thin soup. At age 6
months, infants were abruptly weaned—if necessary, by having
the mother leave for a few days. From our cultural vantage
point, these practices may seem cruel. But Erikson explained
that because the Yurok depended on salmon, which fill the river
just once a year, the development of self-restraint was essential
for survival. In this way, he showed that child rearing is
responsive to the competencies valued and needed by the child’s
society.
Contributions and Limitations of the Psychoanalytic Perspective
A special strength of the psychoanalytic perspective is its
emphasis on understanding the individual’s unique life history.
Consistent with this view, psychoanalytic theorists favor the
clinical, or case study, method, which synthesizes information
from a variety of sources into a detailed picture of the
personality of a single child. (We will discuss this method at the
end of this chapter.) Psychoanalytic theory has also inspired a
wealth of research on many aspects of emotional and social
development, including infant–caregiver attachment,
aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices,
morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity.
Despite its extensive contributions, the psychoanalytic
perspective is no longer in the mainstream of child development
research. Psychoanalytic theorists may have become isolated
from the rest of the field because they were so strongly
committed to the clinical approach that they failed to consider
other methods. In addition, many psychoanalytic ideas, such as
psychosexual stages and ego functioning, are too vague to be
52. tested empirically (Miller, 2016). Nevertheless, Erikson’s broad
outline of psychosocial change captures the essence of
personality development during childhood and adolescence.
Consequently, we will return to it in later chapters.
1.4.2 Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory
As the psychoanalytic perspective gained prominence, child
study was also influenced by a very different perspective.
According to behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli
and responses—are the appropriate focus of study. North
American behaviorism began in the early twentieth century with
the work of psychologist John Watson (1878–1958), who
wanted to create an objective science of psychology.
Traditional Behaviorism
Watson was inspired by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s
studies of animal learning. Pavlov knew that dogs release saliva
as an innate reflex when they are given food. But he noticed
that his dogs started salivating before they tasted any food—
when they saw the trainer who usually fed them. The dogs,
Pavlov reasoned, must have learned to associate a neutral
stimulus (the trainer) with another stimulus (food) that produces
a reflexive response (salivation). Because of this association,
the neutral stimulus alone could bring about a response
resembling the reflex. Eager to test this idea, Pavlov
successfully taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by
pairing it with the presentation of food. He had discovered
classical conditioning.
In a historic experiment that applied classical conditioning to
children’s behavior, Watson taught Albert, an 11-month-old
infant, to fear a neutral stimulus—a soft white rat—by
presenting it several times with a sharp, loud sound, which
naturally scared the baby. Little Albert, who at first had reached
out eagerly to touch the furry rat, began to cry and turn his head
away at the sight of it (Watson & Raynor, 1920). In fact,
53. Albert’s fear was so intense that researchers eventually
challenged the ethics of studies like this one. Consistent with
Locke’s tabula rasa, Watson concluded that environment is the
supreme force in development and that adults can mold
children’s behavior by carefully controlling stimulus–response
associations. He viewed development as continuous—a gradual
increase with age in the number and strength of these
associations.
Another form of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner’s (1904–1990)
operant conditioning theory. Skinner showed that the frequency
of a behavior can be increased by following it with a wide
variety of reinforcers, such as food, praise, or a friendly smile,
or decreased through punishment, such as disapproval or
withdrawal of privileges. As a result of Skinner’s work, operant
conditioning became a broadly applied learning principle. We
will consider these basic learning capacities further in Chapter
5.
Social Learning Theory
Psychologists wondered whether behaviorism might offer a
more direct and effective explanation of the development of
children’s social behavior than the less precise concepts of
psychoanalytic theory. This sparked approaches that built on the
principles of conditioning, offering expanded views of how
children and adults acquire new responses.
