MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST

AMBER IN MYANMAR COLLECTION
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukawng_Valley
The Hukawng Valley (Burmese: ဟူးက ောင့်ူးခ ျိုင့်ဝှမ့်ူး; also spelt Hukaung Valley)
is an isolated valley in Burma, roughly 5,586 square miles (14,468 km2
) in area. It
is located in Tanaing Township in the Myitkyina District of Kachin State in the
northernmost part of the country.
Discoveries
In 2006, a fossil of the earliest known species of bee was discovered
in amber taken from a mine in the Hukawng Valley.
In 2014, Researchers from Oregon State University have discovered a preserved
example of sexual reproduction in flowering plants in a 100-million-year-old
amber fossil. The scene is thought to be the oldest evidence of sexual
reproduction ever found in a flowering plant. Named Micropetasos burmensis,
the plant is made of bunches of very tiny flowers around a millimetre wide. The
discovery was made from amber mines in the Hukawng Valley.
http://www.newseveryday.com/articles/59229/20161210/tail-feathered-dinosaur-
discovered-amber-myanmar.htm
A tail of a 99-million-year-old dinosaur has been found in amber, weighing 6.5
grams, still together with some parts of its bones, soft tissues and feathers
from a mine in Myanmar. The research was funded in part by the National
Geographic Society's Expeditions Councils and spearheaded by paleontologist
Lida Xing of the China University of Geosciences.
The sample which had already been shaped into oval was concluded to have
belonged from a young coelurosaur based on the composition of its tail, a
member of theropod dinosaurs that ranges from tyrannosaurs to modern
birds.
Reports from National Geographic, paleontologist, Lida Xing even stated that
with the breakthrough of the well-preserved dinosaur feathers in the amber,

"May we can find a complete dinosaur." This is some good news and
discovery to science history since it would clearly give fitter answers and
understanding regarding the anatomy and evolution of the dinosaur feathers.
Moreover, according to CNN, Ryan McKellar, also a paleontologist at the Royal
Saskatchwan Museum in Canada, was amazed at the recent discovery when
he saw the piece of the amber and said that, "It's a once in a lifetime find.
The finest details are visible and in three dimensions."
McKellar also added this was the first time that the scientists have found
dinosaur-era bird wings as part of a mummified dinosaur skeleton. In addition
to all the fossil evidence that have been collected over the past years, finding
this piece of history will definitely aid uncertainties related to Mesozoic era.
AMBER POLISHING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V9uWxb
KciTA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hlfGbNw
PvQo
http://www.ambericawest.com/burmite.html
BURMITE - Burmese amber
Burmite was unavailable for many years due to the political situation in
Burma (Myanmar) where it is found. It is now being mined again, by a
Canadian company which mines it under license. It is still extracted in the
Hukawng Valley in northern Kachin State, but whereas it used to be mined by
digging deep shafts in the valley floor, it is now extracted from the
surrounding hills. Here only about 1 ½ meters of overburden need to be
removed before the amber is revealed.

Once thought to be about the same age as Mexican amber, it was recently
realized that burmite is much older, at least 100 million years old, which
means that it is Cretaceous. Other ambers that are used for jewelry or carvings
are much younger, from the Tertiary period.
Although large pieces have occasionally been found, burmite usually occurs in
small pieces. Most of it varies in color from sherry to burnt orange, but a small
amount is the glorious clear cherry red for which it is famed, and which was so
popular with the Chinese for carving. Burmite is very clear, but most of the
material displays swirls of color, which, under magnification, prove to be
made up of minute dots of color. Much of the material is fractured, and some
of the fractures are filled with calcite.
Burmite is also unusual in that it can appear to change color according to the
direction of light transmitted through it. A piece containing dark and light
areas may look pale from one angle, whilst if lit from another angle, seems to
be cherry red. This effect is probably caused by the light reflecting off the
particles of color in the darker areas. Apart from its wonderful colors, burmite
has a great variety of insect inclusions.
Possibly because of its age, burmite is harder than other ambers, and it takes a
very high polish. I believe that it fluoresces in sunlight, but, because of the
present weather conditions in London, I have not been able to test this since
taking delivery of a packet of the material. Polished surfaces do appear to
fluoresce slightly even on rainy days. However, under a UV lamp, broken or
polished surfaces display a strong fluorescence in an almost mid-blue color -
much darker than, for example, Baltic amber.
Maggie Campbell Pedersen
February 2003
http://burmeseamber.com/
The Secrets of Burmite Amber - George Poynar Jr, Ron Buckley and
Alex E. Brown

History of Burmite - Jim Davis, Leeward Capital Corp
Burmite or Burmese amber has been known since the distance past. This
amber is from the Hukawng Valley in Kachin State the northenmost state in
the union of Myanmar formally known as Burma . According to ancient
Chinese sources amber from the Hukawng Valley was mined as early as the
first century AD and shipped to Yannan Province in China.
From there, burmite may have found its way along the Silk Road as far west
as the Roman Empire , where amber was highly prized. It is said that that a
good piece of amber was worth the price of a slave. The oldest written
record referring to Burmese amber was in the Annals of the Han Dynasty
(205-265 AD). Thus, burmite has been known for about two thousand
years. Much of the exquisitely carved Chinese amber has its origin in the
Hukwang Valley . Amber was also used and is still used in Chinese
medicine.
The first mention of burmite in the western world by a European was by a
Portuguese Jesuit Missionary Father Alvarez Semedo in 1655. He noted that
red amber from Yunnan Province in China . In 1738, there is another brief
reference to red amber from Yunnan Province by Du Halde.
In the 19th Century, there were a series of reports about the location and
mining of Burmese amber By Brester (1835) and Pemberton (1837).
Captain S. F. Hannan was the first westerner to visit the amber mines in the
Hukong (Hukawng) Valley. He described the primitive mining method
utilized by the miners to recover amber consisting of digging shallow pits
with sharpened bamboo and wooden shovels. Description of the amber
mines was given by Griffith in 1848 from the Ã¢â‚¬Å“HookhoomÃ¢â‚¬Â•
Valley. Some pits, he observed were up to forth feet deep.
In 1885, the British invaded and conquered Upper Burma deposing and sent
into exile the Burmese Royal Family to India . Burma became an annex of
India . With the arrival of the British the main trading route in amber went
south to Mandalay rather than to China . The Geological Survey of India
sent Dr. Fritz Noetling to evaluate the resources of northern Burma in 1892.
Amber recovered from the Hukwang Valley was examined by Otto Helm
who gave the name burmite to the amber from that area. Noetling also
noted the presence of insects in amber thought to be from the area
in 1893.
In the first half of the twentieth century, scientific study and production

continues until 1939. With the advent of the Second World War, both the
production and study languished until the 1990Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s. This was due not
only to the war but also internal turmoil within Burma following its
independence from Britain in 1947.
Cockerell (1917) published the first scientific paper on insect inclusions in
burmite. He considered burmite to be possibly Upper Cretaceous in age. The
Indian Geological Survey published yearly production figures from the
Myitkyina District from 1898 until 1940. During this period a total of
approximately 82,656 kilograms of amber were produced from
the Hukawng Valley . Scientific papers during this period include work by
Stuart (1922), Cocherell (1922), Williamson (1932), and Chibber (1934).
These authors concluded that the age of burmite was Eocene or about the
same age as Baltic amber. This interpretation was based on a single
observation of limestone debris dug from one of the amber pits. Chibber
(1934) contains the most detailed report of the amber mines in the
Hukawng Valley during this period.
During the Second World War there was much fighting in the Hukwang
Valley between the advancing allies and the Japanese Army culminating in
the fierce battle for Myitkyina the capital of Kachin State in 1944. The war
also saw the construction of the Ledo Road through the Hukwang Valley
from Ledo in India to Mytiknina to Lashio where it connected up with the
Burma Road to China . This road provided a back door to supply China with
desperately needed war material.
Since independence, Burma has been racked by internal insurgencies
including fighting between the Kachin
Independence Army (KIA) and the government. It was not until the
1990Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s that a peace treaty was signed and limited access to the
amber mine was possible. In 1989, the county was renamed Myanmar ,
which was the original Burmese name of the country.
Since the beginning of the Second World War until recently there was been
a sixty year hiatus in production. Dr. David Grimaldi comments in his book
on amber published in 1996, Ã¢â‚¬Å“Today, burmite has almost legendary
appeal, in part because the deposits are no longer mined and the supply is
generally not available.Ã¢â‚¬Â•
Leeward Capital Corp., a Canadian Mining company began exploration in
1996 in northern Kachin State for gold and platinum. With the collapse of
the junior mining market due to the Bre-X Scandal in Indonesia and the
drop in the gold price, this exploration ceased due to the lack of funding. In
1999, Leeward began to evaluate the possibility of reopening the amber

mines in the Hukwang Valley. Limited production was achieved in 2000, and
is currently about 500 kg per year.
The initial 100 kg gathered in the first two years was sent to Dr. Grimaldi at
the American Museum of Natural History in New York for scientific study. In
2000, Zherikjin and Ross of the Natural History Museum , London published
a scientific paper on burmite in which they determined a Cretaceous age for
burmite. Grimaldi et al (2002) published a scientific paper confirming the
age of burmite as Cretaceous.
Also in 2002, Cruichshank and U Ko Ko published a description of the amber
mines in the Hukwang Valley giving the amber a an Albian or uppermost
Lower Cretaceous age. This dates burmite as at between 100,000,000 and
110,000,000 years old. Burmite is thus the oldest locality from which
commercial deposits of amber can be mined. Leeward remains the sole
exporter of this rare and precious amber.
Since scientific study of burmite began, there have been numerous scientific
papers on the unique biota found in burmite. This book illustrates the
diversity of animal and plant life preserved in this ancient amber.
Myanmar (formerly called Burma): burmite, has been used by Chinese
craftsmen as early as the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.) and rarely
reaches any market outside of China. Burmite contains 2% succinic acid, less
than Baltic amber, but still considered a succinite. See The London Natural
History Museum's Geology Bulletin (page down), Volume 56(1), June 2000,
for an issue devoted to articles on Burmeses amber, such as A Review of the
History, Geology and Age of Burmese Amber (Burmite) by Zherikhin and
Ross, among other interesting articles. Also,
visit http://home.fuse.net/paleopark/amber3.htm, Burmite, Burmese
Cretaceous Amber, by Ron Buckley.
https://www.facebook.com/MYOAUNGBANGKOK/posts/1074433019321856?pnref=stor
y
http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38224564
'Beautiful' dinosaur tail found preserved in amber
The tail of a feathered dinosaur has been found perfectly preserved in amber from Myanmar-The
feathered tail was preserved in amber from north-eastern Myanmar

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-12-09/99-million-year-old-amber-fossil-holds-
dinosaur-bones-feathers/8092526
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmberGiant piece of Amber found recently in northern Burma-
Giant piece of Amber found recently in northern
Burma

Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng Valley, Northern Myanmar
R.D. Cruickshanka,*, Ko Kob
a
Leeward Tiger Limited, #34, 101 Street, MTNT, Yangon, Burma
b
8(A) Mya Thiri Lane, A1 Compound, 8 1/2 Mile, Pyay Road, Yangon, Burma
Received 16 November 2001; revised 19 April 2002; accepted 23 April 2002
Abstract
Amber (‘Burmite’) from the Hukawng Valley of Myanmar has been known since at least the 1st century AD. It is currently being produced
from a hill known as Noije Bum, which was first documented as a source of amber in 1836.
Several geologists visited the locality between 1892 and 1930. All of them believed that the host rocks to the amber are Tertiary (most said
Eocene) in age, and this conclusion has been widely quoted in the literature. However, recent work indicates a Cretaceous age. Insect
inclusions in amber are considered to be Turonian–Cenomanian, and a specimen of the ammonite Mortoniceras (of Middle-Upper Albian
age) was discovered during the authors’ visit. Palynomorphs in samples collected by the authors suggest that the amber-bearing horizon is
Upper Albian to Lower Cenomanian. The preponderance of the evidence suggests that both rocks and amber are most probably Upper
Albian. This determination is significant for the study of insect evolution, indicating that the oldest known definitive ants have been identified
in this amber [American Museum Novitates 3361 (2002) 72].
This site occurs within the Hukawng Basin, which is comprised of folded sedimentary (^volcanic) rocks of Cretaceous and Cenozoic age.
The mine exposes a variety of clastic sedimentary rocks, with thin limestone beds, and abundant carbonaceous material. The sediments were
deposited in a nearshore marine environment, such as a bay or estuary.
Amber is found in a fine clastic facies, principally as disk shaped clasts, oriented parallel to bedding. A minority occurs as runnels
(stalactite shaped), with concentric layering caused by recurring flows of resin.
An Upper Albian age is similar to that of Orbitolina limestones known from a number of locations in northern Myanmar. One of these, at
Nam Sakhaw, 90 km SW of Noije Bum, has also been a source of amber.
q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Hukawng valley; Southwest of Maingkwan; Lalawng village
1. Introduction
Amber (Burmite) from the Hukawng Valley of
northern Myanmar appears in most inventories of world
amber deposits, but there are few firsthand descriptions
of the production locality. There has been a recent
resurgence of interest, with papers by Tin (1999),
Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Levinson (2001) and
Grimaldi et al. (2002). However, none of these authors
visited the site in person, and the most recent account of
a field visit is by Chhibber (1934). Zherikhin and Ross
(2000) note an important geological problem, in that
earlier field geologists ascribed an Eocene age to the host
sediments, while insect inclusions in amber appear to be
Cretaceous.
The authors of this work spent two days (April 29 and
30, 2001) inspecting the current mining area. The
objectives were to verify the source of the amber, and
to obtain information on the geology and age of the host
rocks.
The Hukawng Valley is situated in Kachin State,
northern Myanmar (Fig. 1). The principal town is Tanai,
situated on the ‘Ledo Road’ (constructed during World War
II). The valley is a flat alluvial plain measuring about 80 km
north–south by 50 km east–west, surrounded on all sides
by hills. The amber mine occurs on the shoulder of a hill
known as Noije Bum (‘Banyan Mountain’ in the Jingpaw
language), about 20 km southwest of Tanai (Fig. 2). This is
the first hill to rise above the plain in that direction, having a
relief of about 250 m.
1367-9120/03/$ - see front matter q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
PII: S1367-9120(02)00044-5
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 21 (2003) 441–455
www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes
* Corresponding author. Address: c/o J.W. Davis, Leeward Capital
Corporation, #4, 1922-9 Ave. SE, Calgary, Alta., Canada T2G 0V2. Tel.:
þ1-95-1-200109; fax: þ1-95-1-252478.
E-mail address: president@leewardcapital.com (R.D. Cruickshank),
sofitelplaza.ygn@mptmail.net.mm (R.D. Cruickshank).

2. History of amber mining in the Hukawng Valley
2.1. History prior to 1995
A detailed history is beyond the scope of this paper, and
the reader is referred to Zherikhin and Ross (2000) for an
excellent account. The following summary is taken partly
from their work. For studies of the fossil inclusions in this
amber, prior to 2000, see Ross and York (2000).
Ancient Chinese sources indicate that the Hukawng
Valley of northern Myanmar has been a source of amber
since at least the 1st century AD (Laufer, 1906, summarised
by Fraquet (1987)). The first European to visit the amber
localities in the Hukawng Valley was Capt. Hannay in 1836,
who returned accompanied by Griffith, in 1837. Griffith
described the location as a range of low hills, southwest of
Meinkhoon (probably Maingkwan, Fig. 2). The site they
describe is most probably the hill now known as Noije Bum.
Dr Noetling of the Geological Survey of India was the
first geologist to visit the area (in 1891–1892, Noetling,
1893). Some of his samples were examined by Otto Helm,
who considered the amber to be a new mineral species,
which he named ‘Burmite’. Noetling considered the host
rocks to be Miocene in age, because of lithological
Fig. 1. Location of the Hukawng valley. The traditional physiographic/geologic divisions of Myanmar, and the Sagaing transcurrent fault with its splays, are
also shown (see text for descriptions).
R.D. Cruickshank, K. Ko / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 21 (2003) 441–455442

similarities with known Miocene formations (during this
excursion he found a loose pebble containing an ammonite,
but perhaps elsewhere in the Hukawng Valley). He
described the amber location as a low hill range, southwest
of Maingkwan (and therefore likely in the vicinity of the
current mine). He was told that the principal mining area
was at the south end of the range near Lalawng village (Fig.
2), but he did not go there.
Stuart (1923) was the first to propose an Eocene age for
the amber-bearing sediments. On the eastern flank of the
Noije Bum hill range, he observed pits dug for flint in a thin
limestone layer. In the spoil piles he found a single piece of
limestone containing ‘numerous specimens of Nummulites
biarritzensis’, which he recognised as being Eocene in age.
His map and description show that amber was not known
from that location, but rather from blue clay ‘on the western
portion of the hills’. He concluded that the amber-bearing
horizon underlies the Nummulites beds, but nonetheless
forms part of an Eocene succession.
The best known description of the Hukawng Valley
amber mines is that of Chhibber (1934), based on an
inspection he made in 1930. He listed twelve production
sites, ten of which were near the northern end of Noije
Bum, with two others about 8 km to the west. Khanjamaw
(Fig. 2), the principal mining site at that time, is now
overgrown with jungle. The Noijemaw site was ‘west of
Noije Bum’ and may be near the current mine. He
reported that amber was produced from wells about one
metre square, and up to 15 m deep, noting that amber from
shallower levels was of inferior quality. These diggings
and nearby stream sections exposed a sequence of
carbonaceous sandstones and shales, with minor limestone
and conglomerate beds. Amber was associated with very
thin coal seams. Chhibber (1934) found Nummulites
fossils in situ in a stream exposure (perhaps on the east
flank of Noije Bum?), so concurred with the Eocene age
proposed by Stuart (1923). However he apparently did not
observe amber at that location.
Fig. 2. Localities in the Hukawng Valley. Comparison with old reports indicates that the Noije Bum hill range has been the source of Hukawng Valley amber
for at least the past 165 years (see text for discussion).
R.D. Cruickshank, K. Ko / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 21 (2003) 441–455 443

Sahni and Sastri (1957) describe Orbitolina they found in
samples collected by Stuart, from ‘Amber mines 268150
N,
968250
E’ (after Stuart (1923)). Examination of Stuart (1923)
shows that the longitude is an error resulting from the
inaccuracy of his map, and the rocks must have been
collected from somewhere on the Noije Bum range. Sahni
and Sastri (1957) concluded that these orbitolines were a
previously undescribed species, which they named Orbito-
lina hukawngensis, and assigned ‘a Cenomanian, and, in any
case not older than Aptian’ age. They credit Eames as being
the first to describe Orbitolina from the area, but he believed
that they were contained in derived clasts within Eocene
sediments. In contrast, Sahni and Sastri (1957) concluded
that a Cretaceous sequence with orbitolines occurs below
the Tertiary rocks of the Hukawng Valley. Despite this,
subsequent authors continued to accept the Eocene age of
Chhibber (1934), and to overlook the possibility that the
rocks may be Cretaceous.
Zherikhin and Ross (2000) summarise studies of
Myanmar amber from the collection of the British Natural
History Museum. They note the identification of ‘five insect
families or subfamilies that are not known later than
Cretaceous elsewhere’, although they do not rule out the
possibility that the amber could be Tertiary. They suggest
that if the sediments are Eocene, then Cretaceous amber was
recycled and redeposited in them. As evidence, they note the
occurrence of rounded pits on the surface of some amber
pieces, which may have resulted from impacts during
transport.
The Geological Survey of India reported amber pro-
duction for the years 1898 through to 1940. Average annual
production was about 1900 kg, with a maximum of nearly
11,000 kg in 1906. Recorded production stopped about
1941. The thriving trade in amber, and the manufacturing of
jewellery have by now entirely disappeared, and the skills
have been lost. The village of Maingkwan, reported to be a
centre of the amber trade by Chhibber (1934), was
abandoned in 1967 when most of its population moved to
the new town of Tanai.
Another amber locality in northern Myanmar is of
interest. Ngaw (1964) reported that amber was produced
between 1948 and 1961, from a site near the Nam Sakhaw
stream, 90 km southwest of Noije Bum (Fig. 3). This
occurrence was also known in colonial times, as the notation
‘amber mines’ appears on the old 83-O topographic map.
The amber is hosted by Cretaceous carbonaceous lime-
stones, bearing Orbitolina; suggesting a similar age to Noije
Bum (refer to Section 5).
2.2. History since 1995
The authors feel obliged to correct errors in two recently
published works.
Tin (1999) describes the history, mining methods,
geology, and other factors relating to Hukawng Valley
amber. His descriptions are based largely on Chhibber
(1934), and are outdated. For example, he states that ‘from
the latter half of February, the local people who have then
gathered in their harvest, flock to the amber mines in great
numbers’; this line is from Chhibber (1934), and is no
longer correct. In reality, the mining company has been
granted exclusive rights to the area by the Ministry of
Mines, and no one else is working there. Tin (1999)
accepted an Eocene age for these deposits.
In their otherwise excellent review, Zherikhin and Ross
(2000), incorrectly state that access to this area is difficult as
it ‘remains controlled rather by the local clans and
insurrectionsts than by the central government in Rangoon’.
However, a peace agreement between the Myanmar
government and the Kachin Independence Organisation
(K.I.O.) came into effect in 1993. As a result, the national
government now controls the region, in cooperation with the
K.I.O.
Subsequent to the 1993 peace agreement, mining
operations were undertaken in the period 1995–1997.
This enterprise failed because the producers were unable
to locate reliable markets.
In August 1999, the authors met some of the former
miners, and purchased a small quantity of amber, which was
sent to Davis in Canada. He noted the occurrence of
microscopic insects within it, and forwarded the material to
Dr Grimaldi in New York. Another local company
recommenced mining in 2000, after which more amber
was obtained and sent to Dr Grimaldi. In these two batches
of amber, he and his co-workers have found hundreds of
insect inclusions, and propose that they are Turonian–
Cenomanian (Grimaldi et al., 2002).
Levinson (2001) briefly reports on the renewed com-
mercial availability of Myanmar amber.
3. Regional geology
3.1. Synopsis of the geology of Myanmar
Myanmar can be divided into four north–south trending
physiographic regions, which have traditionally been
utilised for geological description as well. However there
is no consensus on standard names for these belts. The
following summary (based on Bender (1983)) employs the
nomenclature shown on Fig. 1:
1. The Rakhine Coastal Plain is underlain by deformed Late
Tertiary molasse sediments overlying Eocene to mid
Miocene flyschoid rocks, with local mafic to intermedi-
ate dykes and plugs.
2. The Western Ranges consist principally of early Tertiary
flysch, deformed into imbricate thrust zones. The eastern
margin of the ranges is underlain by Triassic turbidities,
Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks, meta-
morphic rocks, and ultramafic rocks (dismembered
ophiolites).