Several kinds of social learning theory emerged. The most
influential, devised by Albert Bandura (1925–), emphasizes
modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as
a powerful source of development. The baby who claps her
hands after her mother does so, the child who angrily hits a
playmate in the same way that he has been punished at home,
and the teenager who wears the same clothes and hairstyle as
her friends are all displaying observational learning. In his early
research, Bandura found that diverse factors influence
54. children’s motivation to imitate: their own history of
reinforcement or punishment for the behavior, the promise of
future reinforcement or punishment, and even observations of
the model being reinforced or punished.
Bandura’s work continues to influence much research on
children’s social development. But today, his theory stresses the
importance of cognition, or thinking. Bandura has shown that
children’s ability to listen, remember, and abstract general rules
from complex sets of observed behaviors affects their imitation
and learning. In fact, the most recent revision of Bandura’s
(1992, 2001) theory places such strong emphasis on how
children think about themselves and other people that he calls it
a social-cognitive rather than a social learning approach.
In Bandura’s revised view, children gradually become more
selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in
self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth
of their own actions, children develop personal standards for
behavior and a sense of self-efficacy—the belief that their own
abilities and characteristics will help them succeed. These
cognitions guide responses in particular situations (Bandura,
2011, 2016). For example, imagine a parent who often remarks,
“I’m glad I kept working on that task, even though it was hard,”
and who encourages persistence by saying, “I know you can do
a good job on that homework!” Soon the child starts to view
herself as hardworking and high-achieving and selects people
with these characteristics as models. In this way, as children
acquire attitudes, values, and convictions about themselves,
they control their own learning and behavior.
Contributions and Limitations of Behaviorism and Social
Learning Theory
Behaviorism and social learning theory have had a major impact
on practices with children. Applied behavior analysis consists
of observations of relationships between behavior and
55. environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those
events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling. The
goal is to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable
responses. It has been used to relieve a wide range of
difficulties in children and adults, ranging from poor time
management and unwanted habits to serious problems such as
language delays, persistent aggression, and extreme fears
(Heron, Hewar, & Cooper, 2013).
Nevertheless, behaviorism and social learning theory offer too
narrow a view of important environmental influences. These
extend beyond immediate reinforcement, punishment, and
modeled behaviors to children’s rich physical and social worlds.
Behaviorism and social learning theory have also been
criticized for underestimating children’s contributions to their
own development. Bandura, with his emphasis on cognition, is
unique among theorists whose work grew out of the behaviorist
tradition in granting children an active role in their own
learning.
1.4.3 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
No single individual has had more influence on the
contemporary field of child development than Swiss cognitive
theorist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). North American investigators
had been aware of Piaget’s work since 1930. But they did not
grant it much attention until the 1960s, mainly because Piaget’s
ideas were at odds with behaviorism, which dominated North
American psychology in the mid-twentieth century (Watrin &
Darwich, 2012). Piaget did not believe that children’s learning
depends on reinforcers, such as rewards from adults. According
to his cognitive-developmental theory, children actively
construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their
world.
Piaget’s Stages
Piaget’s view of development was greatly influenced by his
56. early training in biology. Central to his theory is the biological
concept of adaptation (Piaget, 1971). Just as structures of the
body are adapted to fit with the environment, so structures of
the mind develop to better fit with, or represent, the external
world. In infancy and early childhood, Piaget claimed,
children’s understanding is different from adults’. For example,
he believed that young babies do not realize that an object
hidden from view—a favorite toy or even the parent—continues
to exist. He also concluded that preschoolers’ thinking is full of
faulty logic. For example, children younger than age 7
commonly say that the amount of a liquid changes when it is
poured into a different-shaped container. According to Piaget,
children eventually revise these incorrect ideas in their ongoing
efforts to achieve an equilibrium, or balance, between internal
structures and information they encounter in their everyday
worlds.
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, infants learn by acting on the
world. As this 1-year-old bangs a wooden spoon on a coffee
can, he discovers that his movements have predictable effects
on objects, and that objects influence one another in regular
ways.
In Piaget’s preoperational stage, preschoolers represent their
earlier sensorimotor discoveries with symbols, and language and
make- believe play develop rapidly. These Cambodian children
pretend to purchase items at a store.