3. The Central Province comprises a series of Cenozoic
sedimentary basins, and intervening uplift areas. Sedi-
mentary ﬁll of Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene–
Quaternary clastic rocks is underlain by Cretaceous,
and probably also older units. Basinal rocks are folded
and faulted. Uplift areas consist of older sediments and
crystalline rocks. The belt is bisected longitudinally by a
discontinuous line of Mesozoic and Cenozoic igneous
rocks (in part, the ‘Inner Volcanic Arc’).
4. The Eastern Province is underlain by sedimentary rocks
representing a broad interval of geological time, from
at least latest Proterozoic, through much of the
Phanerozoic. Metamorphic, volcanic, and intrusive
lithologies also appear, especially along the western
margin (the Mogok Belt).
Mitchell et al. (2000) consider that Myanmar consists of
three geological provinces: (1) ‘a Western Province of mica
schists and overlying predominantly oceanic rocks’ (the
Rakhine Coastal Plain, Western Ranges, and Central
Province); (2) the Mogok metamorphic belt, of marble,
gneiss, and granitoids (the western margin of the Eastern
Province); and (3) the Phanerozoic ‘Shan–Thai’ block to
the east (bulk of the Eastern Province) (Fig. 3). They
Fig. 3. Cretaceous geology of northern Myanmar. Other units and localities mentioned in the text are also shown. Based on Bender (1983), Mitchell (1993) and
ESCAP (1996), and other sources.

postulate two separate orogenies during the Mesozoic: (1)
collision of a western, continental, block with an island arc
to the east in early Jurassic; and (2) collision of the resulting
complex with the Shan–Thai continent in mid-Cretaceous.
After the mid-Cretaceous orogeny, eastward subduction
of oceanic crust continued (Mitchell et al., 2000). The
Cenozoic sedimentary sub-basins of the Central Province
were filled and deformed. The current geological setting of
Myanmar reflects right-lateral displacement on the Sagaing
Fault and its splays in northern Myanmar (Figs. 1 and 3).
Total displacement on the fault since early Miocene has been
estimated by various workers to be from more than 300 to
460 km, with a total northward movement on the west side
of perhaps 1100 km since late Cretaceous (Mitchell, 1993).
Myanmar currently consists of the Asia plate to the east
of the Sagaing Fault, and the Burma plate to the west. The
Indian plate is colliding with Asia to the north, and
subducting beneath the Burma plate to the east (Mitchell,
1993). Northward translation of the Burma plate is
continuing, as evidenced by recurrent seismicity on the
Sagaing Fault (Win, 1981).
3.2. Cretaceous geology of northern Myanmar
Sedimentary rocks that host the Hukawng Valley amber
are now considered to be Cretaceous (refer to Section 5).
Therefore the Cretaceous geology of northern Myanmar
will be briefly reviewed in more detail, and shown on Fig. 3.
In general, Cretaceous marine sedimentary rocks become
progressively younger from east to west, although overlaps
occur. A skirt of Lower Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
occurs along the western margin of the Eastern Province;
including the Tithonian to Aptian Pyinyaung Buda Beds of
Mitchell et al. (2000), and the Pan Laung Formation
(described as Necomian by Chit (2000); and mid Jurassic to
mid Cretaceous by Myint (2000)). Further west, Albian and/
or Cenomanian limestones, bearing several species of
Orbitolina, occur in the Central Province, and the eastern
part of the Western Ranges. Upper Cretaceous (Campanian
to Maastrichtian) units are present along the western
boundary of the Central Province, and widely in the eastern
part of the Western Ranges (e.g. Gramann, 1974).
Limestones carrying an Orbitolina fauna have been
reported from various locations in northern Myanmar. They
occur in a belt from south of Bhamo to north of Myitkyina,
in the vicinity of Banmauk, in the jade mines region, in the
upper Chindwin area, and in parts of the Western Ranges
(Fig. 3). Chit (2000) states that the rocks are Albian to
Cenomanian in age. According to Mitchell et al. (2000), the
limestones were deposited in front of nappes resulting from
an Aptian-mid Cretaceous orogeny.
Clegg (1941) described Orbitolina limestones from the
defiles of the Ayeyawady (north and west of Bhamo, Fig. 3).
He notes the occurrence of calcareous grits, sandstones, and
shales; and of limestones bearing both foraminifera and
large ‘molluscs’ (probably gastropods). The occurrence of a
northern continuation near the Ayeyawady confluence at
Myitson has been confirmed by the present authors. Chit
(2000) concludes that limestones from this belt (Taungbwet
Taung Formation) represent a shallow lagoonal facies, and
are Albian to Cenomanian in age. These units are associated
with chert, basalt, and slate, tightly folded, and appear to
overlie ophiolitic ultramafic rocks. Clegg (1941) considered
that ‘in every locality where Cretaceous sediments are
exposed, peridotites, or serpentines their alteration product,
are invariably found whilst dolerites and various pyroclastic
rocks also occur’.
Discussing similar Orbitolina-bearing limestones near
Banmauk (Fig. 3), Chit (2000) concludes that there was an
abrupt change from lagoonal to shallow marine facies in
Cenomanian time.
Occurrences of Cretaceous limestones also occur in the
jade mines region and near Mt. Loi Mye (45 km south of
Noije Bum, Fig. 3). The northernmost portion of the large
ultramafic ophiolite body of the jade mines area, and a body
of gabbro, occur there (Chhibber, 1934), and volcanic rocks
are also present.
The amber and Orbitolina-bearing limestones at Nam
Sakhaw lie on the western margin of this district, where
Clegg (1941) observed associated calcareous sandstone,
shale, and volcanic rocks. As at the Ayeyawady defiles, the
carbonate units there are conspicuous: he recalled that the
sheer cliff of Hpalamung Bum, 275 m high, ‘when seen
looming through the early morning mist from the low
ground to the south is a most impressive sight’.
Jadeite-bearing ultramafic rocks occur in western Kachin
State. A longer belt of ultramafites is exposed along the
Ayeyawady River to the east (Fig. 3), and they also
characterise the eastern margin of the Western Ranges.
These are usually interpreted as dismembered ophiolites,
although a complete ophiolite succession has not been
described. Mitchell et al. (2000) state that they were
emplaced as nappes during a lower Jurassic orogeny. Maung
(2000) believes that the jade mines bodies are Cretaceous,
while those in the Western Ranges are Triassic. In contrast,
Hla (2000) believes that Western Ranges ophiolites were
emplaced as late as the Cretaceous, while those in the
Central Province may be Cretaceous to Eocene. Therefore a
consensus on the age of these units has not been achieved.
The majority of the granitoid bodies indicated on Fig. 3
are described by Mitchell (1993) as being Late Cretaceous
to early Eocene. More recently, Barley et al. (2000) reported
ages of 120–80 Ma for I type granitoids in the Mogok Belt
and Western Myanmar. They recognise an up to 200 km
wide mid Cretaceous magmatic belt that extended along the
entire continental margin from Tibet to Sumatra.
The Cretaceous sedimentary rocks described above were
deposited prior to right-lateral displacements on the Sagaing
Fault and its splays. If restored to their original position,
they would form a narrower zone than at present, arrayed
along the former continental margin (western edge of the
Eastern Province). Maung (2000) concludes that the mid

Cretaceous sediments were laid down between a magmatic
arc to the east, and a trench basin to the west. Sahni and
Sastri (1957) note that a discontinuous belt of Orbitolina
limestones extends from Myanmar, across Tibet, to
Kashmir, northernmost Pakistan, and northern Iran.
3.3. Tectonic setting of the Hukawng Basin
Bender (1983) considers the Hukawng Basin to be one of
the constituent sub-basins of the Central Province (his
‘Inner Burman Tertiary Basin’). He postulates that low
grade metamorphic rocks exposed to the south may
represent basement, and states that aeromagnetic surveys
suggest 5000 m of overlying sediments.
Sedimentary (and lesser volcanic) rocks underlie hills
that surround the central alluvial plain of the Hukawng
Valley, with bedding trends and fold axes parallel to the
basin margins. The map of ESCAP (1996) shows the
Hukawng Valley with areas of Eocene rocks around
the west, north, and east sides, and Miocene rocks on its
southwest and southeast margins. However, the amber-
bearing sediments are Cretaceous, and not Eocene as
previously believed (this paper). In addition to the Noije
Bum area, Chhibber (1934) reported an amber locality on
the eastern margin of the valley, suggesting that a
Cretaceous sequence may occur there as well. The authors
believe that more of the ‘Tertiary’ units may in fact be
Cretaceous. These areas are indicated on Fig. 3.
The interpretation of Bender (1983), Fig. 22) indicates a
NNE-plunging anticline at Noije Bum. He states that
Cenomanian limestone occurs in the crest of this fold and
another to the west, but does not say how he arrived at this
conclusion. He interprets the remaining rocks, including
those that host the amber, to be of early Tertiary age. A large
package of folded rocks occurs to the northwest, west, and
south of the amber locality on his map.
Along the northern margin of the Hukawng Basin, and in
the Western Ranges beyond, fold axes and bedding trends
have turned to an east–west orientation. Studies of
landforms by Mitchell et al. (1978) and Bender (1983),
and the present authors, suggest that the northern boundary
of the basin may be a north vergent thrust fault exposed
along Gedu Hka (river). South of the river there is a
remarkable cuesta-shaped ridge, about 60 km long, with the
scarp face on the north side. The eastern end of this thrust
appears to be connected to a splay of the Sagaing Fault (Fig.
3). Stuart (1923) reported a Cretaceous–Eocene unconfor-
mity where his traverse passed Gedu Hka; he mentions no
fault but his observation of serpentinite bodies below the
contact suggests that one must be present.
Deformation of the HukawngBasin mostprobably resulted
from the continuing collision of India with Asia, and its
subduction beneath the Burma plate (initiated in latest Eocene
time). The Himalayan boundary is marked by southwest
vergent thrusts to the northeast of the valley (Fig. 3).
4. Noije bum amber mine
4.1. Mining operation
The site resembles a small open pit mine, with all
excavation by manual methods. A work force of about 60
men was present during the time of the visit. They had
stripped overburden from an area measuring about
120 £ 30 m2
(Figs. 4–6), and were producing amber from
the unweathered rocks thus exposed. The site straddles a
ridge, with the slope on the north side averaging about 138.
Deep shafts, as described by Chhibber (1934), are not
required, probably because on this steeper slope, the
weathered layer is thinner. The current mining method
produces good, easily accessible exposures, and the authors
have probably had a more extensive view of unweathered
bedrock than any of the earlier workers.
4.2. Lithology and sedimentology
A variety of clastic sedimentary rocks, with thin
limestone beds, and abundant coaly and carbonaceous
material, was recognised at the site. Chhibber (1934)
describes the rocks as being blue in colour, but in the
authors’ opinion they are more nearly medium green,
greyish green, or rarely blue–green. Weathered rocks are
mainly tan brown with some shales being reddish. They
have been subdivided into four or five units, as shown on
Fig. 4, and briefly described below:
The fine clastic facies consists of fine or very fine-grained
sandstone (grains usually 0.1 mm or less), with beds of finer
clastics (silt, shale), interbeds of grey micritic limestone a
few centimetres thick, and coal laminations usually about
1–2 mm thick. The coal horizons, although thin, are
laterally persistent, and carbonaceous material is abundant
in this unit. This facies is always thin bedded or laminated,
and even parallel lamination is the predominant internal
sedimentary structure. The unit is usually about 1 m thick.
The amber is associated with this facies.
Limestone beds, about 6–8 cm thick, occur within the
fine clastic facies. This rock is medium grey in colour,
micritic, and typically of massive appearance. It often
contains fine fragments or strands of coalified plant
material. Rounded coarse sand or granule-sized clasts are
sometimes present at the base.
The medium clastic facies consists largely of sandstone,
with grain sizes usually 0.4 mm or less (fine to medium
sand). It often assumes a ‘salt and pepper’ appearance under
the hand lens. As mapped on Fig. 4, it is a somewhat
heterogeneous unit, containing beds of siltstone, shale, and
conglomerate that are too thin to be shown separately. Shale
chips are sometimes observed within the sandstone.
Coalified plant fragments occur on bedding surfaces. The
unit most commonly displays massive bedding or even
parallel lamination, but tabular cross beds were observed
locally. Beds are usually 10–80 cm thick. Locally,