Table 1.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE
PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT
DESCRIPTION
57. Sensorimotor
Birth–2 years
Infants “think” by acting on the world with their eyes, ears,
hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving
sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound
of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into
and taking them out of containers.
Jean Piaget
Preoperational
2–7 years
Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier
sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-
believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of
the two remaining stages.
Concrete operational
7–11 years
Children’s reasoning becomes logical and better organized.
School-age children understand that a certain amount of
lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its
appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies
of classes and subclasses. However, children think in a logical,
organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information
they can perceive directly.
Formal operational
59. as an attractive object that could be grasped, mouthed, kicked,
or searched for. From their responses, Piaget derived his ideas
about cognitive changes during the first two years. To study
childhood and adolescent thought, Piaget adapted the clinical
method of psychoanalysis, conducting open-ended clinical
interviews in which a child’s initial response to a task served as
the basis for Piaget’s next question.
Contributions and Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget convinced the field that children are active learners
whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge. Besides
investigating children’s understanding of the physical world,
Piaget explored their reasoning about the social world. His
stages have sparked a wealth of research on children’s
conceptions of themselves, other people, and social
relationships. In practical terms, Piaget’s theory encouraged the
development of educational philosophies and programs that
emphasize children’s discovery learning and direct contact with
the environment.
Despite Piaget’s overwhelming contributions, his theory has
been challenged. Research indicates that Piaget underestimated
the competencies of infants and preschoolers. When young
children are given tasks scaled down in difficulty and relevant
to their everyday experiences, their understanding appears
closer to that of the older child and adult than Piaget assumed.
Also, adolescents generally reach their full intellectual potential
only in areas of endeavor in which they have had extensive
education and experience. These findings have led many
researchers to conclude that cognitive maturity depends heavily
on the complexity of knowledge sampled and the individual’s
familiarity with the task (Miller, 2016).
Furthermore, children’s performance on Piagetian problems can
be improved with training—findings that call into question
Piaget’s assumption that discovery learning rather than adult
60. teaching is the best way to foster development (Klahr, Matlin,
& Jirout, 2013). Critics also point out that Piaget’s stagewise
account pays insufficient attention to social and cultural
influences—and the resulting wide variation in thinking among
children and adolescents of the same age.
Today, the field of child development is divided over its loyalty
to Piaget’s ideas. Those who continue to find merit in Piaget’s
stages often accept a modified view—one in which changes in
children’s thinking take place more gradually than Piaget
believed (Case, 1998; Halford & Andrews, 2011; Mascolo &
Fischer, 2015). Among those who disagree with Piaget’s stage
sequence, some have embraced an approach that emphasizes
continuous gains in children’s cognition: information
processing. And still others have been drawn to theories that
highlight the role of children’s social and cultural contexts
(Lourenço, 2016). We take up these approaches in the next
section.
Ask Yourself
Connect ■ What aspect of behaviorism made it attractive to
critics of psychoanalytic theory? How did Piaget’s theory
respond to a major limitation of behaviorism?
Apply ■ A 4-year-old becomes frightened of the dark and
refuses to go to sleep at night. How would a psychoanalyst and
a behaviorist differ in their views of how this problem
developed?
Reflect ■ Illustrate Bandura’s ideas by describing a personal
experience in which you observed and received feedback from
another person that strengthened your self-efficacy. How did
that person’s message influence your self-perceptions and
choice of models?
1.5 RECENT THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
1.5 Describe recent theoretical perspectives on child
development.
61. New ways of understanding the child are constantly emerging—
questioning, building on, and enhancing the discoveries of
earlier theories. Today, a burst of fresh approaches and research
emphases is broadening our understanding of children’s
development.
1.5.1 Information Processing
In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers turned to the field of
cognitive psychology for ways to understand the development of
children’s thinking. The design of digital computers that use
mathematically specified steps to solve problems suggested to
psychologists that the human mind might also be viewed as a
symbol-manipulating system through which information flows—
a perspective called information processing. From the time
information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges
as a behavioral response at output, information is actively
coded, transformed, and organized.