calcareous concretions are present, consisting of limestone,
chert, and other rocks, armoured by precipitated calcite. Fig.
7 shows an unusually thin-bedded (4–8 cm) sandstone
sequence.
Thin sections of medium sandstone indicate that lithic
clasts predominate, with lesser quantities of feldspar and
quartz. Lithic clasts include chert, andesite, basalt, quartzite,
micritic limestone, and serpentinite, with actinolite schist
noted in one specimen. Plagioclase occurs in 0.25–0.4 mm
grains, and quartz clasts are about 0.2 mm in dimension.
The texture is immature, being poorly sorted, with only
incipient rounding of clasts. The cement is coarsely
crystalline calcite, and the rock effervesces vigorously in
dilute hydrochloric acid. This is a calcareous lithic
sandstone.
A conglomerate horizon was noted in several exposures.
Clast size generally decreases from south to north, ranging
from cobbles near the footpath, to granules near the northern
end of the outcrop. The bed is typically 1–2 m in thickness.
A thin conglomerate bed was also observed in the north-
ernmost pit, and lenses appear in the medium clastic facies
south of the footpath. The conglomerate carries clasts of a
distinctive pale buff, pale grey, or pale green saccharoidal
limestone, carrying traces of pyrite, quite unlike the grey
micrite found in the fine clastic facies. It also carries pebbles
of chert, mudstone, serpentinite, and volcanic rocks, but no
quartz, no plutonic, and few if any metamorphic clasts. In
some examples it is a matrix-rich grit, and in others it is clast
supported. Sorting tends to be poor, but the clasts are
rounded. The authors observed numerous small broken
bivalve shells and a gastropod in this bed.
Rocks of the ‘channel facies’ occur in the southwest
corner of the area, demonstrating distinctive sedimentary
structures. Beds, about 75–125 cm thick, noticeably fine
upwards. Coarser portions of the beds are either massive
bedded or display tabular cross beds, and finer ones are
laminated. Trough cross bedding was also noted. Lenticular
beds occur as medium sand lenses within much finer
material. Channel scours are common, with layering in
underlying beds decisively truncated. These sediments are
also carbonaceous, and coaly plant fragments on bedding
surfaces are ubiquitous.
4.3. Amber
Amber is found within a narrow horizon in the fine
clastic facies. However, of two such beds shown on Fig. 4,
only one produced amber.
Fig. 4. Geology map of the Noije Bum amber mine, as it appeared on April 29–30, 2001. See text for descriptions.

Most amber occurs as discoid clasts, with a wide range in
sizes. These are thickest in the centre, tapering to rounded
edges. The diameter to thickness ratio of the disks is usually
in the range 2.4:1–3.0:1, with rarer flat examples up to 5:1.
Sizes range from small chips a few millimetres in
dimension, to others several centimetres in diameter. They
are not perfectly symmetrical, and irregularities are usually
present. Pitted surfaces, as described by Zherikhin and Ross
(2000) are not ubiquitous. The disks are oriented parallel to
bedding (Fig. 8).
A minor proportion of the amber occurs as runnels,
resembling small stalactites, with round cross-sections,
perhaps 1 cm in diameter, but sometimes larger. These often
show concentric layering, probably resulting from repeated
flows of resin. The shape of these ambers appears not to
have been modified by transportation, except that they were
broken into shorter lengths. Fossil insects are more common
in runnels than in disk-shaped amber clasts. Ross (1998)
explains the origin of this phenomenon: “The resin is
exuded as blobs or stalactites, which drip and flow down the
trunk of the tree. Often, as it exudes, insects become trapped
and engulfed in the sticky material. The resin eventually
falls to the ground and… fossilises into amber.”
The amber is typically reddish brown in colour, with
various shades of yellow, orange, and red also occurring.
These colours range from pale to dark, and it can vary
from perfectly transparent, through translucent, to
opaque. Inclusions of organic matter (vegetation), are
common, but not always present. Insect fossils, which are
mostly microscopic, occur at about 46 per kilogram of
the current product (Grimaldi et al., 2000).
Thin white calcite veinlets, usually 1 mm or less, but up
to 4 or 5 mm in width, are commonly observed in the amber.
Their density varies considerably, with some examples
being nearly free of them, and others packed with veinlets.
They are a major factor in determining gem quality, and
many pieces are ruined by their presence.
Among the amber produced by the miners is one example
which has a bivalve shell embedded in its surface. The valve
measures 18 mm long, and 13 mm wide. It is oriented with
the convex side embedded to its full height of 6 mm in a
piece of amber that is 50 mm in maximum dimension. The
concave side of the shell faces away from the amber and
carries sandstone matrix. It appears to have been embedded
in the amber while the latter was in a plastic condition.
Fig. 5. A view of the open pit. Miners in the foreground are excavating the
amber seam (dark coloured rock). See Fig. 4 for location.
Fig. 6. Test shaft. The dark coloured rocks at bottom are the amber horizon.
Location shown on Fig. 4.

4.4. Structural geology
Rocks at this site are oriented right way up, as evidenced
by channel scours, graded beds, and cross beds.
North of the ridge crest, bedding attitudes are quite
uniform, with NNE strikes, and dips of 50–708 to the E or
SE (Fig. 4). South of the crest, the strikes turn to the SSE or
SE, and dips flatten to the 35–608 range. This suggests that
the site is on the northwest limb of a northeast-plunging
syncline. Chhibber (1934) reported that rocks in this region
exhibit ‘tightly compressed anticlinal and synclinal folds’.
The relationship of this fold to the large anticline at Noije
Bum, interpreted by Bender (1983), was not determined.
A minor fault was noted in the central part of the site
(Fig. 4). It has a conspicuous gouge zone, but apparently
no great displacement. Its attitude is 1688/608 NE.
Bedding has been contorted where it intersects the fine
clastic unit. The other fine clastic bed (near point ‘A’,
Fig. 4) also exhibits contorted bedding and slickensides.
Thin calcite veins occur not only in amber, but also
within the sedimentary host rocks. Joints and fractures
hosting the veins would have opened after consolidation of
the rocks, in response to deformational or lithostatic
stresses. Perhaps the brittle nature of the amber was
responsible for a greater density of fractures.
4.5. Paleontology
Several macrofossils were located by the workmen in the
course of mining, and others were recovered during this
Fig. 7. A view of the thin bedded nature, and dip of the rocks. Located on Fig. 4.
Fig. 8. Amber in matrix, within the fine-grained, laminated facies. The largest amber disk, indicated by the pencil, measures 27 £ 10 mm. Two smaller pieces
appear to the right. Note the oval cross-sections of the discoid amber clasts, and their orientation parallel to the lamination. Collected from the pit shown
in Fig. 6.

visit. These include one ammonite, five gastropods, and
numerous fragments of bivalve shells.
While the authors were inspecting the site, miners
working nearby discovered an ammonite fossil. They
immediately brought it to the authors, and were able to
indicate the exact location in which it was found. It was
collected from a massive sandstone bed, about 2 m
stratigraphically above the amber layer (Fig. 4). This is
close to the minor fault, but both the amber and the fossil are
in the footwall. It appears not to have been recycled from
older sediments because it is not abraded or rounded, and it
was found in sandstone rather than conglomerate. It is
identified as Mortoniceras (Dr Win Swe, pers. commmun.
2001). Wright et al. (1996) state that this ammonite genus is
restricted to Middle Albian–Upper Albian.
Prior to the field visit, the workmen found four
gastropods. These have extremely high conical shapes,
and are quite large, being 50–70 mm or more in height (the
largest was broken) and up to 38 mm in diameter at the base.
They have not been positively identified, but are possibly
Nerineid gastropods, which have been reported from rocks
of similar age elsewhere in Myanmar (e.g. Bender, 1983, p.
88). The authors discovered another gastropod shell
(possibly a different species) in the conglomerate bed
(Fig. 4).
Broken shell fragments of small bivalves occur in the
conglomerate. These are white, calcareous, with a pearly
lustre, and some are striated. The largest measures 18 mm in
maximum dimension, but most are 10 mm or less. They
have not been further identified.
Several samples were submitted to Dr Davies for
palynological study (Davies, 2001a,b). These included
three sample sets: (1) two pieces of amber; (2) four samples
of sediment found associated with (adhering to) pieces of
amber; and (3) five chip samples of the host sediments.
Sample sets (1) and (2) were selected from material
purchased from the miners. They yielded only ‘impover-
ished assemblages’, and were not definitive. One sample of
associated sediment (set 2) was found to contain several
Late Campanian palynomorphs, but Davies (2001b) con-
siders that this material probably results from
contamination.
The third palynology sample set consisted of chip
samples of host rock, collected by the authors from the
amber horizon (located on Fig. 4). The objective was to
determine the age of the sediments in which the amber
occurs. This set yielded variable results with ‘low to good
palynomorph recovery’. Davies (2001b) identified micro-
fossils derived from dinoflagellates, algae, angiosperms,
gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and bryophytes. The most
common palynomorphs were Araucariacites australis (65
examples), Sequoiapollenites sp.(48), Taxodiaceaepolle-
nites hiatus (12), and Clavatipollenites rotundus (11). On
the basis of assemblages including Spinidinium sp.,
Liliacidites kaitangataensis, Liliacidites dividuus, Crybe-
losporites striatus, Crybelosporites punctatus, Corollina
spp., Collarisporites sp., C. rotundus, Cupuliferoidaepol-
lenties parvulus, Parvisaccites rugosus, Eucommiidites
minor, Pustulipollis sp., Palmaepollenites sp., Scupisporis
sp., and Phimopollenites augathellaensis, Davies (2001b)
considered a late Albian to early Cenomanian age to be most
likely. He further states that “These assemblages are similar
to those described from the Albian of the district south of the
Songhua River, China, described by Yu (1983)”. At that
location, ‘The overlying sediments of the Cenomanian and
Turonian are marked by an increase of more advanced
angiosperm pollen, which are not present in the Burmite
samples’. Davies (2001b) concludes that the assemblages
found in the five samples of set (3) ‘indicate that the age of
the amber is most likely late Albian to early Cenomanian’.
As noted above, fossil inclusions of insects also occur in
amber from Noije Bum. Although both Cretaceous and
Eocene foraminifera have been reported from the vicinity,
only ‘foraminiferal liners’ identified by Davies (2001b)
have been recognised during this study.
5. Discussion
5.1. Correspondence to sites visited by Chhibber (1934)
The lithologies described by Chhibber (1934) correspond
very well to rocks observed in this study, and his
Khanjamaw locality is only 1.5 km distant. He also
mentioned amber at a location called Noijemaw, located
‘west of Noije Bum’ which could be the same site as the
current mine. It is probable that the same stratigraphic unit
occurs at all these locations.
5.2. Age of the amber and its host rocks
The conclusion of Chhibber (1934), that the amber
bearing rocks of the Hukawng Valley are of Eocene age, has
been widely quoted. Examples from the geological
literature include Ngaw (1964), Bender (1983), ESCAP
(1996) and Tin (1999). Zherikhin and Ross (2000) accept an
Eocene age for the sediments, while considering the amber
to be Cretaceous. The Eocene age is also reported in general
treatises on amber, such as Rice (1980) and Fraquet (1987).
However, recent data indicate that both rocks and amber are
Cretaceous, probably Upper Albian.
There is no doubt that the amber is Cretaceous. Zherikhin
and Ross (2000) report that insects in amber collected from
the Hukawng Valley are most probably from that period.
Grimaldi et al. (2002), after much detailed study, consider
that they are Turonian–Cenomanian. In subsequent corre-
spondence, Grimaldi states that the age could possibly be as
old as Upper Albian (pers. commun., 2002).
The age of the host sediments requires further consider-
ation. If the amber is Cretaceous, there must have been an
emergent landmass of that age, which would have shed
sediments into adjacent seas. However the amber could also

have been recycled into younger sediments. Stuart (1923)
and Chhibber (1934) reported rocks carrying the Eocene
foraminifer Nummulites, although not in direct association
with amber. Sahni and Sastri (1957) showed that limestones
bearing Orbitolina, of probable Cenomanian age, occur in
the area, but their relationship to the amber horizon is
unclear. The question of whether the amber horizon belongs
to an Eocene or to a Cretaceous succession was answered by
the discovery of an ammonite specimen during the authors’
visit. The ammonite Mortoniceras indicates Middle
Albian–Upper Albian (Wright et al., 1996). This age is
supported by Davies (2001b) who concluded that palyno-
morph assemblages, in samples collected by the authors, are
Upper Albian to Lower Cenomanian.
In the Western Ranges and Rakhine Coastal Plain of
Myanmar, Tertiary flyschoid sediments carry exotic blocks
of Cretaceous limestone (olistoliths). Of marine Cretaceous
fossils reported from these two provinces, Gramann (1974)
remarks that ‘many if not all have been derived from exotic
blocks’ (however he located bona fide Cretaceous succes-
sions in the eastern part of the Western Ranges). Bender
(1983) also describes this phenomenon. To the authors’
knowledge, exotic Cretaceous fossils or olistoliths have not
been reported from the Tertiary basins of the Central
Province, including the Hukawng Basin. In any case, this is
not likely to be true of Noije Bum, as all of the above results
(ammonite, palynology, and insect fossils) indicate a
generally mid-Cretaceous age. The ammonite did not
appear to be abraded, and palynology provides particularly
compelling evidence. The most reliable set of palynology
samples (set 3) was collected by the authors specifically for
this purpose, and provided a consistent set of results.
The proposed age of the amber itself, based on insect
inclusions, is slightly younger than that of the host rocks, as
determined by the ammonite and palynology. This is clearly
impossible, as while the amber could be older (through
recycling), it cannot be younger. The preponderance of the
evidence suggests that both rocks and amber are most
probably Upper Albian.
This period, the uppermost Lower Cretaceous, and the
lowermost Upper Cretaceous, has great significance for the
evolution of both plants and insects. It saw the radiation of
angiosperms, and the origins and development of insect
pollination. Insects that engage in pollination first appeared
at this time. Grimaldi (pers. commun., 2002) writes that
“The rare ants found in this amber would be the oldest
definitive fossils known of this extremely important group.
Prior to this, the oldest known were Turonian, also in
amber”. The Turonian amber occurrences are in New
Jersey, USA, described by Grimaldi et al. (2000).
It appears that neither M. Stuart nor H.L. Chhibber was
familiar with Orbitolina. Stuart failed to identify it in
specimens he collected from the amber mines (Sahni and
Sastri, 1957). Chhibber (1934) did not report it from
limestones of the jade mines region, which he mistakenly
considered to be Paleozoic; Clegg (1941) noted that
Orbitolina is commonly present in those exposures. Stuart
(1923) and Chhibber (1934) were both positive in their
identifications of Nummulites, so it may be assumed that
they were correct on that count. However had either
encountered Orbitolina beds, he would not have recognised
the fossil, nor appreciated its Cretaceous age.
It is likely that a Cretaceous–Eocene unconformity
occurs in the vicinity. Assuming that the identifications of
Nummulites by Stuart (1923) and Chhibber (1934) are
correct, it might be found on the eastern flank of the Noije
Bum hill range. Recognition of Cretaceous rocks has been
hampered by poor bedrock exposure, a paucity of
ammonites in the sequence, the unfamiliarity of early
workers with Orbitolina, and a belief that any Cretaceous
fossils must be derived and recycled. In retrospect, it is clear
that more significance should have been attached to the
ammonite found by Noetling in 1891–1892.
5.3. Depositional environment
The ammonite and some of the microfossils indicate a
marine setting. The depositional area must have been
nearshore, because of the abundance of amber, coalified
plant fragments, and common coal laminations in the fine
clastic facies. Davies (2001b) states that the dinoflagellates
he identified (Alterbidinium minor, Cleistosphaeridium sp.,
Spinidinium sp., Cribroperidinium sp. operculum, Sentusi-
dinium spp., Palaeohystrichophora isodiametrica cf., Silici-
sphaera ferox, Tehamidinium sp.) are typical of inner neritic
to littoral environments. A marine environment is also
indicated by his recognition of organic-walled foraminiferal
liners and zynemataceous algae. Coal seams thicker than a
few millimetres, and large portions of trees, etc. were not
observed in the field, suggesting that the fossil vegetation
was transported a certain distance from its place of origin.
A regional study of the sedimentology and stratigraphy
has not been made, and it is difficult to draw conclusions
from only one exposure. Deltaic environments should
include non-marine sediments, and rooted plant fossils,
which were not recognised at Noije Bum, and the
conglomerate bed is not typical of deltas (Miall, 1979). A
barrier island environment appears to be excluded as these
generally consist of clean sands (Reinson, 1979). Several
characteristics of a lagoonal environment, as elucidated by
Reinson (1979) were observed. These include the presence
of interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale, and thin coal
facies; and sand bodies that can be interpreted as washover
sheet deposits, and channel fill deposits. However, the
occurrence of conglomerate does not fit his lagoonal model.
A nearshore marine setting (bay, lagoon, or estuary),
proximal to a river outlet, may be the best explanation. Such
an environment is described by Clifton (1983), from a study
of the estuary at Willapa Bay, Washington. The estuarine
deposits there include ‘a complicated array of sand, mud,
and gravel‘, including lag deposits consisting of shells,
wood fragments, pebbles, and mud clasts. He lists several

criteria that may be employed to distinguish among subtidal,
intratidal, and supratidal deposits. When applied to Noije
Bum, these suggest a subtidal deposit as (1) there are
widespread lag deposits; (2) there are laterally extensive
beds of shale interbedded with fine-grained sand; (3) fossil
root systems were not observed; and (4) mud cracks were
not observed.
Based on a paleogeographic map, Zherikhin and Ross
(2000) postulated that the Noije Bum vicinity was 350 km
from the nearest land during the Cenomanian (slightly later
than the Upper Albian age proposed for the amber horizon).
Their conclusion is contradicted by the identification of a
nearshore environment in this study. Whether the adjacent
landmass was the Asian mainland or an island has not been
determined.
Terrigenous pollen derives from a forest of A. australis
(related to the Norfolk pine), Sequoiapollenites (similar to
Sequoia), and several angiosperm species, all indicating a
‘humid warm temperate climate’ (Davies, 2001b). Swamps
vegetated with Taxodiaceaepollenites probably occurred
along the shore (Davies, 2001a).
5.4. Significance of the observed clast lithologies
The calcareous nature of the clastic sediments recalls the
descriptions of Clegg (1941) of similar rocks along
Ayeyawady River, and in the jade mines area. At Noije
Bum, limestone cobbles in the conglomerate, and micrite
clasts in the sandstones, indicate that carbonate bedrock was
present in the source area. The identification of pollen of
Taxodiaceaepollenites, which inhabits coastal swamps,
commonly on calcareous bedrock (Davies, 2001a), suggests
that limestone may have occurred along the shoreline.
The association of clasts of limestone, chert, andesite,
basalt, serpentinite, and actinolite schist, is similar to
lithologies found in the Cretaceous Bhamo–Myitkyina
belt (Fig. 3). The rather coarse plagioclase clasts may
originate from mafic intrusive rocks, which are also known
from the above association. Most of these lithologies are
also found in the vicinity of Mt Loi Mye, some 45 km south
of Noije Bum (Fig. 3). This is an immature assemblage,
typical of what may be found in orogenic belts, and may
reflect a mid Cretaceous orogeny proposed by Mitchell et al.
(2000).
The presence of serpentinite clasts indicates that
emplacement of ultramafites must have preceded the
deposition of these sediments (i.e. they are not younger
than Albian). The jade mines ophiolite belt extends to the
southern margin of the Hukawng Basin.
Granitoid clasts are absent, so the suite of Cretaceous
felsic plutons either was not present in the source area, or
had not yet been emplaced/exposed. There is also no sign of
the micaceous schist lithologies from the presumed base-
ment to the Hukawng Basin (Bender, 1983). The quartzite
clasts could possibly be derived from that source, however.
Quartz is a minor component of the sandstones, and was not
recognised among the larger conglomerate clasts, empha-
sising the immaturity of these sediments.
Thin micrite beds found within the fine clastic facies may
result from erosion of coastal carbonates, during periods
when clastic input from further inland was low. They carry
plant fragments of obvious detrital origin.
5.5. Origin and deposition of amber
The authors note that both the Araucariaceae (especially
genus Agathis ) and the Taxodiaceae have been identified as
sources of Cretaceous amber elsewhere (e.g. Grimaldi et al.,
2000; Poinar and Milki, 2001). Palynomorphs of genera
from both families were identified in samples collected from
the amber horizon at Noije Bum (Davies, 2001b).
Chhibber (1934) quotes specific gravities of 1.034–
1.095 for Hukawng Valley amber, which is slightly denser
than sea water. Therefore it may be expected together with
fine clastic sediments, and/or associated with other low
density material, such as waterlogged wood or plant
fragments. The Noije Bum amber may have been deposited
with wood and plant material, in fine clastic sediments along
the floors and banks of tidal channels (as for wood
fragments observed by Clifton (1983)), or in washovers
adjacent to channels.
The amber may have been deposited originally as copal,
an intermediate stage in the transformation of resin. Ross
(1998) states that the change from copal to amber may occur
after deposition in marine sediments. At Noije Bum the
amber and its host sediments are of approximately the same
age, so it was deposited while relatively young. A bivalve
shell found embedded in amber suggests that the latter was
soft when deposited.
The mechanism that produced the discoid shape of most
amber clasts is unclear. The runnels appear not to have been
modified by transport and deposition, so the disks may
similarly reflect their original morphology. Perhaps the
runnels collected on tree trunks, and the disks as pools on
the ground surface. Alternatively, the disk shapes could
have resulted from abrasion during transport. The occur-
rence of conglomerate in the sequence indicates that the
amber may have passed through a high energy environment,
in contrast to the low energy facies in which New Jersey
amber occurs (Grimaldi et al., 2000), for example.
5.6. Further work required
Clearly, much remains to learn about the geology of the
amber mines region. The earlier reports of Nummulites in
some limestones should be confirmed, the Orbitolina beds
relocated, and the Cretaceous–Eocene unconformity deli-
neated. The stratigraphy, sedimentology, paleontology, and
structural geology of the region all need to be further
elucidated.

6. Conclusions
Noije Bum in the Hukawng Valley has been the principal
source of amber in Myanmar for at least the past 166 years,
and probably for very much longer.
The conclusion of Chhibber (1934) that the amber is
hosted by Eocene sediments has been widely quoted in the
literature. However, recent work indicates a Cretaceous age.
Insect inclusions in amber are interpreted to be Turonian–
Cenomanian, and a specimen of the ammonite Mortoniceras
(of Middle or Upper Albian age) was discovered during the
authors’ visit. Palynomorphs in samples collected by the
authors suggest that the amber-bearing horizon is Upper
Albian to Lower Cenomanian. The preponderance of the
evidence suggests that both rocks and amber are most
probably Upper Albian. This determination is significant for
the study of insect evolution, and if correct, indicates that
the oldest known definitive ants have been identified in this
amber (Grimaldi et al., 2002).
This Upper Albian age is similar to that of Orbitolina
limestones which are known from a number of locations in
northern Myanmar. One of these, at Nam Sakhaw, has also
been a source of amber. Therefore presently unknown
amber deposits could occur in other mid-Cretaceous
sediments as well.
The recognition of Cretaceous rocks at Noije Bum
indicates that rocks of this age may be more widely
distributed in the Hukawng Valley than previously believed.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Leeward Capital Corp. and its
president, J.W. Davis, for financial support. Dr A.H.G.
Mitchell provided references and helpful advice. Dr Win
Swe identified the ammonite fossil. Thanks are due also to
Dr E.H. Davies for approval to include the results of his
palynology studies. Permission to visit the amber site was
obtained with the help of the Chairman of the government of
Kachin State, the Ministry of Mines of Myanmar, Sea Sun
Star Limited, and others. Comments by Dr D. Grimaldi and
Dr A.J. Ross greatly improved the manuscript.
References
Barley, M.E., Pickard, A.L., Khin, Z., 2000. Shrimp zircon geochronology
of granitoids: implications for a Cretaceous magmatic event in
Myanmar and tectonic evolution of Southeast Asia (abstract),
ICGP434, Second International Symposium in Myanmar, December
10–11.
Bender, F., 1983. Geology of Burma, Gebru¨der Borntraeger, 293 pp.
Chhibber, H.L., 1934. The Mineral Resources of Burma, MacMillan, New
York, 320 pp.
Chit, Saing, 2000. Cretaceous events in Myanmar with special reference to
foraminiferal evidence (abstract), ICGP434, Second International
Symposium in Myanmar, December 10–11.
Clegg, E.L.G., 1941. The Cretaceous and associated rocks of Burma.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India 74 (1), 1–102.
Clifton, H.E., 1983. Discrimination between subtidal and intertidal facies in
Pleistocene deposits, Willapa Bay, Washington. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 53, 353–369.
Davies, E.H., 2001. Palynological analysis of two Burmese amber samples.
Unpublished report by Branta Biostratigraphy Ltd. for Leeward Capital
Corp.
Davies, E.H., 2001. Palynological analysis and age assignments of two
Burmese amber sample sets. Unpublished report by Branta Biostrati-
graphy Ltd. for Leeward Capital Corp.
ESCAP, 1996. Geology and Mineral Resources of Myanmar, Atlas of
Mineral Resources of the ESCAP Region, vol. 12. United Nations, New
York, 193 pp.
Fraquet, H., 1987. Amber, Butterworth and Co. Ltd, London, 176 pp.
Gramann, F., 1974. Some palaeontological data on the Triassic and
Cretaceous of the western part of Burma (Arakan Islands, Arakan
Yoma, western outcrops of Central Basin). Newsletter on Stratigraphy 3
(4), 277–290.
Grimaldi, D., Shedrinsky, A., Wampler, T.P., 2000. A remarkable deposit
of fossiliferous amber from the Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) of New
Jersey. In: Grimaldi, D.A., (Ed.), Studies on Fossils in Amber, With
Particular Reference to the Cretaceous of New Jersey, Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden, pp. 1–76.
Grimaldi, D., Engel, M.S., Nascimbene, P., 2002. Fossiliferous Cretac-
eous amber from Myanmar (Burma): its rediscovery, biotic diversity,
and paleontological significance. American Museum Novitates 3361,
72 pp.
Hla, H., 2000. The ophiolite belts of Myanmar. Submitted to ICGP434,
Second International Symposium in Myanmar, December 10–11, 2000.
Laufer, B., 1906. Historical jottings on amber in Asia. Memoirs of the
American Anthropological Association 1 (3), 215–244.not seen;
summarised by Fraquet, 1987, and quoted by Zherikhin and Ross 2000.
Levinson, A.A., 2001. Amber (Burmite) from Myanmar: production
resumes. Gems & Gemology, Summer 2001, 142–143.
Maung, T., 2000. Some reflections on the Mesozoic geological events in
Myanmar (abstract), ICGP434, Second International Symposium in
Myanmar, December 10–11.
Miall, A.D., 1979. Deltas. In: Walker, R.G., (Ed.), Facies Models,
Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 1, Geological Association of
Canada, pp. 43–56.
Mitchell, A.H.G., 1993. Cretaceous–Cenozoic tectonic events in the
western Myanmar (Burma)–Assam region. Journal of the Geological
Society 150, 1089–1102.
Mitchell, A.H.G., Hlaing, T., Nyunt, H., 2000. Early Jurassic and mid-
Cretaceous Collisions, Alpine-style Orogeny and Assembly of
Myanmar (abstract), ICGP434, Second International Symposium in
Myanmar, December 10–11.
Mitchell A.H.G., Zaw, P., Tin, H., 1978. The Burma orogen. Unpublished
report. United Nations Development Programme, Yangon.
Myint, T., 2000. Stratigraphy, petrography, and environments of the
Jurassic–Cretaceous Pan Laung Formation in Kinda-Kyaukse area,
central Myanmar (abstract), ICGP434, Second International Sym-
posium in Myanmar, December 10–11.
Ngaw, C.P., 1964. A brief progress report on geological reconnaissance of
83O/9 to 16 of Naga Hills from the month of January to April 1964.
Report of the Regional Mapping Section, Mineral and Geological
Studies Department, Myanmar Ministry of Mines.
Noetling, F., 1893. On the occurrence of Burmite, a new fossil resin from
Upper Burma. Records of the Geological Survey of India 26 (1), 31–40.
Poinar, G.O., Milki, R., 2001. Lebanese Amber, Oregon State University
Press, Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A., 96 pp.
Reinson, G.E., 1979. Barrier island systems. In: Walker, R.G., (Ed.), Facies
Models, Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 1, Geological Association
of Canada, pp. 57–74.
Rice, P.C., 1980. Amber the Golden Gem of the Ages, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 289 pp.

Ross, A.J., 1998. Amber, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, UK, 73 pp.
Ross, A.J., York, P.V., 2000. A list of type and ﬁgured specimens of insects
and other inclusions in Burmese amber. Bulletin of the Natural History
Museum, London (Geology) 56 (1), 11–20.
Sahni, M.R., Sastri, V.V., 1957. A monograph of the orbitolines found in
the Indian continent (Chitral, Gilgit, Kashmir), Tibet and Burma, with
observations on the age of the associated volcanic series. Palaeonto-
logia Indica 33 (3), 50.
Stuart, M., 1923. Geological traverses from Assam to Myitkyina through
the Hukong Valley; Myitkyina to northern Putao; Myitkyina to the
Chinese frontier. Records of the Geological Survey of India 54 (4),
398–411.Plate 29.
Tin, H., 1999. Burmite–Burmese amber. Australian Gemmologist, Second
Quarter 1999, 250–253.
Win, S., 1981. A major strike-slip fault in Burma. Contributions to Burmese
Geology 1 (1), 63–72.
Wright, C.W., Calloman, J.H., Howarth, M.K., 1996. Cretaceous
Ammonoidea, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part L Mollusca
4 Revised, vol. 36. The Geological Society of America and the
University of Kansas.
Yu, J., Guo, Z., Mao, S., 1983. Cretaceous palynological assemblages from
the district south of the Songhua River, Professional Papers of
Stratigraphy and Palaeontology, No. 10; Chinese Academy of
Geological Sciences, Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 1–
86; pl. 1–30. Not seen; referenced by Davies, 2001b.
Zherikhin, V.V., Ross, A.J., 2000. A review of the history, geology and age
of Burmese amber (Burmite). Bulletin of the Natural History Museum,
London (Geology) 56 (1), 3–10.

J. Bot. Res. Inst.Texas 8(1): 139 – 143. 2014
A GASTEROID FUNGUS, PALAEOGASTER MICROMORPHA GEN. & SP. NOV.
(BOLETALES) IN CRETACEOUS MYANMAR AMBER
George O. Poinar, Jr. Dônis da Silva Alfredo
Department of Integrative Biology Graduate Program in Systematics and Evolution
Oregon State University Department of Botany and Zoology Center of Biosciences
Corvallis, Oregon 97331, U.S.A. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte
poinarg@science.oregonstate.edu BRAZIL
Iuri Goulart Baseia
Department of Botany and Zoology
Center for Biosciences
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte
BRAZIL
abstract
A new genus and species of gasteroid fungus, Palaeogaster micromorpha gen. & sp. nov. is described from Early-Mid Cretaceous amber
from the Republic of Myanmar. The species is represented by some 25 complete or partial fruiting bodies in various developmental stages.
Diagnostic characters for the new taxon are its small size, the globose to pyriform shape of the fruiting bodies, mycelial hyphae with clamp
connections and small globose to subglobose spores. It is assigned to the Order Boletales (Sclerodermatineae) and possesses many features
of the family Sclerodermataceae, which includes the earthballs and hard skinned puffballs. Palaeogaster micromorpha represents the first
fossil member of the Sclerodermatineae and the oldest known gasteroid fungus.
resumen
Se describen un género y especie nuevos de hongo gasteroide, Palaeogaster micromorpha gen. & sp. nov. del ámbar del cretácico tempra-
no-medio de la República de Myanmar. La especie está representada por unos 25 cuerpos fructíferos completos o parciales en varios estados
de desarrollo. Los caracteres diagnósticos del nuevo taxon son su pequeña talla, cuerpos fructíferos de forma globosa a piriforme, hifas del
micelio fibuladas y esporas globosos a subglobosas pequeñas. Se asigna al Orden Boletales (Sclerodermatineae) y tiene muchas característi-
cas de la familia Sclerodermataceae, que incluye los bejines. Palaeogaster micromorpha representa el primer miembro fósil de las Scleroder-
matineae y el hogo gasteroide fósil más antiguo conocido.
introduction
Aside from containing a variety of animal and plant fossils, amber from Myanmar includes some interesting
fungal remains, such as the Hymenomycete, Palaeoclavaria burmitis Poinar & Brown (2003) and one of the
earliest known mushrooms, Palaeoagaracites antiquus Poinar and Buckley (2007). The present study describes
a gasteroid fungus preserved in Myanmar (Burmese) amber. Fossil gasteroids, which include puffballs, earth-
balls, earthstars and stinkhorn fungi, are exceedingly rare with previous records limited to Lycoperdites tertia-
rius Poinar (2001), from Tertiary Mexican amber, a Late Cenozoic earthstar (Geasteraceae) from Pueblo,
Mexico (Magallon-Pueble & Cervallos-Ferriz 1993) and a subfossil from Holocene deposits in Alaska (Chaney
& Mason 1936).
materials and methods
The amber piece contains some 25 complete or partial fruiting bodies in various developmental stages. Some
of the opened fruiting bodies near the edge of the piece were sectioned with a diamond saw and mounted in
immersion oil to observe hyphae, and spores. The amber originated from a mine excavated in 2001, in the
Hukawng Valley, southwest of Maingkhwan in Kachin State (26°20'N, 96°36'E) in Myanmar. This location,
known as the Noije Bum 2001 Summit Site, was assigned to the Early-Mid Cretaceous, Upper Albian, on the
basis of paleontological evidence (Cruickshank & Ko 2003) placing the age at 97 to 110 mya. Nuclear mag-

140 Journal of the Botanical Research Institute ofTexas 8(1)
Fig.1.GroupofPalaeogastermicromorphainMyanmaramber.Holotypeisthespecimenwiththelargeopeninginthecenterofthephoto.Scalebar=3mm.
netic resonance (NMR) spectra and the presence of araucaroid wood fibers in amber samples from the Noije
Bum 2001 Summit Site indicate an araucarian (possibly Agathis) tree source for the amber (Poinar et al. 2007).
Descriptive terminology and taxonomy is based on Guzmán (1970), Guzmán and Ovrebo (2000), Gurgel, et al.
(2008), Alfredo et al. (2012) and Nouhra et al. (2012).
description
Boletales (Sclerodermatineae)
Palaeogaster Poinar, Alfredo, & Baseia, gen. nov. (Figs. 1–8), MycoBank no.: MB 801127. Type Species: Palaeogaster
micromorpha Poinar, Alfredo, & Baseia.
Fruiting bodies small, subglobose to pyriform, spore case filling fruiting body; sterile base absent; peridium brown, hard, thick, splitting
irregularly at terminus or subterminally to form large, roundish aperture; gleba firm, then becoming powdery yellow-orange at maturity;
spores small, clear at maturity, globose to subglobose, smooth to slightly irregular surface; capillitium, hymenium and peridioles absent.
Palaeogaster micromorpha Poinar, Alfredo, & Baseia, sp. nov. (Figs. 1–8), MycoBank no.: MB 801127. Type:
MYANMAR(BURMA):AmbermineintheHukawngValley,SWofMaingkhwaninKachinState(26°20'N,96°36'E),1999,unknown
amber miner s.n. (holotype: the open, centered specimen in Fig. 1; catalogue number B-F-1 deposited in the Poinar amber collection
maintained at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, U.S.A.).
Fruiting bodies from 5–7 mm in length, 3–4 mm in width; peridium persistent, peridium wall 6–12 µm wide;
surface with areas of fine concentric, often intersecting lines; peridium splitting irregularly at terminus or sub-
terminus to form large, roundish apertures ranging from 2–3 mm in diameter; apertures rimmed with frag-
ments of original peridium; mature gleba powdery, yellow-orange; spores clear, globose to subglobose, lacking

Poinar, Jr. et al., Palaeogaster micromorpha, a new genus and species of gasteroid fungus 141
Fig.2.LateralviewofpyriformfruitingbodyofPalaeogastermicromor-
pha in Myanmar amber. Scale bar = 2 mm.
Fig. 3. Cross-section of the peridium of a fruiting body of Palaeogaster micro-
morpha in Myanmar amber. Scale bar = 35 µm.
Fig. 4. Intersecting lines on the peridial surface of a fruiting body of
Palaeogastermicromorpha in Myanmar amber. Scale bar = 27 µm.
Fig.5.GroupofsporesintheglebaofafruitingbodyofPalaeogastermicromor-
pha in Myanmar amber. Scale bar = 27 µm.

142 Journal of the Botanical Research Institute ofTexas 8(1)
Fig. 6. Detail of a spore in the gleba of a fruiting body
of Palaeogaster micromorpha in Myanmar amber. Scale
bar = 8 µm.
Fig. 7. Mycelial hyphae in a fruiting body of
Palaeogaster micromorpha in Myanmar amber.
Scale bar = 100 µm.
Fig. 8. Mycelial hyphae with clamp connections (arrows) in a fruiting body of Palaeogaster micro-
morpha in Myanmar amber. Scale bar = 80 µm

Poinar, Jr. et al., Palaeogaster micromorpha, a new genus and species of gasteroid fungus 143
a hilum or pedicel, ranging from 4 –11 µm in greatest dimension; mycelial hyphae from fruit bodies 7 –10 µm
in width, unpigmented, occasionally branched, thin-walled, with clamp connections.
Habitat.—Caespitose, probably growing on decaying wood.
Etymology.—The generic epithet is from the Greek “palaios” = ancient and the Greek “gaster” = stomach.
The specific epithet is from the Greek “micros” = small and the Greek “morphe” = form.
discussion
Palaeogaster is distinguished by its small size, shape of the fruiting bodies, large, roundish terminal to subter-
minal aperture, yellow- orange gleba, non-sculptured spores and absence of a capillitium, hymenium and
peridioles. The subglobose to pyriform fruiting bodies, single layered peridium, large irregular aperture, ab-
sence of a sterile base, mycelial hyphae with clamp connections and lack of a capillitium align it with the
Sclerodermatineae. Palaeogaster shares with the extant genus Diplocystis (Sclerodermatineae) the habit of
forming aggregates of small fruiting bodies, each forming a leathery, cup-shaped peridium (Louzan et al.
2007). However, the fruiting bodies of Diplocystis have a powdery umber gleba and the grayish-brown spores
are covered with warty or spiny ornamentation. Small fruiting bodies with a mature yellow-orange gleba and
globose to subglobose spores as occur in Palaeogaster are not found in extant representatives of the Scleroder-
matineae (Arora 1986; Zeller 1949). Palaeogaster micromorpha represents the first fossil member of the Sclero-
dermatineae and the oldest known gasteroid fungus.
acknowledgments
The senior author thanks Roberta Poinar and Art Boucot for comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
Two anonymous reviewers carefully examined and offered constructive feedback for improvement.
references
Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms demystified: A comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. 2nd, Edition, Ten Speed Press,
Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
Alfredo, D.S., A.G. Leite, R. Braga-Neto, V.G. Cortez, & I.G. Baseia. 2012. Scleroderma minutisporum, a new earthball from the
Amazon rainforest. Mycosphere 3:294–299.
Chaney, R.W. & H.L. Mason. 1936. A Pleistocene flora from Fairbanks, Alaska. Amer. Mus. Novit. 887:1–17.
Cruickshank, R.D. & K. Ko. 2003. Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng Valley, northern Myanmar. J. Asian Earth
Sci. 21:441–455.
Gurgel, F.E., B.D., B. Silva, & I.G. Baseia. 2008. New records of Scleroderma from northeastern Brazil. Mycotaxon 105:399–
405.
Guzmán, G. & C.L. Ovrebo. 2000. New observations on sclerodermataceous fungi. Mycologia 92:171–179.
Guzmán, G. 1970. Monografía del género Scleroderma Pers. emend. Fr. (Fungi, Basidiomycetes). Darwiniana 16:233–407.
Louzan, R., A.W. Wilson, M. Binder, & D.S. Hibbett. 2007. Phylogenetic placement of Di plocystis wrightii in the Scleroderma-
tineae (Boletales) based on nuclear ribosomal large subunit DNA sequences. Mycoscience 48:66–69.
Magallon-Pueble, S. & R.S. Cervallos-Ferriz. 1993. A fossil earthstar (Geasteraceae; Gasteromycetes) from the Late Cenozoic
of Pueblo, Mexico. Amer. J. Bot. 80:1162–1167.
Nouhra, E.R., M.L. H. Caffot, N. Pastor, & E.M. Crespo. 2012. The species of Scleroderma from Argentina, including a new
species from a Nothofagus forest. Mycologia 104:488–495.
Poinar, G.O., Jr. 2001. Fossil Puffballs (Gasteromycetes: Lycoperdales) in Mexican amber. Historical Biol. 15:219–222.
Poinar, G.O., Jr. & A.E. Brown. 2003. A non-gilled hymenomycete in Cretaceous amber. Mycological Res. 107:763–768.
Poinar G.O., Jr. & R. Buckley. 2007. Evidence of mycoparasitism and hypermycoparasitism in Early Cretaceous amber.
Mycological Res. 111:503–506.
Poinar, G.O., Jr., J.B. Lambert, & Y. Wu. 2007. Araucarian source of fossiliferous Burmese amber: spectroscopic and ana-
tomical evidence. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 1:449–455.
Zeller, S.M. 1949. Keys to the Orders, Families and Genera of the Gasteromycetes. Mycologica 41:36–58.

Amber
Amber pendants made of modified
amber. The oval pendant is 52 by
32 mm (2.0 by1.3 in).
Part of a series on
Paleontology
PaleontologyPortal
Category
v· t· e
An ant inside Baltic amber
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Amber (disambiguation).
Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and
natural beauty since Neolithic times.[2] Much valued from antiquity to the
present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects.[3]
Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a healing agent in folk
medicine, and as jewelry.
There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical
constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes
contains animal and plant material as inclusions.[4] Amber occurring in coal
seams is also called resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found
specifically within New Zealand coal seams.[5]
Contents [hide]
1 History and names
2 Legends
3 Composition and formation
3.1 Formation
3.2 Botanical origin
3.3 Inclusions
4 Extraction and processing
4.1 Distribution and mining
4.2 Treatment
5 Appearance
6 Classification
6.1 Class I
6.1.1 Ia
6.1.2 Ib
6.1.3 Ic
6.2 Class II
6.3 Class III
6.4 Class IV
6.5 Class V
7 Geological record
7.1 Paleontological significance
8 Use
8.1 Jewelry
8.2 Historic medicinal uses
8.3 Scent of amber and amber perfumery
9 Imitation
9.1 Imitation made in natural resins
9.2 Imitations made of plastics
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
History and names [ edit ]
The English word amber derives from Arabic ʿanbar [6] ‫ﻋ‬‫ﻧ‬‫ﺑ‬‫ر‬ (cognate with Middle
Persian ambar[7]) via Middle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word
was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century as referring to what is now
known as ambergris (ambre gris or "grey amber"), a solid waxy substance
Fossils [show]
Natural history [show]
Organs andprocesses [show]
Evolutionof various taxa [show]
Evolution [show]
Historyof paleontology [show]
Branches of paleontology [show]
Article Talk Read Edit More Search Wikipedia
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Communityportal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
Afrikaans
‫ا‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ر‬‫ﺑ‬‫ﯾ‬‫ﺔ‬
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Беларуская
Беларуская
(тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Буряад
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
‫ﻓ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ر‬‫ﺳ‬‫ﯽ‬
Français
Frysk
Galego
한국어
Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

Amosquito and a flyin this Baltic
amber necklace are between 40 and
60 million years old
Amosquito in amber
The Amber Room was
reconstructed using new amber from
Kaliningrad
National Archaeological Museum of
Siritide to Matera
An amber violin bow frog, made by
Keith Peck in 1996/97.[1]
derived from the sperm whale. In the Romance languages, the sense of the
word had come to be extended to Baltic amber (fossil resin) from as early as
the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber (ambre jaune), this
meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century. As the use of
ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word.[6]
The two substances ("yellow amber" and "grey amber") conceivably became
associated or confused because they both were found washed up on beaches.
Ambergris is less dense than water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to
float, though less dense than stone.[8]
The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον
(ēlektron), are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ (ēlektōr) meaning "beaming
Sun".[9][10] According to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios (the Sun) was killed,
his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and their tears became elektron,
amber.[11]
Amber is discussed by Theophrastus in the 4th century BC, and again by
Pytheas (c. 330 BC) whose work "On the Ocean" is lost, but was referenced by
Pliny the Elder, according to whose The Natural History (in what is also the
earliest known mention of the name Germania):[12]
Pytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the
shores of an estuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their
territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one
day's sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores
of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an
excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the
inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their
neighbors, the Teutones.
Earlier[13] Pliny says that a large island of three days' sail from the Scythian
coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book
in Greek, is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same
as Abalus. Based on the amber, the island could have been Heligoland,
Zealand, the shores of Bay of Gdansk, the Sambia Peninsula or the Curonian
Lagoon, which were historically the richest sources of amber in northern
Europe. It is assumed that there were well-established trade routes for amber
connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean (known as the "Amber Road").
Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it
was traded further abroad by the Veneti. The ancient Italic peoples of southern
Italy were working amber, the most important examples are on display at the
National Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera. Amber used in antiquity
as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits
of Sicily.
Pliny also cites the opinion of Nicias, according to whom amber "is a liquid
produced by the rays of the sun; and that these rays, at the moment of the
sun's setting, striking with the greatest force upon the surface of the soil, leave
upon it an unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the Ocean, and
thrown up upon the shores of Germany." Besides the fanciful explanations
according to which amber is "produced by the Sun", Pliny cites opinions that
are well aware of its origin in tree resin, citing the native Latin name of
succinum (sūcinum, from sucus "juice").[14] "Amber is produced from a marrow
discharged by trees belonging to the pine genus, like gum from the cherry, and
resin from the ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in
considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened [...] Our forefathers, too,
were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name
of 'succinum' and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine
genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns,
when ignited, with the odour and appearance of torch-pine wood."
He also states that amber is also found in Egypt and in India, and he even refers to the electrostatic properties of
Edit links
Հայերեն
िह दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
‫ע‬‫ב‬‫ר‬‫י‬‫ת‬
Kaszëbsczi
Қазақша
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
‫ﻣ‬‫ﺻ‬‫ر‬‫ى‬
မ န မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk bokmål
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
‫ﭘ‬‫ﻧ‬‫ﺟ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﺑ‬‫ﯽ‬
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski /
српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமி
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
‫י‬‫י‬ִ‫ד‬‫י‬‫ש‬
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文

Unpolished amber stones
Wood resin, the source of amber
Extracting Baltic amber from
Holocene deposits, Gdansk, Poland
Unique colors of Baltic amber.
Polished stones.
Fishing for amber on the coast of
Baltic Sea. Winter storms throw out
amber nuggets. Close to Gdansk,
Poland.
amber, by saying that "in Syria the women make the whorls of their spindles of
this substance, and give it the name of harpax [from ἁρπάζω, "to drag"] from
the circumstance that it attracts leaves towards it, chaff, and the light fringe of
tissues."
Pliny says that the German name of amber was glæsum, "for which reason the
Romans, when Germanicus Cæsar commanded the fleet in those parts, gave to
one of these islands the name of Glæsaria, which by the barbarians was known
as Austeravia". This is confirmed by the recorded Old High German glas and
Old English glær for "amber" (c.f. glass). In Middle Low German, amber was
known as berne-, barn-, börnstēn. The Low German term became dominant
also in High German by the 18th century, thus modern German Bernstein
besides Dutch Dutch barnsteen.
The Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is gintaras and Latvian dzintars. They,
and the Slavic jantar or Hungarian gyanta ('resin'), are thought to originate from
Phoenician jainitar ("sea-resin").[citationneeded]
Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America
came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at
Camden, and near Woodbury.[3]
Legends [ edit ]
The origins of Baltic amber are associated with the Lithuanian legend about
Juratė, the queen of the sea, who fell in love with Kastytis, a fisherman.
According to one of the versions, her jealous father punished his daughter by
destroying her amber palace and changing her into sea foam. The pieces of
the Juratė’s palace can still be found on the Baltic shore. See also Jūratė and
Kastytis.
Composition and formation [ edit ]
Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous
bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an
insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a macromolecule by free radical
polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic acid,
cummunol, and biformene.[15][16] These labdanes are diterpenes (C20H32) and
trienes, equipping the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for
polymerization. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization takes
place as well as isomerization reactions, crosslinking and cyclization.
Heated above 200 °C (392 °F), amber suffers decomposition, yielding an oil of
amber, and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony", or
"amber pitch"; when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil this forms
"amber varnish" or "amber lac".[15]
Formation [ edit ]
Molecular polymerization, resulting from high pressures and temperatures
produced by overlying sediment, transforms the resin first into copal. Sustained
heat and pressure drives off terpenes and results in the formation of amber.[17]
For this to happen, the resin must be resistant to decay. Many trees produce
resin, but in the majority of cases this deposit is broken down by physical and
biological processes. Exposure to sunlight, rain, microorganisms (such as
bacteria and fungi), and extreme temperatures tends to disintegrate resin. For
resin to survive long enough to become amber, it must be resistant to such
forces or be produced under conditions that exclude them.[18]
Botanical origin [ edit ]
Fossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the famous Baltic ambers and
another that resembles the Agathis group. Fossil resins from the Americas and
Africa are closely related to the modern genus Hymenaea,[19] while Baltic

Baltic amber with inclusions
Amber mine "Primorskoje" in
Jantarny, Kaliningrad Oblast,Russia
Blue amber from Dominican
Republic
ambers are thought to be fossil resins from Sciadopityaceae family plants that used to live in north Europe.[20]
Inclusions [ edit ]
The abnormal development of resin in living trees (succinosis) can result in the
formation of amber.[21] Impurities are quite often present, especially when the
resin dropped onto the ground, so the material may be useless except for
varnish-making. Such impure amber is called firniss.
Such inclusion of other substances can cause amber to have an unexpected
color. Pyrites may give a bluish color. Bony amber owes its cloudy opacity to
numerous tiny bubbles inside the resin.[22] However, so-called black amber is
really only a kind of jet.
In darkly clouded and even opaque amber, inclusions can be imaged using
high-energy, high-contrast, high-resolution X-rays.[23]
Extraction and processing [ edit ]
Distribution and mining [ edit ]
Amber is globally distributed, mainly in rocks of Cretaceous age or younger.
Historically, the Samland coast west of Königsberg in Prussia was the world's
leading source of amber. First mentions of amber deposits here date back to
the 12th century.[24] About 90% of the world's extractable amber is still located
in that area, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia in 1946.[25]
Pieces of amber torn from the seafloor are cast up by the waves, and collected
by hand, dredging, or diving. Elsewhere, amber is mined, both in open works and underground galleries. Then nodules
of blue earth have to be removed and an opaque crust must be cleaned off, which can be done in revolving barrels
containing sand and water. Erosion removes this crust from sea-worn amber.[22]
Caribbean amber, especially Dominican blue amber, is mined through bell
pitting, which is dangerous due to the risk of tunnel collapse.[26]
Treatment [ edit ]
The Vienna amber factories, which use pale amber to manufacture pipes and
other smoking tools, turn it on a lathe and polish it with whitening and water or
with rotten stone and oil. The final luster is given by friction with flannel.[22]
When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two
pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil,
heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be
clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity
is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now used on a large scale in the formation
of "ambroid" or "pressed amber".[22]
The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic
pressure, the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the
production of cheap jewelry and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colors in polarized
light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri gum, as well as by celluloid and even glass.
Baltic amber is sometimes colored artificially, but also called "true amber".[22]
Appearance [ edit ]
Amber occurs in a range of different colors. As well as the usual yellow-orange-brown that is associated with the color
"amber", amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other
uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as "cherry amber"), green amber, and even blue amber, which
is rare and highly sought after.
Yellow amber is a hard, translucent, yellow, orange, or brown fossil resin from evergreen trees. Known to the Iranians
by the Pahlavi compound word kah-ruba (from kah “straw” plus rubay “attract, snatch,” referring to its electrical
properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for electricity, ‫ﻛ‬‫ﮭ‬‫ر‬‫ﺑ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ء‬
kahrabā'), it too was called amber in Europe (Old French and Middle English ambre). Found along the southern shore
of the Baltic Sea, yellow amber reached the Middle East and western Europe via trade. Its coastal acquisition may have
been one reason yellow amber came to be designated by the same term as ambergris. Moreover, like ambergris, the

MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST

MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (13)

Similar to MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST

Similar to MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST (20)

More from MYO AUNG Myanmar

More from MYO AUNG Myanmar (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

MYANMAR AMBERS REPORT COLLECTION BY MYO AUNG EX-GEOLOGIST