Information-processing researchers often design flowcharts to
map the precise steps individuals use to solve problems and
complete tasks, much like the plans devised by programmers to
get computers to perform a series of “mental operations.” They
seek to clarify how both task characteristics and cognitive
limitations—for example, memory capacity or available
knowledge—influence performance (Birney & Sternberg, 2011).
To see the usefulness of this approach, let’s look at an example.
In a study of problem solving, a researcher gave school-age
children a pile of blocks varying in size, shape, and weight and
asked them to build a bridge across a “river” (painted on a floor
mat) that was too wide for any single block to span (Thornton,
1999). Whereas older children easily built successful bridges,
only one 5-year-old did. Careful tracking of her efforts revealed
that she repeatedly tried unsuccessful strategies, such as
pushing two planks together and pressing down on their ends to
hold them in place. But eventually, her experimentation
62. triggered the idea of using the blocks as counterweights, as
shown in Figure 1.3. Her mistaken procedures helped her
understand why the counterweight approach worked. Although
this child had no prior understanding of counterweight and
balance, she arrived at just as effective a solution as older
children, who started with considerable task-relevant
knowledge. Her own actions within the task triggered new
insights that facilitated problem solving.
Figure 1.3 Information-processing flowchart showing the steps
that a 5-year-old used to solve a bridge-building problem. Her
task was to use blocks varying in size, shape, and weight, some
of which were planklike, to construct a bridge across a “river”
(painted on a floor mat) too wide for any single block to span.
The child discovered how to counterweight and balance the
bridge. The arrows reveal that even after building a successful
counterweight, she returned to earlier, unsuccessful strategies,
which seemed to help her understand why the counterweight
approach worked. (Based on Thornton, 1999.)
Many information-processing models exist. Some, like the one
just considered, track children’s mastery of one or a few tasks.
Others describe the human cognitive system as a whole (Gopnik
& Tenenbaum, 2007; Ristic & Enns, 2015; Westermann et al.,
2006). These general models are used as guides for asking
questions about broad age changes in children’s thinking: Does
a child’s ability to solve problems become more organized and
“planful” with age? What strategies do younger and older
children use to remember new information, and how do those
strategies affect children’s recall?
The information-processing approach has also been used to
clarify the processing of social information. For example,
flowcharts exist that track the steps children use to solve social
problems (such as how to enter an ongoing play group) and
acquire gender-linked preferences and behaviors (Liben &
63. Bigler, 2002; Rubin, Begle, & McDonald, 2012). If we can
identify how social problem solving and gender stereotyping
arise in childhood, then we can design interventions that
promote more favorable social development.
Like Piaget’s theory, the information-processing approach
regards children as active, sense-making beings who modify
their own thinking in response to environmental demands
(Halford & Andrews, 2011). But unlike Piaget’s theory, it does
not divide development into stages. Rather, most information-
processing researchers regard the thought processes studied—
perception, attention, memory, categorization of information,
planning, problem solving, and comprehension of written and
spoken prose—as similar at all ages but present to a lesser or
greater extent. The view of development is one of continuous
change.
A great strength of the information-processing approach is its
commitment to rigorous research methods. Because it has
provided precise accounts of how children and adults tackle
many cognitive tasks, its findings have important implications
for education. Currently, researchers are intensely interested in
the development of an array of “executive” processes that
enable children and adults to manage their thoughts, emotions,
and actions. These capacities—variously labeled executive
function, self-control, self-regulation, delay of gratification,
and more—are essential for attaining our goals in challenging
situations (Carlson, Zelazo, & Faja, 2013; Chevalier, 2015;
Müller & Kerns, 2015). Executive processes are consistent
predictors of both academic achievement and socially competent
behavior.
Nevertheless, information processing has fallen short in some
respects. It has been better at analyzing thinking into its
components than at putting them back together into a
comprehensive theory. And it has had little to say about aspects
64. of children’s cognition that are not linear and logical, such as
imagination and creativity (Birney & Sternberg, 2011).
1.5.2 Developmental Neuroscience
Over the past three decades, as information-processing research
expanded, an area of investigation arose called developmental
cognitive neuroscience. It brings together researchers from
psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the
relationship between changes in the brain and the developing
child’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns.
Improved methods for analyzing brain activity while children
perform various tasks have greatly enhanced knowledge of
relationships between brain functioning and behavior (de Haan,
2015). Armed with these brain electrical-recording and imaging
techniques (which we will consider in Chapter 5),
neuroscientists are tackling questions like these: How does
genetic makeup combine with specific experiences at various
ages to influence the growth and organization of the child’s
brain? How do changes in brain structures support rapid
memory development in infancy and toddlerhood? What
transformations in brain systems make it harder for adolescents
and adults than for children to acquire a second language?
A complementary new area, developmental social neuroscience,
is devoted to studying the relationship between changes in the
brain and emotional and social development. When researchers
started to tap convenient measures that are sensitive to
psychological state, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
hormone levels detected in saliva, an explosion of social-
neuroscience investigations followed.
Active areas of study include identification of the neural
systems underlying infant gains in perception of facial
expressions, adolescent risk-taking behavior, and individual
differences in sociability, anxiety, aggression, and depression.
65. One particularly energetic focus is the negative impact of
extreme adversity, such as early rearing in deprived orphanages
or child abuse and neglect, on brain development and cognitive,
emotional, and social skills (Anderson & Beauchamp, 2013;
Gunnar, Doom, & Esposito, 2015). Another burgeoning interest
is uncovering the neurological bases of autism—the disrupted
brain structures and networks that lead to the impaired social
skills, language delays, and repetitive motor behavior associated
with this disorder (Stoner et al., 2014). As these efforts
illustrate, researchers are forging links between cognitive and
social neuroscience, identifying brain systems that affect both
domains of development.
Rapid progress in clarifying the types of experiences that
support or undermine brain development at diverse ages is
contributing to effective interventions for enhancing cognitive
and social functioning. Today, researchers are examining the
impact of various treatment techniques on both brain
functioning and behavior (Johnson & de Haan, 2015; Lustig &
Lin, 2016). Although much remains to be discovered,
developmental neuroscience is broadening our understanding of
development and yielding major practical applications.
Neuroscience research has so captivated the field that it poses
the risk that brain properties underlying children’s behavior will
be granted undue importance over powerful environmental
influences, such as parenting, education, and economic
inequalities in families and communities. Although most
neuroscientists are mindful of the complex interplay between
heredity, individual experiences, and brain development, their
findings have too often resulted in excessive emphasis being
placed on biological processes (Kagan, 2013b). Consequently,
psychological outcomes in children have sometimes been
wrongly attributed mostly or entirely to genetic and brain-based
causes.
66. Fortunately, an advantage of having many theories is that they
encourage researchers to attend to previously neglected
dimensions of children’s lives. The final four perspectives we
will discuss focus on contexts for development. The first of
these views emphasizes that the environments to which humans
have been exposed over their long evolutionary history
influence the development of many capacities.
A therapist works with a 6-year-old who has autism to improve
impaired social skills associated with this disorder.
Developmental social neuroscientists are intensely interested in
identifying the neurological bases of autism and using those
findings to devise effective interventions.
Amelie-Benoist/BSIP/Alamy Stock Photo
1.5.3 Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of
behavior and its evolutionary history. Its roots can be traced to
the work of Darwin. Two European zoologists, Konrad Lorenz
and Niko Tinbergen, laid its modern foundations. Watching
diverse animal species in their natural habitats, Lorenz and
Tinbergen observed behavior patterns that promote survival.
The best known of these is imprinting, the early following
behavior of certain baby birds, such as geese, which ensures
that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and
protected from danger (Lorenz, 1952). Imprinting takes place
during an early, restricted period of development. If the mother
goose is absent during this time but an object resembling her in
important features is present, young goslings may imprint on it
instead.
Observations of imprinting led to a major concept in child
development: the critical period. It is a limited time span during
which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain
adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately