This study investigates the psychological effects of social identity on both active (posters) and passive (lurkers) members of online brand communities (OBCs). The researchers developed a model to examine how the cognitive, affective, and evaluative components of social identity influence brand commitment, positive word-of-mouth, and resistance to negative information for both posters and lurkers. Using survey data from 752 OBC members, they found that both posters and lurkers derive social identity from community membership and can positively impact the brand, though there were some counterintuitive differences in the relationships between active and passive members. The results provide implications for how managers can better engage both types of members.
This document presents a study examining potential roles for avatars in online retailing. Through a literature review and panel discussions, the study identified four potential roles for avatars: providing assistance, creating a friendlier interface, making purchase recommendations, and building relationships. An online survey of over 2,000 internet users was conducted to measure preferences for different avatar roles. Cluster analysis identified four distinct segments of customers based on preferred avatar roles. Relationships between cluster membership and demographics like age, gender, and online experience were also examined. The results provide guidance for online retailers on how to deploy avatars to best suit different customer needs and contexts.
1) Trust develops in virtual communities through impersonal forms that rely on social categories and expectations of reciprocity, which allows for the development of "thin trust" or swift trust.
2) Over time, as interactions are repeated, trust can evolve into more interpersonal forms based on direct knowledge of other community members, their self-disclosure, and shared experiences.
3) However, the development of trust in a virtual community depends on factors like the community's purpose and the nature of interactions, which may allow trust to be based more on impersonal forms like trust in the community itself rather than interpersonal trust between members.
The Effects of Social Media Marketing In the Hotel Industry: Conceptual Model...Samaan Al-Msallam
Hotel industry can use social media to engage customers and clients in dialogue and recognize their needs. Through these networking sites, hotel industry can interact with consumers before, during, and after the vacation experience. Social media is relatively new and the advantages are abundance such as it is affordable, it is viral and has the potential to spread brand awareness quickly and far and it is said to be able to develop link baits, attention and massive amounts of traffic. The purpose of this study was to investigate benefit factors of member participation and the relationships between community participation and brand commitment in hotel online communities. The present study identified five benefit factors (functional, hedonic, monetary, and social and psychological benefits) as the predictors of member participation in hotel Facebook fan pages. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to test the conceptual model. Based on the results of SEM, the results indicated that four benefit factors (functional, hedonic, social and psychological benefits) positively influenced member's community participation. The findings of this study provide significant insights for the researchers and marketers. From the theoretical perspective, this is the first empirical research that investigated consumer benefits and responses (i.e., community participation and brand commitment) in online communities managed by hotel sector. Thus, the study contributes to the understanding of consumer behavior in social media. From the practical perspective, the study suggests some strategies to effectively design hotel Face book
Social influences-within-virtual-consumer-communities-stenkateBijgespijkerd.nl
This document summarizes a study that investigates how social influences within virtual consumer communities impact members' attitudes towards discussed products. It applies Kelman's three social influence processes of compliance, identification, and internalization to understand how community characteristics and social capital can lead to these influences. A conceptual model is proposed relating social capital to the three influence processes and ultimately to changes in members' product attitudes. The model is tested through a survey of over 600 community members across five communities. Preliminary findings indicate internalization has the strongest direct effect on attitude changes, followed by compliance, while identification has an indirect effect. Social capital is found to be an antecedent of all three influence processes.
The effect of CSR content and media on reputation and stakeholder communicati...Vera Engelbertink
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a master's thesis that examines the effect of CSR content and media on corporate reputation and stakeholder communication. Specifically, it aims to understand how intrinsic, extrinsic, and combined CSR messages as well as different media types influence a company's reputation and stakeholders' willingness to share or react to CSR messages. The introduction provides background on CSR and discusses how communicating CSR can have both positive and negative effects depending on stakeholders' perceptions of a company's motives. It proposes examining these concepts through an online experiment testing different message types and media on reputation and secondary communication outcomes.
The New Boundary Spanners: Social Media Users, Engagement, & Public Relations...Philip Ryan Johnson
Our study investigates the extent to which social media users engaged with organizations online exhibit traditional characteristics of boundary spanners, and whether this engagement results in more positive public relations outcomes for organizations. An online survey was conducted among 403 students and structural equation modeling was used to test a proposed theoretical model. Starbucks and Amazon were selected for this study as both are organizations with a substantial online presence in social media. Results show that social identity and self-efficacy had a positive impact on boundary spanning behaviors, but boundary spanning behaviors did not have a significant impact on social media engagement. However, this study makes an important contribution to current theory in public relations as the results also provide strong empirical evidence for the positive effects that social media engagement has on both relational satisfaction and relational commitment.
Investigating the process from needs to connect to active participation in on...lucymark
This document discusses a research study investigating why people participate and become active members in online communities. It proposes that high quality connections among members and strengthened social identity due to those connections are important factors. The document reviews literature on motives for participation in online communities, including functional, emotive, and contextual needs. It also discusses research on quality of connections and social identity. The study aims to examine how quality connections and social identity influence the process of participating and becoming an active member in an online community.
Brandwatch, Radian6, Alterian SM2, Attensity360, Social Radar, Sysomos, Scout Labs, Synthesio, and Peer Index are nine social media monitoring tools that were tested to assess how effectively they can identify influencers on the topic of organic baby food. The tools were evaluated based on their abilities to pick out influential forum posters and bloggers discussing organic baby foods across various parenting sites and social media platforms. The report provides reviews of each tool's capabilities and limitations in identifying influencers for a brand manager.
This document presents a study examining potential roles for avatars in online retailing. Through a literature review and panel discussions, the study identified four potential roles for avatars: providing assistance, creating a friendlier interface, making purchase recommendations, and building relationships. An online survey of over 2,000 internet users was conducted to measure preferences for different avatar roles. Cluster analysis identified four distinct segments of customers based on preferred avatar roles. Relationships between cluster membership and demographics like age, gender, and online experience were also examined. The results provide guidance for online retailers on how to deploy avatars to best suit different customer needs and contexts.
1) Trust develops in virtual communities through impersonal forms that rely on social categories and expectations of reciprocity, which allows for the development of "thin trust" or swift trust.
2) Over time, as interactions are repeated, trust can evolve into more interpersonal forms based on direct knowledge of other community members, their self-disclosure, and shared experiences.
3) However, the development of trust in a virtual community depends on factors like the community's purpose and the nature of interactions, which may allow trust to be based more on impersonal forms like trust in the community itself rather than interpersonal trust between members.
The Effects of Social Media Marketing In the Hotel Industry: Conceptual Model...Samaan Al-Msallam
Hotel industry can use social media to engage customers and clients in dialogue and recognize their needs. Through these networking sites, hotel industry can interact with consumers before, during, and after the vacation experience. Social media is relatively new and the advantages are abundance such as it is affordable, it is viral and has the potential to spread brand awareness quickly and far and it is said to be able to develop link baits, attention and massive amounts of traffic. The purpose of this study was to investigate benefit factors of member participation and the relationships between community participation and brand commitment in hotel online communities. The present study identified five benefit factors (functional, hedonic, monetary, and social and psychological benefits) as the predictors of member participation in hotel Facebook fan pages. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to test the conceptual model. Based on the results of SEM, the results indicated that four benefit factors (functional, hedonic, social and psychological benefits) positively influenced member's community participation. The findings of this study provide significant insights for the researchers and marketers. From the theoretical perspective, this is the first empirical research that investigated consumer benefits and responses (i.e., community participation and brand commitment) in online communities managed by hotel sector. Thus, the study contributes to the understanding of consumer behavior in social media. From the practical perspective, the study suggests some strategies to effectively design hotel Face book
Social influences-within-virtual-consumer-communities-stenkateBijgespijkerd.nl
This document summarizes a study that investigates how social influences within virtual consumer communities impact members' attitudes towards discussed products. It applies Kelman's three social influence processes of compliance, identification, and internalization to understand how community characteristics and social capital can lead to these influences. A conceptual model is proposed relating social capital to the three influence processes and ultimately to changes in members' product attitudes. The model is tested through a survey of over 600 community members across five communities. Preliminary findings indicate internalization has the strongest direct effect on attitude changes, followed by compliance, while identification has an indirect effect. Social capital is found to be an antecedent of all three influence processes.
The effect of CSR content and media on reputation and stakeholder communicati...Vera Engelbertink
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a master's thesis that examines the effect of CSR content and media on corporate reputation and stakeholder communication. Specifically, it aims to understand how intrinsic, extrinsic, and combined CSR messages as well as different media types influence a company's reputation and stakeholders' willingness to share or react to CSR messages. The introduction provides background on CSR and discusses how communicating CSR can have both positive and negative effects depending on stakeholders' perceptions of a company's motives. It proposes examining these concepts through an online experiment testing different message types and media on reputation and secondary communication outcomes.
The New Boundary Spanners: Social Media Users, Engagement, & Public Relations...Philip Ryan Johnson
Our study investigates the extent to which social media users engaged with organizations online exhibit traditional characteristics of boundary spanners, and whether this engagement results in more positive public relations outcomes for organizations. An online survey was conducted among 403 students and structural equation modeling was used to test a proposed theoretical model. Starbucks and Amazon were selected for this study as both are organizations with a substantial online presence in social media. Results show that social identity and self-efficacy had a positive impact on boundary spanning behaviors, but boundary spanning behaviors did not have a significant impact on social media engagement. However, this study makes an important contribution to current theory in public relations as the results also provide strong empirical evidence for the positive effects that social media engagement has on both relational satisfaction and relational commitment.
Investigating the process from needs to connect to active participation in on...lucymark
This document discusses a research study investigating why people participate and become active members in online communities. It proposes that high quality connections among members and strengthened social identity due to those connections are important factors. The document reviews literature on motives for participation in online communities, including functional, emotive, and contextual needs. It also discusses research on quality of connections and social identity. The study aims to examine how quality connections and social identity influence the process of participating and becoming an active member in an online community.
Brandwatch, Radian6, Alterian SM2, Attensity360, Social Radar, Sysomos, Scout Labs, Synthesio, and Peer Index are nine social media monitoring tools that were tested to assess how effectively they can identify influencers on the topic of organic baby food. The tools were evaluated based on their abilities to pick out influential forum posters and bloggers discussing organic baby foods across various parenting sites and social media platforms. The report provides reviews of each tool's capabilities and limitations in identifying influencers for a brand manager.
Supporting user innovation activities in crowdsourcing communityMiia Kosonen
The document discusses supporting user-driven innovation activities in crowdsourcing communities. It examines how perceived support from a crowdsourcing community affects users' intentions to share knowledge. Specifically, it analyzes the relationships between knowledge sharing intentions and (1) collaborative norms, (2) trust in the hosting company, (3) ease of use of technology, and (4) knowledge-based support. A survey of 241 users of an ideas crowdsourcing platform in China finds that trust in the hosting company and technology/knowledge support positively influence knowledge sharing, while collaborative norms did not have a significant effect.
This document discusses how deconstructing issues and crises can help enhance corporate reputation. It begins by reviewing literature on corporate image and reputation, and the challenges organizations face in managing issues and crises. Two key theories are discussed - apologia theory, which focuses on justifying actions during crises, and image restoration theory, which examines communication options for addressing threats to reputation. The document then analyzes the roles of public relations in identifying and responding to issues versus crises. It provides an example of how McDonald's addressed various challenges to its image through communication strategies. Overall, the document argues that deconstructing issues and crises can help organizations better understand reputation threats and manage responses to protect and enhance their corporate reputation.
This study analyzes similarities and differences between brand-related generally accepted public relations practices in Canada and the United States based on survey results. The document provides background on the study, including its justification and literature review on concepts of brand equity and excellence in public relations. It describes the Generally Accepted Practices in Public Relations (GAP VIII) survey conducted in both countries and aims to identify practices that impact organizational brand equity and how differences could influence the pursuit of public relations excellence.
Social Networks and Employability in the Tamale Metropolis of the Northern Re...Premier Publishers
The research examined how social networks contribute to enhance employability and the factors that determine employability in the Tamale metropolis of Ghana. Data were collected from 90 respondents using questionnaire. SPSS was used in the data analysis to run a binary logistic regression and factor analysis. Based on the analysis, the following were evident: The research found out that a high percentage of respondents were graduates from tertiary institutes with a low percentage of the respondents having been through the basic level of education. Out of the various forms of the job strategies, social network was found to be accessed by respondents for work for job. It was also realized that majority of individuals who mostly accessed social networks for job were from the private sector. The factors that contributed overall in enhancing employability: relation to organizational member, prevalence of shift work, participation in symposia, engagement in part-time jobs and access to social support. Year’s respondents for work for job. It was also realized that majority of individuals who mostly accessed social networks for job were form the private sector. The factors that contributed overall in enhancing employability: relation to organizational member, prevalence of shift work, participation in symposia, engagement in part-time jobs and access to social support. The researcher recommends that higher educational institutes as well as organizations should include participation in workshops, seminars, conferences to enhance new entrants into the job market with career-oriented skills and those in the working field with skills to promote organizational performance.
Assignment models public relations quotesenock nyoni
The document discusses the evolution of public relations from traditional to modern practices with the rise of digital technologies and social media. It covers key topics such as:
1) How public relations has shifted from one-way communication models to two-way symmetrical models that emphasize mutual understanding between organizations and their publics.
2) The changing roles of PR from controlled messaging to dealing with uncontrolled online communication.
3) The rise of owned, paid, and earned media and how organizations use these different channels for public relations. Owned media refers to channels an organization fully controls like their website or social media, while earned media involves third party endorsements.
4) Grunig's models of public relations that progressed
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Nature of pr conclusion and intro excellentenock nyoni
This document provides an overview of the meaning and functions of public relations. It begins with defining public relations and discussing the various publics an organization interacts with. It then explains that public relations aims to build positive relationships between an organization and its various publics through strategic communication and actions. The document also outlines some key factors that have contributed to the growth of public relations as a profession.
This document provides background information on Randy Unsbee and his expertise in marketing communications through traditional and new media. It outlines his extensive experience working with major agencies and companies. It also lists Unsbee's credentials and awards. The document then discusses Unsbee creating marketing programs for GPS technology and product launches. It lists Unsbee's public speaking and media consulting work. Finally, it provides links to Unsbee's websites and social media profiles.
Brennan, Niamh M., Merkl-Davies, Doris M., and Beelitz, Annika [2013] Dialogi...Prof Niamh M. Brennan
We conceptualise CSR communication as a process of reciprocal influence between organisations and their audiences. We use an illustrative case study in the form of a conflict between firms and a powerful stakeholder which is played out in a series of 20 press releases over a two-month period to develop a framework of analysis based on insights from linguistics. It focuses on three aspects of dialogism, namely (i) turn-taking (co-operating in a conversation by responding to the other party), (ii) inter-party moves (the nature and type of interaction action characterising a turn i.e., denial, apology, excuse), and (iii) intertextuality (the intensity and quality of verbal interaction between the parties). We address the question: What is the nature and type of verbal interactions between the parties? First we examine (a) whether the parties verbally interact and then (b) whether the parties listen to each other.
We find evidence of dialogism suggesting that CSR communication is an interactive process which has to be understood as a function of the power relations between a firm and a specific stakeholder. Also, we find evidence of intertextuality in the press releases by the six firms which engage in verbal interaction with the stakeholder. We interpret this as linguistic evidence of isomorphic processes relating to CSR practices resulting from the pressure exerted by a powerful stakeholder. The lack of response by ten firms that fail to issue press releases suggests a strategy of ‘watch-and-wait’ with respect to the outcome of the conflict.
The document outlines different perspectives on conceptualizing corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a communicative phenomenon. It discusses functionalist perspectives that view CSR as a tool for reputation management, marketing, and public relations. Political-normative perspectives see CSR as a way for corporations to build legitimacy and shape policy agendas. Culturalist perspectives analyze how CSR takes different forms based on cultural context. Finally, it proposes a socio-constructivist perspective that views CSR as a communicative construct constituted through organizational communication and media, with reality negotiated through ongoing communication processes.
03 14 brennan merkl davies accounting narratives and impression managementProf Niamh M. Brennan
This chapter examines impression management in accounting communication through four theoretical perspectives: economic, psychological, sociological, and critical. Impression management refers to organizations constructing impressions to appeal to audiences like shareholders and stakeholders. Discretionary accounting narratives in corporate reports are analyzed for seven communication choices that could constitute impression management. The chapter concludes by discussing implications for corporate reporting practice and suggestions for future research on how impression management may undermine reporting quality and influence stakeholder perceptions.
Advances In Relationship Marketing The Influence Of Social Network Theory (...Tin180 VietNam
The document discusses how social network theory (SNT) has influenced relationship marketing thought and practice. It outlines three key perspectives of SNT that have been influential: 1) the structural perspective, which focuses on how relationships influence marketing outcomes; 2) the socio-economic perspective, which examines how social ties impact transactions; and 3) the socio-cognitive perspective, which looks at how cognition mediates social relationships. Research using these perspectives has found that strong and weak social ties impact marketing in various ways. Looking ahead, the use of social media provides new opportunities to study how SNT applies to relationship marketing across different cultures and platforms.
Porter advances in relationship marketing thought and practice the influenc...Digiword Ha Noi
The document discusses how social network theory (SNT) has influenced relationship marketing thought and practice. It outlines three key perspectives of SNT that have been influential: the structural perspective, which focuses on how relationships influence outcomes; the socio-economic perspective, which examines how social ties can enhance utility maximization; and the socio-cognitive perspective, which looks at how cognition mediates the effects of social relations. Research applying these perspectives has provided insights into topics like brand congruence, information diffusion, and the roles of strong and weak ties. The document also discusses future opportunities for applying SNT in areas like social media, cross-cultural research, and leveraging networks to drive marketing relationships.
Measuring and Valuing Social Capital: A Guide for ExecutivesSustainable Brands
The Network for Business Sustainability South Africa research team reviewed 314 studies on social capital. This report outlines the business benefits of social captial and identified measures and tools that can be used to assess the key dimensions of social capital.
This document discusses electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) and its management by small firms. It provides context on how the internet has changed communication and opportunities for small businesses. The study explored how firms in Europe manage eWOM. Key findings include: firms rely on social interaction with consumers as part of their business model; firms across countries use similar eWOM strategies but neglect consumer motivation; firms are unsure how to initiate and maintain interactions; and firms do not measure eWOM outcomes or appreciate its potential impact. The document proposes a conceptual framework analyzing actors, their motivations to share content, and the role of "community knowledge".
This document discusses how consumer behavior research could contribute to the public relations research agenda over the next decade by providing insights into individual behaviors. It identifies five areas where consumer research may be applicable: 1) message processing, 2) decision-making, 3) the influence of affect, 4) organizational-consumer relationships, and 5) consumer action behaviors. The document argues that while public relations deals with many types of audiences, these groups are made up of individuals who interact with organizations in exchange relationships similar to consumers. Insights from consumer behavior's focus on understanding individuals could help address gaps in public relations research on how communications influence behavior at the individual level.
Social influences-within-virtual-consumer-communities-stenkateBijgespijkerd.nl
This document summarizes a study that investigates how social influences within virtual consumer communities impact members' attitudes towards discussed products. It applies Kelman's three social influence processes of compliance, identification, and internalization to understand how community characteristics and social capital can lead to these influences. Data from 5 communities indicates internalization had the strongest effect on attitude changes, followed by compliance. Identification had an indirect effect. Social capital was found to be an antecedent of all three influences.
Social influences within virtual consumer communitiesStephan ten Kate
This study investigates the social influence effects of social capital within virtual consumer communities on members’ attitudes towards the products that are being discussed within these communities. Since previous offline and online marketing studies primarily focused on consumer
attitude changes from an individual perspective, instead of integrating a view related to the social context, it examines the social influence processes of compliance, identification and internalization, and investigates how these influences emerge from the communities’ social system.
Data of 622 respondents gathered from five communities indicate that the communities’ social context can explain the development of these three social influences, and these interpersonal persuasion processes affect members’ product attitudes directly or indirectly in their turn. Internalization had the strongest effect on members’ product attitude changes, followed by compliance processes. Identification did not have a direct effect, but showed to have an indirect effect via compliance and internalization. Social capital proved to be a significant antecedent of all three influences. The community’s structural character only
influenced identification processes. The relations between the community members partly determined the emergence of identification and internalization processes, while a trusting relational setting negatively affected compliance processes. Cognitive social capital was an important antecedent for all three influence processes.
Supporting user innovation activities in crowdsourcing communityMiia Kosonen
The document discusses supporting user-driven innovation activities in crowdsourcing communities. It examines how perceived support from a crowdsourcing community affects users' intentions to share knowledge. Specifically, it analyzes the relationships between knowledge sharing intentions and (1) collaborative norms, (2) trust in the hosting company, (3) ease of use of technology, and (4) knowledge-based support. A survey of 241 users of an ideas crowdsourcing platform in China finds that trust in the hosting company and technology/knowledge support positively influence knowledge sharing, while collaborative norms did not have a significant effect.
This document discusses how deconstructing issues and crises can help enhance corporate reputation. It begins by reviewing literature on corporate image and reputation, and the challenges organizations face in managing issues and crises. Two key theories are discussed - apologia theory, which focuses on justifying actions during crises, and image restoration theory, which examines communication options for addressing threats to reputation. The document then analyzes the roles of public relations in identifying and responding to issues versus crises. It provides an example of how McDonald's addressed various challenges to its image through communication strategies. Overall, the document argues that deconstructing issues and crises can help organizations better understand reputation threats and manage responses to protect and enhance their corporate reputation.
This study analyzes similarities and differences between brand-related generally accepted public relations practices in Canada and the United States based on survey results. The document provides background on the study, including its justification and literature review on concepts of brand equity and excellence in public relations. It describes the Generally Accepted Practices in Public Relations (GAP VIII) survey conducted in both countries and aims to identify practices that impact organizational brand equity and how differences could influence the pursuit of public relations excellence.
Social Networks and Employability in the Tamale Metropolis of the Northern Re...Premier Publishers
The research examined how social networks contribute to enhance employability and the factors that determine employability in the Tamale metropolis of Ghana. Data were collected from 90 respondents using questionnaire. SPSS was used in the data analysis to run a binary logistic regression and factor analysis. Based on the analysis, the following were evident: The research found out that a high percentage of respondents were graduates from tertiary institutes with a low percentage of the respondents having been through the basic level of education. Out of the various forms of the job strategies, social network was found to be accessed by respondents for work for job. It was also realized that majority of individuals who mostly accessed social networks for job were from the private sector. The factors that contributed overall in enhancing employability: relation to organizational member, prevalence of shift work, participation in symposia, engagement in part-time jobs and access to social support. Year’s respondents for work for job. It was also realized that majority of individuals who mostly accessed social networks for job were form the private sector. The factors that contributed overall in enhancing employability: relation to organizational member, prevalence of shift work, participation in symposia, engagement in part-time jobs and access to social support. The researcher recommends that higher educational institutes as well as organizations should include participation in workshops, seminars, conferences to enhance new entrants into the job market with career-oriented skills and those in the working field with skills to promote organizational performance.
Assignment models public relations quotesenock nyoni
The document discusses the evolution of public relations from traditional to modern practices with the rise of digital technologies and social media. It covers key topics such as:
1) How public relations has shifted from one-way communication models to two-way symmetrical models that emphasize mutual understanding between organizations and their publics.
2) The changing roles of PR from controlled messaging to dealing with uncontrolled online communication.
3) The rise of owned, paid, and earned media and how organizations use these different channels for public relations. Owned media refers to channels an organization fully controls like their website or social media, while earned media involves third party endorsements.
4) Grunig's models of public relations that progressed
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Nature of pr conclusion and intro excellentenock nyoni
This document provides an overview of the meaning and functions of public relations. It begins with defining public relations and discussing the various publics an organization interacts with. It then explains that public relations aims to build positive relationships between an organization and its various publics through strategic communication and actions. The document also outlines some key factors that have contributed to the growth of public relations as a profession.
This document provides background information on Randy Unsbee and his expertise in marketing communications through traditional and new media. It outlines his extensive experience working with major agencies and companies. It also lists Unsbee's credentials and awards. The document then discusses Unsbee creating marketing programs for GPS technology and product launches. It lists Unsbee's public speaking and media consulting work. Finally, it provides links to Unsbee's websites and social media profiles.
Brennan, Niamh M., Merkl-Davies, Doris M., and Beelitz, Annika [2013] Dialogi...Prof Niamh M. Brennan
We conceptualise CSR communication as a process of reciprocal influence between organisations and their audiences. We use an illustrative case study in the form of a conflict between firms and a powerful stakeholder which is played out in a series of 20 press releases over a two-month period to develop a framework of analysis based on insights from linguistics. It focuses on three aspects of dialogism, namely (i) turn-taking (co-operating in a conversation by responding to the other party), (ii) inter-party moves (the nature and type of interaction action characterising a turn i.e., denial, apology, excuse), and (iii) intertextuality (the intensity and quality of verbal interaction between the parties). We address the question: What is the nature and type of verbal interactions between the parties? First we examine (a) whether the parties verbally interact and then (b) whether the parties listen to each other.
We find evidence of dialogism suggesting that CSR communication is an interactive process which has to be understood as a function of the power relations between a firm and a specific stakeholder. Also, we find evidence of intertextuality in the press releases by the six firms which engage in verbal interaction with the stakeholder. We interpret this as linguistic evidence of isomorphic processes relating to CSR practices resulting from the pressure exerted by a powerful stakeholder. The lack of response by ten firms that fail to issue press releases suggests a strategy of ‘watch-and-wait’ with respect to the outcome of the conflict.
The document outlines different perspectives on conceptualizing corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a communicative phenomenon. It discusses functionalist perspectives that view CSR as a tool for reputation management, marketing, and public relations. Political-normative perspectives see CSR as a way for corporations to build legitimacy and shape policy agendas. Culturalist perspectives analyze how CSR takes different forms based on cultural context. Finally, it proposes a socio-constructivist perspective that views CSR as a communicative construct constituted through organizational communication and media, with reality negotiated through ongoing communication processes.
03 14 brennan merkl davies accounting narratives and impression managementProf Niamh M. Brennan
This chapter examines impression management in accounting communication through four theoretical perspectives: economic, psychological, sociological, and critical. Impression management refers to organizations constructing impressions to appeal to audiences like shareholders and stakeholders. Discretionary accounting narratives in corporate reports are analyzed for seven communication choices that could constitute impression management. The chapter concludes by discussing implications for corporate reporting practice and suggestions for future research on how impression management may undermine reporting quality and influence stakeholder perceptions.
Advances In Relationship Marketing The Influence Of Social Network Theory (...Tin180 VietNam
The document discusses how social network theory (SNT) has influenced relationship marketing thought and practice. It outlines three key perspectives of SNT that have been influential: 1) the structural perspective, which focuses on how relationships influence marketing outcomes; 2) the socio-economic perspective, which examines how social ties impact transactions; and 3) the socio-cognitive perspective, which looks at how cognition mediates social relationships. Research using these perspectives has found that strong and weak social ties impact marketing in various ways. Looking ahead, the use of social media provides new opportunities to study how SNT applies to relationship marketing across different cultures and platforms.
Porter advances in relationship marketing thought and practice the influenc...Digiword Ha Noi
The document discusses how social network theory (SNT) has influenced relationship marketing thought and practice. It outlines three key perspectives of SNT that have been influential: the structural perspective, which focuses on how relationships influence outcomes; the socio-economic perspective, which examines how social ties can enhance utility maximization; and the socio-cognitive perspective, which looks at how cognition mediates the effects of social relations. Research applying these perspectives has provided insights into topics like brand congruence, information diffusion, and the roles of strong and weak ties. The document also discusses future opportunities for applying SNT in areas like social media, cross-cultural research, and leveraging networks to drive marketing relationships.
Measuring and Valuing Social Capital: A Guide for ExecutivesSustainable Brands
The Network for Business Sustainability South Africa research team reviewed 314 studies on social capital. This report outlines the business benefits of social captial and identified measures and tools that can be used to assess the key dimensions of social capital.
This document discusses electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) and its management by small firms. It provides context on how the internet has changed communication and opportunities for small businesses. The study explored how firms in Europe manage eWOM. Key findings include: firms rely on social interaction with consumers as part of their business model; firms across countries use similar eWOM strategies but neglect consumer motivation; firms are unsure how to initiate and maintain interactions; and firms do not measure eWOM outcomes or appreciate its potential impact. The document proposes a conceptual framework analyzing actors, their motivations to share content, and the role of "community knowledge".
This document discusses how consumer behavior research could contribute to the public relations research agenda over the next decade by providing insights into individual behaviors. It identifies five areas where consumer research may be applicable: 1) message processing, 2) decision-making, 3) the influence of affect, 4) organizational-consumer relationships, and 5) consumer action behaviors. The document argues that while public relations deals with many types of audiences, these groups are made up of individuals who interact with organizations in exchange relationships similar to consumers. Insights from consumer behavior's focus on understanding individuals could help address gaps in public relations research on how communications influence behavior at the individual level.
Social influences-within-virtual-consumer-communities-stenkateBijgespijkerd.nl
This document summarizes a study that investigates how social influences within virtual consumer communities impact members' attitudes towards discussed products. It applies Kelman's three social influence processes of compliance, identification, and internalization to understand how community characteristics and social capital can lead to these influences. Data from 5 communities indicates internalization had the strongest effect on attitude changes, followed by compliance. Identification had an indirect effect. Social capital was found to be an antecedent of all three influences.
Social influences within virtual consumer communitiesStephan ten Kate
This study investigates the social influence effects of social capital within virtual consumer communities on members’ attitudes towards the products that are being discussed within these communities. Since previous offline and online marketing studies primarily focused on consumer
attitude changes from an individual perspective, instead of integrating a view related to the social context, it examines the social influence processes of compliance, identification and internalization, and investigates how these influences emerge from the communities’ social system.
Data of 622 respondents gathered from five communities indicate that the communities’ social context can explain the development of these three social influences, and these interpersonal persuasion processes affect members’ product attitudes directly or indirectly in their turn. Internalization had the strongest effect on members’ product attitude changes, followed by compliance processes. Identification did not have a direct effect, but showed to have an indirect effect via compliance and internalization. Social capital proved to be a significant antecedent of all three influences. The community’s structural character only
influenced identification processes. The relations between the community members partly determined the emergence of identification and internalization processes, while a trusting relational setting negatively affected compliance processes. Cognitive social capital was an important antecedent for all three influence processes.
Social factors in user perceptions and responses to advertising in online soc...Andrey Markin
http://personal.cb.cityu.edu.hk/mkwydou/social%20factors%20in%20user%20perceptions%20and%20responses%20to%20advertising%20in%20online%20social%20networking%20communities.pdf
ABSTRACT: With the advent of popular Web destinations such as MySpace and Facebook, online social networking
communities now occupy the center stage of e-commerce. Yet these online social networking communities must balance the
trade-off between advertising revenue and user experience. Drawing on the sociology and advertising literature, this study
investigates the impacts of social identity and group norms on community users' group intentions to accept advertising in online
social networking communities. By outlining how this type of group intention could influence community members' perceptions
and value judgments of such advertising, this study delineates possible mechanisms by which community members may respond
positively to community advertising. The authors test the proposed theoretical framework on a sample of 327 popular online
community users in China and obtain general support. Implications for the prospect of advertising in online social networking
communities are discussed.
A Study On Social Media Habits of Internet Users Huseyin Kiran
This study analyzed the social media habits and behaviors of 100 internet users in Turkey. The majority of participants were female, aged 26-35, with an undergraduate degree. Facebook and Ekşisözlük were the most visited social media platforms. Friends were found to be the most influential source for purchase intention from social media content. Certain product categories like music, books, clothing and movies as well as service categories like e-shopping, vacations and airline tickets led to more planned and intentional social media usage. Previous positive experiences with products and services increased purchase intention from social media content.
Current Research Questions in Word of Mouth CommunicationAlexander Rossmann
This document summarizes current research questions in word-of-mouth communication. It identifies several key areas for further study: 1) understanding why users engage in online word-of-mouth behavior and how it creates value, 2) exploring how different types of word-of-mouth content impact engagement and purchasing behavior, and 3) examining the specific organizational capabilities needed to foster the impact of word-of-mouth on customers. The document was authored by Alexander Rossmann of Next Corporate Communication Research Center.
Determining Strategic Value of Online Social Engagementsinventionjournals
Over the past few decades social networking connections through individuals and open publishing in general have rapidly became a popular tool for maintaining relationships, communicating and expanding businesses. Individuals invest hours in building social capital and their social identify (SID) via online engagements. We present a methodology to quantify the multitude of artifacts that can be derived from online social engagements and develop a framework that measures the value of an individual's online social engagements. ASID value is used to deliver a score for each individual user; a score that will assist you in understanding your return on investment (ROI)and social capital from your online social networking activities. The framework creates a score to support and determine which specific engagements add and increase your personal value chain. This score can provide benefit to users for career, personal, and business opportunities.
This document summarizes research on perceptions of advertising on social media and its implications for word-of-mouth advocacy. It finds that social media users are more receptive to ads that provide entertainment, interactively engage users, or satisfy their information needs. Specifically, ads that foster participation and conversation tend to create more positive brand perceptions. The uses and gratifications theory, which posits that people use media to fulfill personal and social needs, helps explain why. Ads seen as invasive or distracting from users' goals tend to be viewed negatively.
This document summarizes and evaluates several leading social media influence metrics, including Klout and PeerIndex. It discusses what each metric claims to measure, how influence scores are calculated, and limitations of the models. The key findings are that while these services aim to measure a user's ability to influence others, there is little evidence that higher scores actually correlate with changes in consumer behavior or opinions. Correlation between social activities does not necessarily prove causation of influence.
SME competitiveness through online brand communities: exploration of brand lo...Mojtaba Poorrezaei
This document discusses a study exploring how engagement in online brand communities can influence brand loyalty. It presents a research model examining how factors like information quality, community identification, brand identification, and group norms may impact consumer engagement and ultimately brand loyalty. The study will involve a literature review, netnographic analysis of an online brand community, and an online survey of community members to collect data to analyze the proposed relationships between these variables. The findings could provide implications for how small firms can leverage online brand communities in their marketing strategies.
This document discusses a study examining how corporate social responsibility (CSR) engagement by banks influences consumers' electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) on Facebook. The study hypothesizes that banks' CSR engagement has a positive influence on eWOM and that consumer-company identification mediates this relationship. The study was conducted on Indian banks, collecting data online from 239 consumers. The findings suggest that communicating CSR engagement on social media engages consumers and increases their identification with the company and eWOM intentions. Managers should therefore communicate CSR activities on social media to positively influence identification and eWOM.
Role of Uncertainty Reduction Strategies, Trust and Perceived Value in Social...ijtsrd
Social media such as Instagram, Facebook, and Line provide unparalleled platforms on which users can publicize their shopping experiences and related thoughts on specific e vendors within social networks. This has thus led to a novel method by which to shop online, termed social shopping. Previous literature recognizes that the inherent uncertainties within the social shopping environment are factors limiting shopping intention by customers. Hence, this study adopts uncertainty reduction theory and proposes a research model exploring the relationship between uncertainty reduction strategies URS and social shopping intention, mediated by user trust and perceived value in social shopping. A quantitative web based survey study was conducted to statistically test these relationships using a hierarchical regression analysis. The results propose concrete suggestions for social commerce business operators regarding how to enhance social shopping intention, so they can plan future marketing strategies. Shu-Mei Tseng | Yi-Ting Jhou "Role of Uncertainty Reduction Strategies, Trust and Perceived Value in Social Shopping Intention" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46288.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/consumer-behaviour/46288/role-of-uncertainty-reduction-strategies-trust-and-perceived-value-in-social-shopping-intention/shumei-tseng
This document summarizes a study that examined brand ambassadors on social media. It discusses brand ambassadors as stakeholders who negotiate stakes in organizations through social media influence, identity, and risk of representation. The study explored how brand ambassadors view their role as stakeholders and how they consider organizations' corporate social responsibility activities when deciding whether to represent the organization online. In-depth interviews were conducted with brand ambassadors to understand their motivations. The findings suggest complex considerations around loyalties, commitments, and stakes in the relationship between brand ambassadors and organizations. Brand ambassadors questioned the value of CSR content in some cases. Issues around compensation and ethics are also discussed.
El valor de una marca y los medios socialesPilygapa
This document discusses how a company's brand value and image may be positively influenced through sports sponsorships and social media activities. It analyzes data from 322 members of a Facebook fan page for a celebrity sports team sponsored by a large mobile telecommunications provider. The study examines whether the perceived brand image of the sports team and its celebrity endorser credibility positively impact perceptions of the sponsoring brand's value among fan page members. It also tests whether these effects differ between existing and non-customers of the sponsor. The findings provide implications for marketing theory and practice regarding the advantages of integrating social media and sponsorships.
Customer-to-customer interaction in brand communitiesMichael Ling
The proposed model examines the value perceptions of customers who engage in customer-to-customer (C2C) interactions in online brand communities. It adopts a value-based approach using the Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity (MOA) framework to analyze the antecedents and outcomes of C2C interactions. The model measures the perceived functional and social benefits of C2C interactions, accounting for any sacrifices required. It proposes that perceived values impact loyalty intentions, mediated by perceptions of the firm's overall offering value. The model aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of C2C interactions in online brand communities by considering both functional and social aspects of value creation.
The Effects of Social Media Marketing In the Hotel Industry: Conceptual Model...inventionjournals
1. The document discusses a conceptual model for developing an effective online community for the hotel industry through social media marketing.
2. It identifies five benefit factors (functional, hedonic, monetary, social, and psychological benefits) that predict member participation in hotel Facebook pages.
3. Structural equation modeling was used to test the conceptual model and found that four of the five benefit factors (functional, hedonic, social, and psychological) positively influenced member participation in online communities. This provides insights for researchers and marketers on how to effectively design social media strategies for hotels.
MASSTIGE MARKETING: AN ANALYSIS ON BRAND DEMOCRATIZATION AND CUSTOMER BRAND E...indexPub
The process of Brand Democratization (BD) is primarily responsible for the increased marketing of luxury brands that were formerly only available to the upper echelons of society. Nonetheless, there is a dearth of scholarly investigation into the effects of democratization and how they affect consumer brand involvement. Advocates for a deeper knowledge of brand democratization point to the literature and the preliminary conceptual model as means of exploring the emphasized assumptions of brand democratization and customer-brand engagement.
The document presents a framework called the "honeycomb of social media" that categorizes the building blocks of social media into 7 categories: identity, conversations, sharing, presence, relationships, reputation, and groups. It explains each building block and its implications for businesses. Businesses can use this framework to understand social media functionality, engage with customers, and develop appropriate social media strategies tailored to each building block. The framework helps businesses make sense of the complex social media landscape and how to monitor, understand, and respond to different social activities.
This study examines the relationship between consumers' purchase decisions and their perceptions of companies as employers. The researchers conducted a survey of 896 mobile phone users in Poland to understand if employer image influences choice and satisfaction. The results showed that while employer image is not an explicit factor in decision making, it does have an implicit impact by moderating choice and satisfaction levels. This suggests employer image can provide competitive advantage for companies in highly competitive retail and service industries with undifferentiated offerings. The study contributes a new perspective on how human resources aspects like employer brand can influence consumer marketing.
From Hope to Despair The Top 10 Reasons Businesses Ditch SEO Tactics.pptxBoston SEO Services
From Hope to Despair: The Top 10 Reasons Businesses Ditch SEO Tactics
Are you tired of seeing your business's online visibility plummet from hope to despair? When it comes to SEO tactics, many businesses find themselves grappling with challenges that lead them to abandon their strategies altogether. In a digital landscape that's constantly evolving, staying on top of SEO best practices is crucial to maintaining a competitive edge.
In this blog, we delve deep into the top 10 reasons why businesses ditch SEO tactics, uncovering the pain points that may resonate with you:
1. Algorithm Changes: The ever-changing algorithms can leave businesses feeling like they're chasing a moving target. Search engines like Google frequently update their algorithms to improve user experience and provide more relevant search results. However, these updates can significantly impact your website's visibility and ranking if you're not prepared.
2. Lack of Results: Investing time and resources without seeing tangible results can be disheartening. The absence of immediate results often leads businesses to lose faith in their SEO strategies. It's important to remember that SEO is a long-term game that requires patience and consistent effort.
3. Technical Challenges: From site speed issues to complex metadata implementation, technical hurdles can be daunting. Overcoming these challenges is crucial for SEO success, as technical issues can hinder your website's performance and user experience.
4. Keyword Competition: Fierce competition for top keywords can make it hard to rank effectively. Businesses often struggle to find the right balance between targeting high-traffic keywords and finding less competitive, niche keywords that can still drive significant traffic.
5. Lack of Understanding of SEO Basics: Many businesses dive into the complex world of SEO without fully grasping the fundamental principles. This lack of understanding can lead to several issues:
Keyword Awareness: Failing to recognize the importance of keyword research and targeting the right keywords in content.
On-Page Optimization: Ignorance regarding crucial on-page elements such as meta tags, headers, and content structure.
Technical SEO Best Practices: Overlooking essential aspects like site speed, mobile responsiveness, and crawlability.
Backlinks: Not understanding the value of high-quality backlinks from reputable sources.
Analytics: Failing to track and analyze data prevents businesses from optimizing their SEO efforts effectively.
6. Unrealistic Expectations and Timeframe: Entrepreneurs often fall prey to the allure of quick fixes and overnight success. Unrealistic expectations can overshadow the reality of the time and effort needed to see tangible results in the highly competitive digital landscape. SEO is a long-term strategy, and setting realistic goals is crucial for success.
#SEO #DigitalMarketing #BusinessGrowth #OnlineVisibility #SEOChallenges #BostonSEO
What’s “In” and “Out” for ABM in 2024: Plays That Help You Grow and Ones to L...Demandbase
Delve into essential ABM ‘plays' that propel success while identifying and leaving behind tactics that no longer yield results. Led by ABM Experts, Jon Barcellos, Head of Solutions at Postal and Tom Keefe, Principal GTM Expert at Demandbase.
Mastering Local SEO for Service Businesses in the AI Era"" is tailored specifically for local service providers like plumbers, dentists, and others seeking to dominate their local search landscape. This session delves into leveraging AI advancements to enhance your online visibility and search rankings through the Content Factory model, designed for creating high-impact, SEO-driven content. Discover the Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy, a cost-effective approach to boost your local SEO efforts and attract more customers with minimal investment. Gain practical insights on optimizing your online presence to meet the specific needs of local service seekers, ensuring your business not only appears but stands out in local searches. This concise, action-oriented workshop is your roadmap to navigating the complexities of digital marketing in the AI age, driving more leads, conversions, and ultimately, success for your local service business.
Key Takeaways:
Embrace AI for Local SEO: Learn to harness the power of AI technologies to optimize your website and content for local search. Understand the pivotal role AI plays in analyzing search trends and consumer behavior, enabling you to tailor your SEO strategies to meet the specific demands of your target local audience. Leverage the Content Factory Model: Discover the step-by-step process of creating SEO-optimized content at scale. This approach ensures a steady stream of high-quality content that engages local customers and boosts your search rankings. Get an action guide on implementing this model, complete with templates and scheduling strategies to maintain a consistent online presence. Maximize ROI with Dollar-a-Day Advertising: Dive into the cost-effective Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy that amplifies your visibility in local searches without breaking the bank. Learn how to strategically allocate your budget across platforms to target potential local customers effectively. The session includes an action guide on setting up, monitoring, and optimizing your ad campaigns to ensure maximum impact with minimal investment.
Google Ads Vs Social Media Ads-A comparative analysisakashrawdot
Explore the differences, advantages, and strategies of using Google Ads vs Social Media Ads for online advertising. This presentation will provide insights into how each platform operates, their unique features, and how they can be leveraged to achieve marketing goals.
In this humorous and data-heavy Master Class, join us in a joyous celebration of life honoring the long list of SEO tactics and concepts we lost this year. Remember fondly the beautiful time you shared with defunct ideas like link building, keyword cannibalization, search volume as a value indicator, and even our most cherished of friends: the funnel. Make peace with their loss as you embrace a new paradigm for organic content: Pillar-Based Marketing. Along the way, discover that the results that old SEO and all its trappings brought you weren’t really very good at all, actually.
In this respectful and life-affirming service—erm, session—join Ryan Brock (Chief Solution Officer at DemandJump and author of Pillar-Based Marketing: A Data-Driven Methodology for SEO and Content that Actually Works) and leave with:
• Clear and compelling evidence that most legacy SEO metrics and tactics have slim to no impact on SEO outcomes
• A major mindset shift that eliminates most of the metrics and tactics associated with SEO in favor of a single metric that defines and drives organic ranking success
• Practical, step-by-step methodology for choosing SEO pillar topics and publishing content quickly that ranks fast
Did you know that while 50% of content on the internet is in English, English only makes up 26% of the world’s spoken language? And yet 87% of customers won’t buy from an English only website.
Uncover the immense potential of communicating with customers in their own language and learn how translation holds the key to unlocking global growth. Join Smartling CEO, Bryan Murphy, as he reveals how translation software can streamline the translation process and seamlessly integrate into your martech stack for optimal efficiency. And that's not all – he’ll also share some inspiring success stories and practical tips that will turbocharge your multilingual marketing efforts!
Key takeaways:
1. The growth potential of reaching customers in their native language
2. Tips to streamline translation with software and integrations to your tech stack
3. Success stories from companies that have increased lead generation, doubled revenue, and more with translation
Customer Experience is not only for B2C and big box brands. Embark on a transformative journey into the realm of B2B customer experience with our masterclass. In this dynamic session, we'll delve into the intricacies of designing and implementing seamless customer journeys that leave a lasting impression. Explore proven strategies and best practices tailored specifically for the B2B landscape, learning how to navigate complex decision-making processes and cultivate meaningful relationships with clients. From initial engagement to post-sale support, discover how to optimize every touchpoint to deliver exceptional experiences that drive loyalty and revenue growth. Join us and unlock the keys to unparalleled success in the B2B arena.
Key Takeaways:
1. Identify your customer journey and growth areas
2. Build a three-step customer experience strategy
3. Put your CX data to use and drive action in your organization
Mastering Dynamic Web Designing A Comprehensive Guide.pdfIbrandizer
Dynamic Web Designing involves creating interactive and adaptable web pages that respond to user input and change dynamically, enhancing user experience with real-time data, animations, and personalized content tailored to individual preferences.
Mastering Local SEO for Service Businesses in the AI Era is tailored specifically for local service providers like plumbers, dentists, and others seeking to dominate their local search landscape. This session delves into leveraging AI advancements to enhance your online visibility and search rankings through the Content Factory model, designed for creating high-impact, SEO-driven content. Discover the Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy, a cost-effective approach to boost your local SEO efforts and attract more customers with minimal investment. Gain practical insights on optimizing your online presence to meet the specific needs of local service seekers, ensuring your business not only appears but stands out in local searches. This concise, action-oriented workshop is your roadmap to navigating the complexities of digital marketing in the AI age, driving more leads, conversions, and ultimately, success for your local service business.
Key Takeaways:
Embrace AI for Local SEO: Learn to harness the power of AI technologies to optimize your website and content for local search. Understand the pivotal role AI plays in analyzing search trends and consumer behavior, enabling you to tailor your SEO strategies to meet the specific demands of your target local audience. Leverage the Content Factory Model: Discover the step-by-step process of creating SEO-optimized content at scale. This approach ensures a steady stream of high-quality content that engages local customers and boosts your search rankings. Get an action guide on implementing this model, complete with templates and scheduling strategies to maintain a consistent online presence. Maximize ROI with Dollar-a-Day Advertising: Dive into the cost-effective Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy that amplifies your visibility in local searches without breaking the bank. Learn how to strategically allocate your budget across platforms to target potential local customers effectively. The session includes an action guide on setting up, monitoring, and optimizing your ad campaigns to ensure maximum impact with minimal investment.
Mastering Local SEO for Service Businesses in the AI Era"" is tailored specifically for local service providers like plumbers, dentists, and others seeking to dominate their local search landscape. This session delves into leveraging AI advancements to enhance your online visibility and search rankings through the Content Factory model, designed for creating high-impact, SEO-driven content. Discover the Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy, a cost-effective approach to boost your local SEO efforts and attract more customers with minimal investment. Gain practical insights on optimizing your online presence to meet the specific needs of local service seekers, ensuring your business not only appears but stands out in local searches. This concise, action-oriented workshop is your roadmap to navigating the complexities of digital marketing in the AI age, driving more leads, conversions, and ultimately, success for your local service business.
Key Takeaways:
Embrace AI for Local SEO: Learn to harness the power of AI technologies to optimize your website and content for local search. Understand the pivotal role AI plays in analyzing search trends and consumer behavior, enabling you to tailor your SEO strategies to meet the specific demands of your target local audience. Leverage the Content Factory Model: Discover the step-by-step process of creating SEO-optimized content at scale. This approach ensures a steady stream of high-quality content that engages local customers and boosts your search rankings. Get an action guide on implementing this model, complete with templates and scheduling strategies to maintain a consistent online presence. Maximize ROI with Dollar-a-Day Advertising: Dive into the cost-effective Dollar-a-Day advertising strategy that amplifies your visibility in local searches without breaking the bank. Learn how to strategically allocate your budget across platforms to target potential local customers effectively. The session includes an action guide on setting up, monitoring, and optimizing your ad campaigns to ensure maximum impact with minimal investment.
The digital marketing industry is changing faster than ever and those who don’t adapt with the times are losing market share. Where should marketers be focusing their efforts? What strategies are the experts seeing get the best results? Get up-to-speed with the latest industry insights, trends and predictions for the future in this panel discussion with some leading digital marketing experts.
Gokila digital marketing| consultant| Coimbatoredmgokila
Myself Gokila digital marketing consultant located in Coimbatore other various types of digital marketing services such as SEM
SEO SMO SMM CAMPAIGNS content writing web design for all your business needs with affordable cost
Digital Marketing Services | Techvolt Software :
Digital Marketing is a latest method of Marketing techniques widely used across the Globe. Digital Marketing is an online marketing technique and methods used for all products and services through Search Engine and Social media advertisements. Previously the marketing techniques were used without using the internet via direct and indirect marketing strategies such as advertising through Telemarketing,Newspapers,Televisions,Posters etc.
List of Services offered in Digital Marketing |Techvolt Software :
Techvolt Software offers best Digital Marketing services for promoting your products and services through online platform on the below methods of Digital marketing
1. Search Engine Optimization (SEO)
2. Search Engine Marketing (SEM)
3. Social Media Optimization (SMO)
4. Social Media Marketing (SMM)
5. Campaigns
Importance | Need of Digital Marketing (Online Promotions) :
1. Quick Promotions through Online
2. Generation of More leads and Business Enquiries via Search Engine and Social Media Platform
3. Latest Technology development vs Business promotions
4. Creation of Social Branding
5. Promotion with less investment
Benefits Digital Marketing Services at Techvolt software :
1. Services offered with Affordable cost
2. Free Content writing
3. Free Dynamic Website design*
4. Best combo offers on website Hosting,design along with digital marketing services
5. Assured Lead Generation through Search Engine and Social Media
6. Online Maintenance Support
Free Website + Digital Marketing Services
Techvolt Software offers Free website design for all customer and clients who is availing the digital marketing services for a minimum period of 6 months.
With Regards
Gokila digital marketer
Coimbatore
Yes, It's Your Fault Book Launch WebinarDemandbase
From Blame to Gain: Achieving Sales and Marketing Alignment to Drive B2B Growth.
Tired of the perpetual tug-of-war between your sales and marketing teams? Come hear Demandbase Chief Marketing Officer, Kelly Hopping and Chief Sales Officer, John Eitel discuss key insights from their new book, “Yes, It’s Your Fault! From Blame to Gain: Achieving Sales and Marketing Alignment to Drive B2B Growth.”
They’ll share their no-nonsense approach to bridging the sales and marketing divide to drive true collaboration — once and for all.
In this webinar, you’ll discover:
The underlying dynamics fueling sales and marketing misalignment
How to implement practical solutions without disrupting day-to-day operations
How to cultivate a culture of collaboration and unity for long-term success
How to align on metrics that matter
Why it’s essential to break down technology and data silos
How ABM can be a powerful unifier
The digital marketing industry is changing faster than ever and those who don’t adapt with the times are losing market share. Where should marketers be focusing their efforts? What strategies are the experts seeing get the best results? Get up-to-speed with the latest industry insights, trends and predictions for the future in this panel discussion with some leading digital marketing experts.
Empowering Influencers: The New Center of Brand-Consumer Dynamics
In the current market landscape, establishing genuine connections with consumers is crucial. This presentation, "Empowering Influencers: The New Center of Brand-Consumer Dynamics," explores how influencers have become pivotal in shaping brand-consumer relationships. We will examine the strategic use of influencers to create authentic, engaging narratives that resonate deeply with target audiences, driving success in the evolved purchase funnel.
Build marketing products across the customer journey to grow your business and build a relationship with your customer. For example you can build graders, calculators, quizzes, recommendations, chatbots or AR apps. Things like Hubspot's free marketing grader, Moz's site analyzer, VenturePact's mobile app cost calculator, new york times's dialect quiz, Ikea's AR app, L'Oreal's AR app and Nike's fitness apps. All of these examples are free tools that help drive engagement with your brand, build an audience and generate leads for your core business by adding value to a customer during a micro-moment.
Key Takeaways:
Learn how to use specific GPTs to help you Learn how to build your own marketing tools
Generate marketing ideas for your business How to think through and use AI in marketing
How AI changes the marketing game
2. form of community participation” (Hartmann, Wiertz,
& Arnould, 2015, p. 319), has been neglected to date
and is poorly understood in the OBCs literature. If com-
panies/researchers only gather data from active users,
this could bias the research into OBCs to date. Does this
mean that an OBC has no effect or impact upon those
who do not post? Receiving comments from others and
observing what others do (i.e., passive or consumptive
participation) are ordinary elements of participation
and can create value for the brand (Hartmann et al.,
2015). As such, this resembles vicarious learning, a nor-
mative and powerful means of sense making (Bandura,
1971, 1986), and so, lurking might also be deemed nor-
mative and a powerful way of gaining knowledge about
the community and the brand, affecting attitudes and
future behavior. Given that lurkers compose the ma-
jority of the OBC audience, then although the drivers
and motivations of active members in OBCs have re-
ceived ample research, more work is necessary to un-
derstand passive participation, lurking, and its conse-
quences for OBC success (Stokburger-Sauer & Wiertz,
2015; Walker et al., 2013). This paper therefore seeks to
develop a better understanding of passive participation
in OBCs and suggests that “productive social roles” (ac-
tivity; Hartmann et al., 2015, p. 319) are not the most
important thing for an OBC; passive social roles (visit-
ing) may be equally important.
The paper draws on social identity theory to reach a
better understanding of lurkers, comparing them with
posters, and investigates the consequences of their par-
ticipation in OBCs on their commitment toward the
brand. Social identity captures the key aspects of the
individual’s identification with the community, demon-
strated when members categorize themselves as part of
the community, valuing this identity positively, and us-
ing it to form a shared consciousness (Dholakia, Blaze-
vic, Wiertz, & Algesheimer, 2009). People often identify
socially with groups even when they have no contact
with specific members of that group (Ahearne, Bhat-
tacharya, & Gruen, 2005; Turner, 1982). Relevant as-
pects of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT; Bandura, 1971,
1986) also help to provide an explanation of how so-
cial identities develop without the need for active social
interaction. Therefore, in the context of this research,
although lurkers do not actively participate in the com-
munity, it is reasonable to say that both posters and
lurkers feel the sense of social identity in OBCs. How-
ever, there are still theoretical and practical blind spots
related to active and passive behaviors in OBCs (Pa-
gani, Hofacker, & Goldsmith, 2011).
To summarize, this paper seeks to address these
gaps by distinguishing among the cognitive, affective,
and evaluative components of social identity in OBCs
for both posters and lurkers and shows how these com-
ponents stimulate brand commitment, positive word-
of-mouth (WOM), and resistance to negative informa-
tion. This will provide management insight into OBCs
in their entirety.
The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows.
First, there is a review of theoretical underpinnings
of our research and hypotheses are developed. Next,
the research method is developed followed by the pre-
sentation of the data analysis procedures and results.
Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion provid-
ing theoretical and managerial implications followed by
limitations and suggestions for future research.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Social Identity in Online Brand
Communities
Brand communities are social organizations wherein
members voluntarily join and retain their member-
ship while deriving benefits from participating in the
community (Kim, Choi, Qualls, & Han, 2008). Brands
and brand consumption can build a foundation for
the classification of individuals into social categories
(Stokburger-Sauer, 2010), such as OBCs. For Muniz
and O’Guinn (2001, p. 412), “Community is a core con-
struct in social thought,” thus establishing the impor-
tance of the social identity perspective in research into
OBCs. The presence of a social identity among members
is an essential condition for considering a social group
to be a community (Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001). According
to social identity theory, individuals enhance their self-
esteem by associating with individuals and groups that
reflect their desired identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Social identity expresses the strength of the social re-
lationships that a customer has with other members
of the community through a shared collective identity
(Dholakia et al., 2009). Thus, in OBCs, individuals can
develop their identities by participating in these com-
munities, adopting their norms and values, and by de-
voting their efforts to strengthening these communities
(Algesheimer et al., 2005; Johnson & Lowe, 2015). The
strength of an individual’s social identification with a
brand community is an essential driver of participa-
tion and the member’s relationship with the community
and the brand (c.f., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Carlson,
Suter, & Brown, 2008; Zhou, Zhang, Su, & Zhou, 2012).
Considering the usefulness of OBCs as marketing
instruments that build brands and increase customer
loyalty (Hartmann et al., 2015), a more detailed and
comprehensive understanding of how customers’ so-
cial identity can be engendered in OBCs is valuable.
Building on the insights of Tajfel’s (1978) argument
that a person achieves a social identity through self-
awareness of one’s membership in a group and the emo-
tional and evaluative significance of this membership,
three empirically distinct components of social iden-
tity have been proposed (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000;
Ellemers, Kortekaas, & Ouwerkerk, 1999): a cognitive
component, an emotional component, and an evaluative
component.
The cognitive aspect of social identity includes
judgments about similarities with other members of
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 377
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
3. the community and dissimilarities with nonmembers,
which captures the consciousness-of-kind aspect of so-
cial groups (Tsai & Bagozzi, 2014; Zaglia, 2013). Such
cognition is perceived as overlap between one’s own self-
concept and the identity of the community (Bergami
& Bagozzi, 2000). The emotional component of social
identity takes this process a step further, into feelings
of attachment to the community, and is referred to as
the affective commitment to the community (Tsai &
Bagozzi, 2014). Finally, the evaluative component of
social identity postulates the evaluations of self-worth
derived from membership. Some researchers refer to
this component as group-based self-esteem (Bagozzi &
Dholakia, 2002) or collective self-esteem (Luhtanen &
Crocker, 1992).
In online community studies to date, social identity
has been mainly considered as a second-order factor of
its three components (e.g., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2002,
2006; Eisenbeiss, Blechschmidt, Backhaus, & Freund,
2012). This means previous researchers focused specif-
ically on the case “where overall social identity has
already formed and exists in the three components”
(Tsai & Bagozzi, 2014, p. 148). However, prior research
suggests that the cognitive component develops early
and then influences the affective and evaluative compo-
nents of social identity (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000; Elle-
mers et al., 1999). An individual may classify himself or
herself as belonging to one group and not another (cog-
nitive dimension), and evaluate the in-group in a posi-
tive way, but still remain quite emotionally unattached
to the group (Jackson & Smith, 1999). Moreover, recent
literature signifies the importance of conceptualizing
and studying the different components of social iden-
tity separately (Wolter & Cronin, 2015) to clarify which
dimension is driving outcomes and which dimension
is more important in predicting which outcome (Lam,
2012). Therefore, it is necessary, rational, and informa-
tive to distinguish between these different dimensions,
examine relationships among them, and determine the
mechanisms through which they influence customers’
commitment to the brand in OBCs.
Relationships between Social Identity
and the Brand in OBCs
Identification with an organization is influenced by the
individual’s perceptions of organizational prestige and
distinctiveness (Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008;
Mael & Ashforth, 1992). Bhattacharya and Sen (2003)
argue that the more prestigious and distinctive are
consumers’ perceptions of a company’s identity, the
more attractive that identity is to them, leading to a
higher level of consumer–company identification. Indi-
viduals try to keep a positive social identity by associ-
ating with a prestigious company (Ahearne et al., 2005)
since such association delivers them social opportuni-
ties (Brown, 1969) and reinforces social prestige (Ash-
forth & Mael, 1989; Cheney, 1983). Overall, support has
been found for relationships between the prestige and
attractiveness of organizations and identification in a
number of contexts, including employee–company iden-
tification (Smidts, Pruyn, & Van Riel, 2001), customer–
company identification (Ahearne et al., 2005; Curr´as-
P´erez, Bign´e-Alca˜niz, & Alvarado-Herrera, 2009), and
customer–brand identification (Elbedweihy, Jayaward-
hena, Elsharnouby, & Elsharnouby, 2016; Kuenzel &
Vaux Halliday, 2008; Stokburger-Sauer, Ratneshwar,
& Sen, 2012). When a customer sees the external
image of a brand as distinctive and prestigious, the
customer’s identification with that brand strengthens.
Consequently, since an OBC is centered on one spe-
cific brand, it can be proposed that perceived brand
prestige and brand distinctiveness are positively re-
lated to the extent the individual perceives overlap be-
tween their own identity and the community identity
(i.e., their self-categorization). Members of a commu-
nity attempt to derive a positive social identity as a con-
sequence of their membership (Tajfel & Turner, 1979,
2004). Brand prestige and distinctiveness as two sym-
bolic and psychological antecedents of members’ identi-
fication with the community (Lam, 2012) correspond to
the needs of self-enhancement and self-distinctiveness
of community members (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003).
Membership of an online community related to a pres-
tigious and distinctive brand provides individuals with
enhancement opportunities for their sense of self and
communication of this to others (Bhattacharya, Rao,
& Glynn, 1995). People enhance a positive social iden-
tity, particularly self-categorization, through identify-
ing themselves with prestigious and distinctive brand
communities. All the above effects should strengthen
members’ self-categorization. We therefore hypothesize
the following:
H1 Members’ perception of brand prestige influences
their self-categorization positively.
H2 Members’ perception of brand distinctiveness
influences their self-categorization positively.
Considering the three components of social identity,
the cognitive component (self-categorization) is the es-
sential first step of identifying with a group (Van Dick,
2001). Once an individual perceives him or herself as a
member of a social group, the other components come
into play (Van Dick, Wagner, Stellmacher, & Christ,
2004) and so the individual feels affective ties (strong
or weak) toward this group (affective component) and
positively or negatively evaluates the associations with
his or her membership in the group (evaluative compo-
nent).
Community-based self-esteem, which is the evalu-
ative component of social identity, is a type of group
or collective self-esteem defined as evaluations of self-
worth deriving from one’s membership in the commu-
nity (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000). This resonates with
Tajfel’s (1981) opinion that social identity involves an
evaluative component, as “ . . . the notion of the group
or of one’s membership in it may have a positive or
negative value connotation” (p. 229). Evaluative social
378 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
4. identity relates to self-esteem (Brown, Condor, Math-
ews, Wade, & Williams, 1986). Hence, perceptions of
social identity influence an individual’s sense of self-
worth (Blanton & Christie, 2003). To the degree that
identification with a community is a salient basis of
one’s self-evaluation (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000), the
need to maintain or enhance their community-based
self-esteem motivates membership. Therefore, follow-
ing Bergami and Bagozzi (2000) study, it is hypothe-
sized that an individual’s self-categorization with an
OBC enhances their community-based self-esteem.
H3 Members’ self-categorization influences their
community-based self-esteem positively.
Previous research on identification, based on a
brand or a company, is almost completely set within
the social identity perspective (Lam, 2012; Wolter &
Cronin, 2015). Consumers’ identification with a com-
pany/brand is an intense, significant psychological link
(Curr´as-P´erez, 2009), which involves the consumer’s
desire to establish a closer, long-term relationship
with the company/brand (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003;
Marin & Ruiz, 2007). Furthermore, self-congruity
theory suggests that an individual forms a stronger
bond with a brand community when the community
and self-identities converge (Aaker, 1999; Burmann &
Zeplin, 2005; Sirgy, 1982). A consumer who identifies
with a company is likely to have positive thoughts and
feelings toward it (Einwiller, Fedorikhin, Johnson,
& Kamins, 2006). Extant research in organizational
studies indicates that identification with a company
results in a commitment to it (Bergami & Bagozzi,
2000; Brown, Barry, Dacin, & Gunst, 2005). Thus,
this paper supports the Meyer and Allen (1997)
contention that community identification results in a
psychological bond describing a member’s relationship
with the community. Socioemotional resources that
members accumulate through experiential routes of
interactions in online communities positively influence
their reciprocating behavior and so their commitment
to the community (Chan & Li, 2010). When members of
an OBC perceive an appreciable overlap between their
ideas about who they are as a person (i.e., their self-
identity) and what the community is and stands for (i.e.,
the community’s identity), the greater are their feelings
of attachment and belongingness to that community
(i.e., affective commitment toward the community).
H4 Members’ self-categorization influences their
community affective commitment positively.
People with perceptions of high collective self-esteem
pursue enhancement for their in-group and through
this reinforce their collective self-esteem (Bergami &
Bagozzi, 2000). Consistent with reciprocal action the-
ory, a partner in an exchange relationship recipro-
cates actions taken by another party to avoid feelings
of guilt for disobeying the norm of reciprocity (Li &
Dant, 1997). Customers build up a strong sense of com-
mitment to an organization to return the firm’s active
relationship building efforts (Wulf, Odekerken-
Schr¨oder, & Iacobucci, 2001). Considering socioemo-
tional argument, organizational identity literature sug-
gests that fulfilling individuals needs for esteem and
approval leads to the development of a strong affective
commitment to the organization (Lee & Peccei, 2007).
The satisfaction of important higher-order needs is ex-
perienced as psychologically fulfilling by employees and
it is indeed these psychologically rewarding experiences
that are at the foundation of the development of af-
fective commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991, 1997). Sim-
ilarly, OBC members who perceive self-enhancement
from their community membership respond by form-
ing feelings of belonging and connection to the commu-
nity and so promoting their affective commitment to
the community.
H5 Members’ community-based self-esteem influ-
ences their community affective commitment
positively.
Social identity perspective, developed in social psy-
chology, signifies how membership in a group provokes
individuals to act in favor of that group (Hornsey,
2008). This perspective predicts that individuals who
are committed to an organization commit themselves
to actions that support the organization (Bergami &
Bagozzi, 2000; Dutton & Dukerich, 1991). When an in-
dividual is committed to a group, such as an online
community, they become vested in the successes and
failures of it (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Kim et al., 2008).
In general, the more an individual feels an affective
bond toward the group the more positively he or she
appraises the group and the more he or she will act on
behalf of the group (Van Dick et al., 2004). This infers
that individuals committed to an OBC develop a posi-
tive attitude and behavior towards the brand itself and
so increase their affective brand commitment.
Affective brand commitment lies at the heart of
the customer–brand relationship (Fullerton, 2005). It
refers to the degree to which an individual is psycholog-
ically bonded to the brand out of desire (Bansal, Irving,
& Taylor, 2004; Gruen, Summers, & Acito, 2000) and
is related to “wanting” to maintain a relationship (Lar-
iviere, Keiningham, Cooil, Aksoy, & Malthouse, 2014).
Affective brand commitment is a more emotional factor
that grows through the degree of reciprocity or personal
involvement that a customer has with a brand (Gustafs-
son, Johnson, & Roos, 2005). The extent of OBC mem-
ber attachment and belonging to the community corre-
sponds with attitude toward the brand around which
the community is developed. Thus, the degree of brand
community affective commitment affects brand affec-
tive commitment as a function of the degree of emo-
tional involvement with the community that is around
the specific brand.
H6 Members’ community affective commitment in-
fluences their affective brand commitment posi-
tively.
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 379
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
5. Hagel and Armstrong (1997) argue that effective
communities generate higher customer loyalty behav-
iors and positive economic returns. OBCs are mar-
keting instruments that support brands and increase
customer loyalty and commitment (Hartmann et al.,
2015). Three strands of literature suggest that self-
identification with a community will lessen acceptance
and the spreading of negative information. First are the
implicit social “rules” or “relational schema” for group
behavior; these represent expectations of the nature
of behavior within relationships; among these are pos-
itive regard (Mottet & Richmond, 1998) and refrain-
ing from criticism (Argyle, 1992). Second are the affec-
tive and cognitive results of forming social identities on
how negative information is considered. Strong affec-
tive bonds have been shown to have a positive impact
on forgiveness based on a desire to continue the re-
lationship (Eisingerich, Rubera, Seifert, & Bhardwaj,
2011; Finkel, Rusbult, Kumashiro, & Hannon, 2002).
Cognitively, individuals tend to reject negative infor-
mation that might threaten a valued social identity
that is part of self-image; indeed, some theorists be-
lieve that self-protecting cognitive biases are pervasive,
strong and have an adaptive, evolutionary function
(Alicke & Sedikides, 2011).
Previous research shows that it takes a strong
relationship for consumers to exhibit resistance to
negative information (Aaker, Fournier, & Brasel, 2004;
Ahluwalia, Burnkrant, & Unnava, 2000; Dimitriadis &
Papista, 2010). Therefore, it is expected that individu-
als who have a stronger affective commitment toward
a brand may have greater resistance to negative
information, defined as the extent to which individuals
do not allow negative information to diminish their
general view of the brand (Eisingerich et al., 2011).
Moreover, in the context of brand communities, pre-
vious research has found that members of the commu-
nity often reveal behaviors and intentions that are con-
sistent with determined group norms, such as WOM
promotion of the brand, and having a preference for
the brand (Algesheimer et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2008).
Therefore, the following is hypothesized:
H7 Members’ affective brand commitment influ-
ences their positive WOM positively.
H8 Members’ affective brand commitment influ-
ences their resistance to negative information
positively.
There are also some implications for other rela-
tionships flowing from these hypotheses. According to
the prosocial behavior literature, affect such as emo-
tional concerns plays a crucial role in persuading in-
dividuals to participate in behaviors that go above
and beyond the call of duty (e.g., Eisenberg & Miller,
1987; Lam, 2012). “Emotion is a central aspect of
many marketing relationships (Bagozzi, 1995, p. 274).
Therefore, considering the social identity dimensions,
it is expected that the affective facet will be more
predictive of customers’ extrarole behaviors and com-
mitment to the brand itself. We argue that self-
categorization and community-based self-esteem pro-
vide a basis for members’ attitude toward the brand
but that community affective commitment supplies
the motivational force (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000). Of
the three components of social identity, Cater and
Zabkar (2009) find community affective commitment
the only major influence on customer loyalty. The model
(Figure 1) shows community affective commitment as
the direct determinant of affective brand commitment.
Thus, community affective commitment mediates the
relationships between cognitive and evaluative com-
ponents of social identity (i.e., self-categorization and
community-based self-esteem) and members’ affective
brand commitment. Subsequently, there are no direct
relationships between affective brand commitment and
self-categorization or community-based self-esteem in
this model.
H9a Members’ community affective commit-
ment mediates the positive effect of self-
categorization on affective brand commitment.
H9b Members’ community affective commitment
mediates the positive effect of community-
based self-esteem on affective brand commit-
ment.
Moderating Effects of Members’
Participation Type
From managerial and theoretical standpoints, it is es-
sential to consider what type of customer accentuates
the OBC’s influence on its members. We consider the
members’ participation type in an OBC. An individ-
ual participation in online communities can be divided
into two main types: posting (active or interactive mem-
bers) and lurking (passive or noninteractive members;
Preece, Nonnecke, & Andrews, 2004; Ridings, Gefen, &
Arinze, 2006). Studies comparing posters and lurkers
are infrequent, so there is insufficient knowledge about
poster–lurker differences in social identity formation
and effects in online communities. However, studies in
two areas, social identity formation and motivations for
sharing knowledge in online communities, both support
the premise that social identity drivers, formation, and
consequences may vary between the two groups.
In social identity theory, previous studies posit two
distinct paths that can result in social identity for-
mation (deductive and inductive; Postmes, Haslam, &
Swaab, 2005). The inductive route finds its basis in in-
teractive participation in groups (Postmes et al., 2005),
thus it is a bottom-up process. Cheng and Guo (2015)
discuss these two routes with reference to online com-
munities and link the inductive route to poster activity
and shows that interactive behaviors can lead to the for-
mation of social identity in online communities. They
consider that, for online communities, “because of the
380 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
6. Figure 1. Conceptual research model.
lack of physical cues, members’ behavioral involvement
and social relations play vital roles in . . . perceiving
their own embeddedness in the community” (p. 238).
Jans, Postmes, and Van der Zee (2012) find that, in
heterogeneous groups, inductive social identity forma-
tion can result in higher identification than deductive
social identity formation.
Postmes et al. (2005) describe the deductive route
a top-down process of self-categorization, formed based
on a response to the perceptions of shared characteris-
tics within the group (Postmes, Spears, Lee, & Novak,
2005). Thus, it does not necessarily require active so-
cial interaction. SCT (Bandura, 1971, 1986) provides
an explanation of how aspects of social identity, such
as self-categorization, are acquired by lurkers without
the need for active social interaction. Vicarious learning
(Bandura, 1971, 1986) posits that humans have a basic
but powerful symbolizing capability that allows adap-
tation to and sense making of environments, and that
this knowledge can be learnt vicariously by observa-
tion rather than directly. Indeed, vicarious learning is
an important advantage as it decreases the need for the
more costly “trial-and-error” learning (Bandura, 1971,
1986). Thus, SCT predicts that many people would
show “lurking” behavior, especially in environments
where others are not necessarily known to them. The
SCT perspective is that, contrary to being a nonpro-
ductive, nonparticipative behavior, this is a positive ac-
tivity and a powerful means for acquiring knowledge
and guiding future behavior. As such, it is argued that
it is also a powerful means for deductive social iden-
tity formation. Cheng and Guo (2015) also implicitly
link lurking behavior to the deductive route but do not
test this idea empirically. They do, however, argue that
posters will form a stronger social identity than lurkers
as the former will have more experience of involvement
in the group tasks and consequently a greater emo-
tional attachment to the group. Their study, however,
is not of brand communities. Brand community envi-
ronments may promote vicarious learning more than
others. Breitsohl, Kunz, and Dowell (2015) posit there
is more content on OBCs than in other types of online
communities. This suggests that social identity, includ-
ing self-categorization, may be readily formed in OBCs
without interaction as information-rich environments
allow vicarious learning to flourish.
The second line of support for differences between
posters and lurkers in the effects of social identity is
studies on motivations for knowledge sharing in online
communities. These provide evidence that social iden-
tity motivations for posting vary between posters and
lurkers (e.g., Lai & Chen, 2014). Suh (2013) demon-
strates a link between the degree of difference between
the virtual and real self and the quality and quantity of
sharing knowledge among posters. Preece et al. (2004)
describe reasons for not posting, rather than motiva-
tions to post, that might affect lurkers. Among these
are potential social identity factors that would be pre-
dicted by SCT, such as needing to understand the com-
munity and the social norms around posting as well as
being worried about others reaction to the quality of
their contribution. Significantly, in one of few studies
of both posters and lurkers, Lai and Chen (2014) find
lurkers motivated by intracommunity factors, which
supports the premise informed by SCT. This work is
supported by the arguments for the deductive route
to self-categorization, that direct social interaction is
not necessary for social identity formation and lurkers
might form social identity by the deductive route, that
is, from the characteristics and content of the brand
community Web site.
Thus, for OBCs, it is believed that both posters
and lurkers may form social identity by the deductive
route. Nevertheless, motivations differ between the
two groups. For posters, social identity can also take
place by the inductive route (Cheng & Guo, 2015).
Current evidence also leads to the conclusion that
posters should form a stronger social identity than
lurkers (Cheng & Guo, 2015; Jans et al., 2012) as
they generally have more depth of experience due to
their social interaction. Consequently, the strength of
components of social identity will be higher for posters
and because of the differences in motivation; the
strength of the paths between the components of social
identity and the consequences will differ between the
two.
Therefore, moderation effects are hypothesized as
follows:
H3a The impact of self-categorization on
community-based self-esteem is stronger
for posters than for lurkers.
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 381
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
7. H4a The impact of self-categorization on community
affective commitment is stronger for posters
than for lurkers.
H5a The impact of community-based self-esteem on
community affective commitment is stronger
for posters than for lurkers.
H6a The impact of community affective commitment
on affective brand commitment is stronger for
posters than for lurkers.
H7a The impact of affective brand commitment on
positive WOM is stronger for posters than for
lurkers.
H8a The impact of affective brand commitment on
resistance to negative information is stronger
for posters than for lurkers.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sample and Data Collection
An online survey was developed in order to collect data.
The choice of using an online survey is consistent with
the context of this study since the population of interest
for this research is members of OBCs who are Internet
users, and therefore, using an online survey technique
is the most effective technique to reach them success-
fully. Members of an online panel who self-identified
as current members of real OBCs (visited in last three
months) served as respondents to this survey. In the in-
troduction of the questionnaire, it was stated that the
survey was about people’s participation in OBCs and
their feelings toward the brand around which the com-
munity is developed. As in Porter and Donthu (2008),
the online survey started with a description and several
examples of real OBCs to provide a common under-
standing of definitions for respondents. Respondents
then identified the name and URL address of a commu-
nity of which they were a member and would refer to
during the survey. To make sure that all respondents
understood the meaning of OBCs and met the criteria of
the sample definition, they had to answer two screen-
ing questions after they self-identified themselves as
members of an OBC. (i) Have you visited your chosen
OBC within the last three months? (ii) Does your chosen
online community center on one specific brand? This
strategy provides the opportunity to gather data from
different OBCs without limitation to researcher cho-
sen communities, so providing variability in the data
to test the proposed model and increase the generaliz-
ability of the results. Moreover, it gave the authors the
opportunity to gather data from lurkers since due to
their defined nonparticipatory nature, it is difficult to
get lurkers to respond to surveys (Preece et al., 2004).
Table 1. Posters’ and Lurkers’ Profile.
Profile
Posters (N = 337,
frequency [%])
Lurkers (N = 415,
frequency [%])
Gender
Male 183 (54%) 177 (43%)
Female 154 (46%) 238 (57%)
Age
18–20 2 (0.5%) 3 (0.7%)
21–30 75 (22%) 65 (16%)
31–40 100 (30%) 98 (24%)
41–50 68 (20%) 83 (20%)
51–65 76 (22.5%) 125 (30%)
Over 65 16 (5%) 41 (9.3%)
Tenure
Less than 3 months 7 (2%) 32 (8%)
3–6 months 20 (6%) 33 (8%)
6 months to 1 year 39 (12%) 69 (17%)
1–2 years 78 (23%) 105 (25%)
2 –3 years 85 (25%) 74 (18%)
3–4 years 46 (14%) 43 (10%)
4–5 years 18 (5%) 15 (4%)
5 years and more 44 (13%) 44 (10%)
Within three weeks of the launch of the survey, the
link to the online survey was sent to 4065 panelists and
1004 of these individuals completed the survey, an ab-
solute response rate of 25%. After screening the data,
752 usable questionnaires that passed all screening
questions remained an effective response rate of 18%.
The respondents were U.S. residents, 48% male, 52%
female, with ages ranging between 18 and over 65. This
research defined lurkers as members who do not post
or post very infrequently (Nonnecke & Preece, 2000;
Ridings et al., 2006). Therefore, members who have
not posted a comment and/or a question on their cho-
sen community Web site within the last three months
or posted less than once a month were considered as
lurkers. The total number of lurkers identified in this
study was 415 or 55% of respondents, and the remain-
der of respondents (337) were considered posters (45%).
Table 1 shows the profile of both posters and lurkers.
Construct Measurements
All items were measured using 9-point Likert scales,
anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) to 9 (strongly agree)
unless it is specified otherwise. Three items adapted
from Baek, Kim, and Yu (2010) provided the measure
of brand prestige that refers to the relatively high sta-
tus of product positioning associated with a brand.
Brand distinctiveness indicates the perceived unique-
ness of a brand’s identity in relation to its competitors,
measured by adapting three items from Stokburger-
Sauer et al. (2012). Two items (one visual) measured
self-categorization (cognitive social identity; Bergami
& Bagozzi, 2000) as the perceived overlap between
an individual’s self-concept and the identity of the
community. An adapted four-item scale from Bagozzi
382 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
8. and Dholakia (2006) and Bateman, Gray, and Butler
(2011) measured community affective commitment (af-
fective social identity), anchored by 1 (not at all) to 9
(very much), as the emotional component of the mem-
bers’ social identity, which reflects the attachment to,
or feelings of belongingness with, the brand commu-
nity. Measures of community-based self-esteem (evalu-
ative social identity) rely on a four-item scale (Bagozzi
& Dholakia, 2006; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) to assess
members’ evaluation of self-worth based on belonging
to the community. We also adapted items from Meyer
and Allen (1997) to measure affective brand commit-
ment as a desire-based attachment to the brand where
customers remain with the brand because they want to.
To measure positive WOM, three items were adapted
from Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996). Resis-
tance to negative information is the extent to which
consumers do not change their general view of the
brand despite considering negative information about
the brand and measured by adapting four items from
Eisingerich et al. (2011).
DATA ANALYSIS
The research model and hypotheses were tested us-
ing structural equation modeling (SEM) with AMOS
(v. 22.0; Byrne, 2013). Following the recommendation
of a two-stage analytical procedure (Anderson & Gerb-
ing, 1988), confirmatory factor analysis was performed
using maximum-likelihood estimation. This was then
followed by path analysis of the structural relation-
ships. Both mediation and moderation analyses were
also conducted in AMOS.
Measurement Model
Data were assessed for the multivariate normality as-
sumption. First, the multivariate outliers were detected
by the Mahalanobis distance (D2
) measure, a multivari-
ate assessment of each observation across a set of vari-
ables (Hair, William, Barry, & Rolph, 2010). The pro-
cedure detected 19 cases as outliers. After an analysis
of the raw data, it was apparent that these cases were
representative and not deviant of observations in the
population, thus all outlying cases were retained for fi-
nal analysis (Hair, William, Barry, & Rolph, 2014). Sec-
ond, the distribution of the observed variables showed
that the skewness and kurtosis values of most items
were below |1|. Highest skewness was |1.56|and high-
est kurtosis was|3.27|. Since severe non-normality as-
sociates with skewness higher than |2| and kurtosis
higher than|7|(Boomsma & Hoogland, 2001; Pagiaslis
& Krontalis, 2014), data were considered suitable for
subsequent analyses.
In the confirmatory measurement model, all the
items load highly on their corresponding constructs
(p < 0.001, see Table 1). Cronbach’s alpha level for all
constructs is above 0.84 (Table 2), indicating high inter-
Table 2. Measurement Items and Validity Assessment.
Constructs and Indicators SFL
Brand prestige (Cronbach’s α = 0.90)
This brand is very prestigious. 0.87
This brand has high status. 0.94
This brand is very upscale. 0.81
Brand distinctiveness (Cronbach’s α = 0.84)
This brand has a distinctive identity. 0.71
This brand is unique. 0.82
This brand stands out from its competitors. 0.88
Self-categorization (Cronbach’s α = 0.92)
Eight-point visual and verbal presentation 0.90
Please indicate to what degree your self-image
overlaps with the identity of this community as
you perceive it.
0.95
Community-based self-esteem (Cronbach’s α = 0.94)
I am a valuable member of this community. 0.95
I am an important member of this community. 0.96
I feel I have much to offer to this community. 0.89
I am a cooperative participant in this community. 0.76
Community affective commitment (Cronbach’s α =
0.96)
How attached are you to this community? 0.91
How strong would you say your feelings of
belongingness are toward this community?
0.95
How strong a connection do you feel to this
community?
0.96
To what extent does this community have a great
deal of personal meaning for you?
0.91
Affective brand commitment (Cronbach’s α = 0.96)
I feel like this brand is part of my family. 0.88
I feel emotionally attached to this brand. 0.93
This brand has a great deal of personal meaning
for me.
0.95
I feel a strong sense of belonging to this brand. 0.95
Resistance to negative information (Cronbach’s α =
0.90)
Negative information about this brand does not
change my general view of the brand.
0.91
I hardly change my view of this brand based on
negative information about it.
0.89
Negative information about this brand has no
effect on me.
0.79
Negative information about this brand changes
the way I think of the brand (R).
0.75
Word of mouth (Cronbach’s α = 0.94)
I say positive things about this brand to other
people.
0.91
I recommend this brand to someone who seeks
my advice.
0.94
I encourage friends and relatives to do business
with this brand.
0.87
Note: SFL = standardized factor loadings; R = reverse coded.
nal consistency (Nunnally, 1978). Construct reliability
of all eight constructs exceeds 0.85, above the recom-
mended value of 0.60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Average
variance extracted (AVE) is above 0.65 (AVE > 0.50)
for all variables, confirming construct validity (Fornell
& Larcker, 1981). Moreover, there is sufficient discrim-
inant validity as the AVE values for any two constructs
exceed the square of the correlation estimate between
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 383
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
9. Table 3. Construct Measure Descriptive Statistics.
Constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Brand prestige 0.76
2. Brand distinctiveness 0.48 0.65
3. Self-categorization 0.22 0.19 0.85
4. Community affective commitment 0.21 0.23 0.55 0.87
5. Community self-esteem 0.17 0.16 0.42 0.66 0.80
6. Affective brand commitment 0.24 0.30 0.43 0.42 0.59 0.86
7. Resistance to negative information 0.21 0.25 0.09 0.12 0.13 0.17 0.70
8. Word-of-mouth 0.35 0.50 0.22 0.21 0.28 0.33 0.31 0.83
Composite reliability 0.91 0.85 0.92 0.96 0.94 0.96 0.90 0.94
Mean 6.8 7.5 5.2 6.0 6.0 5.9 6.7 7.6
Standard deviation 1.6 1.2 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.2 1.7 1.4
Notes: Bold figures on the diagonal are the AVE for the constructs. Lower diagonal represent squared correlations. All correlations are significant
at p < 0.001.
them (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) as detailed in Table 3.
The overall model fit indices (χ2
[296] = 947.559,
p < 0.001; normed chi-square [χ2
/df] = 3.201, which
is less than the cut-off criteria of 5 (Schumacker & Lo-
max, 2004) CFI [Comparative Fit Index] = 0.97; NFI
[Normed Fit Index] = 0.96; IFI [Incremental Fit Index]
= 0.97; PNFI [Parsimony Normed Fit Index] = 0.81;
RMSEA [Root Mean Square Error of Approximation]
= 0.054 with the 90% confidence interval of RMSEA
[LO = 0.050, HI = 0.058]) are satisfactory (Hair et al.,
2010). Generally, these results indicate that the study
measurement constructs possess adequate reliability
and validity.
Common Method Variance
The design of this study contained several procedural
remedies to minimize common method variance: avoid-
ing vague, complex, and double-barreled questions, pre-
venting respondents’ access to their previous answers,
increasing respondents’ motivation to answer all ques-
tions correctly by explaining how much their help was
needed, stressing the importance of accuracy and con-
scientiousness, guaranteeing them anonymity and con-
fidentiality, and assuring all of them that there were
no “right” or “wrong” answers (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Pod-
sakoff 2012). Additionally, we placed demographic in-
formation questions between sections of the main ques-
tionnaire as a cognitive break. Moreover, neither the
Harman’s single-factor test (cf. Andersson & Bateman,
1997) nor a follow-up comparison CFA indicates the
presence of a single general factor. For the latter test,
loading all 27 items into one confirmatory factor (Pod-
sakoff et al., 2003) resulted in fit statistics (χ2
[324]
= 9866.339, p < 0.001; normed chi-square [χ2
/df] =
30.452; CFI = 0.56; NFI = 0.55; IFI = 0.56; PNFI = 0.51;
RMSEA = 0.198 with the 90% confidence interval of
RMSEA [LO = 0.195, HI = 0.201]) representing an ap-
preciably worse fit than the study measurement model
(χ2
[28] for comparison = 8918.78; p < 0.001). These
results support the supposition that common method
bias does not present a significant problem in this
study.
Structural Model
The structural model fit statistics indicate a good model
fit: χ2
(315) = 1474.690, p < 0.001; normed chi-square
[χ2
/df] = 4.68; CFI = 0.95; NFI = 0.93; IFI = 0.95;
PNFI = 0.84; RMSEA = 0.070 with the 90% confidence
interval of RMSEA [LO = 0.066, HI = 0.074].
The data support all the hypothesized relationships
in our model (Table 4). For H1 and H2, significant asso-
ciations exist in the data between the positive effects of
brand prestige (γ = 0.32, p < 0.001) and brand distinc-
tiveness (γ = 0.24, p < 0.001) on self-categorization;
these explain up to 26% of the variance in the self-
categorization construct. Supporting H3 and H4, self-
categorization is a significant predictor of community-
based self-esteem (β = 0.65, p < 0.001), explaining 43%
of the variance in the construct, and community affec-
tive commitment (β = 0.39, p < 0.001). Supporting H5,
community-based self-esteem is significantly and pos-
itively related to community affective commitment (β
= 0.56, p < 0.001). The percentage of variance in com-
munity affective commitment as explained by its two
respective antecedents is 75%. Supporting H6, a posi-
tive relationship exists from community affective com-
mitment to affective brand commitment (β = 0.78, p
< 0.001), explaining 61% of variance in this construct.
Finally, supporting H7 and H8, affective brand com-
mitment is a significant driver of positive WOM (β =
0.58, p < 0.001) and resistance to negative information
(β = 0.43, p < 0.001) explaining 34% and 18% of the
variance in them, respectively.
Mediating Effects of Community Affective
Commitment
The mediation hypotheses (H9a and H9b) were tested
using the approach advocated by Zhao, Lynch, and
Chen (2010). We examined the relationships in the
model to determine if community affective commitment
mediated the relationship between the antecedent
384 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
10. Table 4. Structural Model Results.
Hypotheses Relationship Std.a p Findings
H1 Brand prestige → Self-categorization 0.32 <0.001 Supported
H2 Brand distinctiveness→ Self-categorization 0.24 <0.001 Supported
H3 Self-categorization→ Community-based self-esteem 0.65 <0.001 Supported
H4 Self-categorization→ Community affective commitment 0.39 <0.001 Supported
H5 Community-based self-esteem→ Community affective commitment 0.56 <0.001 Supported
H6 Community affective commitment→ Affective brand commitment 0.78 <0.001 Supported
H7 Affective brand commitment→ Positive WOM 0.58 <0.001 Supported
H8 Affective brand commitment→ Resistance to negative information 0.43 <0.001 Supported
Note: Std. = standardized regression weights.
Table 5. Mediation Analysis.
Independent
Variable Dependent Variable Mediator
Indirect effect
standardized coef.
Direct effect
standardized coef. Result
Self-categorization Affective brand
commitment
Community affective
commitment
0.47∗ 0.20∗ Partial me-
diation
Community-based
self-esteem
Affective brand
commitment
Community affective
commitment
0.34∗ 0.03 (ns) Mediation
∗
Significant at p < 0.001.
variables of self-categorization and community-based
self-esteem and the dependent variable, affective brand
commitment. The bootstrap confidence intervals of in-
direct effects were estimated using 10,000 samples and
with a bias-corrected confidence level of 95 (Jim´enez
& Mendoza, 2013; Slade, Dwivedi, Piercy, & Williams,
2015).
The mediation tests in Table 5 show that community
affective commitment partially mediates, or in other
words complementary mediates (Zhao et al., 2010), the
impact of self-categorization on affective brand commit-
ment (H9a). The indirect path from self-categorization
to affective brand commitment is stronger than the di-
rect one, consistent with mediation (Peltier, Zahay, &
Lehmann, 2013), and both the indirect and direct ef-
fects are significant. These results indicate that com-
munity affective commitment does mediate the path
from self-categorization to affective brand commitment.
However, because the relationship is not that of full
mediation, there might be an omitted mediator in
the direct path, and so another factor to consider
in future analyses (Peltier et al., 2013; Zhao et al.,
2010).
Table 5 also shows that community affective com-
mitment mediates community-based self-esteem, that
is, the latter has an “indirect-only” effect when ana-
lyzing members’ commitment toward the brand. The
indirect effect of community-based self-esteem on af-
fective brand commitment is larger than the direct
effect, consistent with mediation, and the direct ef-
fect becomes nonsignificant when the indirect effect
is included in the analysis. This result reveals strong
support for our hypothesized relationship (H9b) and
means that as members’ community-based self-esteem
increases, feeling of attachment toward the community
is essential to build members’ commitment toward the
brand.
Moderating Effects of Members’
Participation Type
Using multiple-sample analyses (Jöreskog & Sörbom,
1999), we tested the hypotheses for the moderating
effects of members’ participation type for posters and
lurkers subsamples and members’ gender for male and
female subsamples. Running multigroup structural
models requires initial tests of measurement invari-
ance through multi-sample confirmatory factor anal-
yses (MCFA; Byrne & Watkins, 2003; Cheung, 2008;
Hair et al., 2010). The measurement invariance test-
ing process demonstrated that all eight variables in the
model met the criteria for configural invariance and
partial metric invariance (see Appendix).
Testing the moderating hypotheses (H3a–H8a)
entails two separate structural models for the lurk-
ers/posters subsamples and conducting tests of
moderation to determine whether the representative
path coefficients differed. Following Algesheimer et al.
(2005), the process used was as follows for each test:
Two multiple-sample models were created. In the
first model called “baseline” model in Table 6, all
paths were unconstrained between the two groups.
In the second model (called “equal paths” model in
Table 6), the relevant path was constrained (e.g.,
self-categorization to community-based self-esteem
for H3a) to be equal for both subsamples. The dif-
ference in chi-square values between the two models
delivers a test of the equality of the path for the two
groups. Table 6 summarizes these analyses and their
results.
For lurkers versus posters, the results indicate that
members’ participation type moderates community-
based self-esteem’s effect on community affective com-
mitment (this path is stronger for lurkers). The re-
lationship between community affective commitment
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 385
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
11. Table 6. Results of Moderating Effects of Members’ Participation Type.
Hypothesis Path Coefficients in Unconstrained Model χ2 Test Results
Baseline model No constraints
model:
χ2 (630) = 1897.679
H3a
Self-categorization → Community-based
self-esteem
β(L) = 0.60∗
β(P) = 0.57∗
H3a: Rejected
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1897.686
χd
2 (1) = 0.007
p > 0.90
H4a
Self-categorization → Community
affective commitment
β(L) = 0.36a,∗
β(P) = 0.47∗
H4a: Rejected
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1898.691
χd
2 (1) = 1.012
p > 0.30
H5a
Community-based self-esteem →
Community affective commitment
β(L) = 0.58∗
β(P) = 0.48∗
H5a: Rejected
However, the path is stronger (at a
significant level) for lurkers than
posters
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1907.968
χd
2 (1) = 10.289
p < 0.005
H6a
Community affective commitment →
Affective brand commitment
β(L) = 0.75∗
β(P) = 0.74∗
H6a: Rejected
However, the path is stronger (at a
significant level) for lurkers than
posters.
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1903.534
χd
2 (1) = 5.855
p < 0.05
H7a
Affective brand commitment → Positive
word of mouth
β(L) = 0.53∗
β(P) = 0.62∗
H7a: Rejected
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1897.931
χd
2 (1) = 0.252
p > 0.60
H8a
Affective brand commitment →
Resistance to negative information
β(L) = 0.35∗
β(P) = 0.52∗
H8a: Supported
Equal path model:
χ2 (631) = 1906.726
χd
2 (1) = 9.047
p < 0.005
a
Standardized coefficient.
L = lurkers; P = posters.
∗
p < 0.001.
Figure 2. Comparison between posters and lurkers. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
and affective brand commitment is slightly stronger
for lurkers compared to posters. Moreover, the path
from affective brand commitment to resistance to neg-
ative information is stronger for posters than for
lurkers (supporting H8a). Figure 2 illustrates these
results.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study investigates the psychological effects of
social identity in OBCs and reveals the intermedi-
ate mechanisms mediating and moderating members’
social identity effects on their commitment to the
386 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
12. brand. This commitment to the brand is important for
the downstream psychological effects tested, positive
WOM, and resistance to negative information. The re-
sults of this study strongly suggest that when exam-
ining social identity in OBCs, distinguishing between
self-categorization, community affective commitment,
and community-based self-esteem, as related but sepa-
rate components of community members’ social identity
is possible and important. This allows organizations to
formulate a successful branding strategy. Companies
need a deeper understanding of how members’ social
identity leads to their positive behavioral consequences
in OBCs.
This study contributes to the literature on the role
of the components of social identity and flow of influ-
ence in OBCs in four aspects. First, brand prestige
and brand distinctiveness translate into and affect in-
dividuals’ sense of identifying themselves as members
of the community (self-categorization). Second, self-
categorization and community-based self-esteem pro-
vide a basis for members’ commitment towards the
brand but community affective commitment is the di-
rect determinant of their brand commitment. This
means that without cultivating members’ affective com-
mitment to the community, members in an OBC may
not necessarily become committed to the brand asso-
ciated with the community. This reinforces the criti-
cal role of feelings of connection and belongingness to-
wards the community in building members’ brand com-
mitment and positive behavioral consequences. Third,
the findings of this research indicate that an important
psychological effect of being part of an OBC is to culti-
vate customers brand commitment, which leads to their
greater positive WOM and higher resistance to negative
information they may hear about the brand. Fourth, the
results throw light on the relationship among cognitive,
affective, and evaluative components of social identity
in OBCs for both posters and lurkers and also that these
stimulate brand commitment, positive WOM, and resis-
tance to negative information for both groups.
The results in Table 6 show that all the relationships
in the model are significant for both posters and lurkers.
However, the results for differences in relationships
within the model by participation type are counterintu-
itive. Rather than the relationships being stronger for
posters than lurkers, for the majority of the hypothe-
ses concerning participation type (H3a–H8a, see Table
6) this is not the case; in fact, only for H8a, affective
brand commitment to resistance to negative informa-
tion is the path stronger for posters than lurkers. For
all other relationships, apart from H5a and H6a, there
are no significant differences in the path strength; for
H5a and H6a, the relationship is reversed, the paths are
stronger for lurkers than for posters. Taken together,
these results suggest that although lurkers do not vis-
ibly participate in the community, they are as likely
as posters to feel the sense of belonging to the com-
munity. They do see themselves as members, and so
identify with the brand community and experience a
social identity.
Theoretically, the significant and equal path coeffi-
cients suggest that the deductive route to social iden-
tity for lurkers holds not only for self-categorization as
suggested by Cheng and Guo (2015) but also for com-
munity affective commitment, and community-based
self-esteem. SCT supports such a premise through
the role of vicarious learning, perhaps assisted by
the information-rich context of OBCs (Breitsohl et al.,
2015). The feeling of self-esteem based on being impor-
tant members of the community increased lurkers’ com-
mitment to the community and therefore to the brand
itself. These relationships were significantly stronger
than those of posters. This demonstrates an interesting
finding as it might have been expected that these rela-
tionships should have been stronger for posters as they
are the more active members. SCT and previous work
on motivations for not posting can also help provide an
explanation for these findings. First, in addition to this
reversal in path coefficient strength to that expected,
there is a significant difference between posters and
lurkers in length of membership of the communities
(χ2
= 24.84, df = 7, p < 0.01), which indicates lurkers
are more likely to have shorter membership. Such a re-
sult is in line with previous research, such as Preece
et al. (2004), and SCT predictions that newer or less
experienced members will use vicarious learning to un-
derstand the community and the social norms around
posting before participation. SCT predicts that an out-
come of observation is establishment of self-efficacy,
that is, confidence in performing a particular behav-
ior (Bandura, 1971), in this case, posting information
or questions. Previous research also finds that lurkers
may not post because they believe they have nothing
to add, or because of worries about others evaluations
of their posts (Nonnecke, Preece, & Andrews, 2004;
Preece et al., 2004). Thus, lurkers may have lower self-
efficacy regarding participation in OBCs. Gangadhar-
batla (2008) demonstrates a link between self-efficacy
and collective self-esteem regarding use of social net-
work services. Further, Lee and Peccei (2007) posit that
fulfilling individuals’ needs for esteem and approval
leads to the development of a strong affective commit-
ment to an organization. The lower self-efficacy likely
felt by lurkers may mean that they are more likely to
find greater psychological reward from perceived self-
enhancement from their community membership and
so a stronger path to community affective commitment.
The results also support our initial premise, not only
are lurkers valid participants, they are also valuable
community members. The results suggest that their vi-
carious experience in the OBC can, perhaps through
observing the implicit social rules expected in the com-
munity (Argyle, 1992; Mottet & Richmond, 1998) or
observing the sharing of positive social interactions, re-
sult in strong, positive, and significant path coefficients
leading to positive WOM. They may not post informa-
tion within the brand community, for several reasons
(Nonnecke et al., 2004; Preece et al., 2004), but seem
to intend to be less restrained within their own net-
works. Silence within the OBC does not mean silence
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 387
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
13. outside. The information-rich context should provide
lurkers with much positive WOM material.
Further, their vicarious experience is capable of
strengthening attitudes and commitment to the brand
by the affective and cognitive effects on how negative
information is managed, as they also show significant
path coefficients for resistance to negative information.
This may be either through the effect of strong af-
fective bonds on forgiveness (Eisingerich et al., 2011;
Finkel et al., 2002) or rejection of negative information
that might threaten a valued social identity. The re-
sistance to negative information relationship may be
stronger for posters, but stronger bonds are related to
stronger social identity, which posters may acquire in
some circumstances. Jans et al. (2012) find that in het-
erogeneous groups, inductive social identity formation
can result in higher identification than deductive so-
cial identity formation. Where negative information is
concerned, groups may be perceived as more heteroge-
neous, so in that circumstance, posters may have ad-
ditional social identity resources that strengthen the
relationship. Nevertheless, the significant paths show
that the brand also benefits from rejection of nega-
tive information through social identity formation in
lurkers.
Recommendation of a Strategic Approach
In conclusion, this study’s results suggest that the af-
fective component of social identity in an OBC is an im-
portant driver of members’ commitment to the brand
itself that increases their intention to talk positively
about the brand and makes them more defensive of it.
The brand’s online community is not just a platform
for the brand or an addition to the brand’s communica-
tions mix but should be seen as absolutely central to de-
velop their customer–brand relationships. Brands can
do this by cultivating their customers’ commitment to
their online communities. A brand can use customers
themselves to build long-term relationships in OBCs.
When customers’ self-concepts are linked to the com-
munity, then the company behind that brand may be
able to gain an enduring competitive advantage since
this type of connection is difficult for competitors to
imitate (Escalas & Bettman, 2003). Therefore, organi-
zations should treat OBCs as strategic opportunities.
Reciprocity between partners in an exchange relation-
ship builds commitment. Companies should therefore
provide evidence of activity in the community, encour-
aging members to interact, listening to customers, pro-
viding them with high-quality up-to-date information,
and delivering rewards for members’ contribution. The
evidence from this study is that these features are
equally important for lurkers and posters
Brand managers should consider both posters and
lurkers and understand what both groups’ feel they
achieve and gain from visiting the OBC. They should
make sure that members can interact freely with each
other in a friendly online community, so that marketers
can pursue customers’ perceptions about and feelings
toward the brand in real time (McWilliam, 2000). Brand
managers can do this by increasing the access points to
the online community (e.g., creating access to the com-
munity through mobile devices), and making it easy
for members to express their feelings about and expe-
riences with the brand. For instance, Mini Max USA,
a manufacturer of wood working tools, allows its forum
members to use a rich text editor, they can then change
font size and color and use emotions (smiley conver-
sational icons) and add Web links (Adjei, Noble, & No-
ble, 2012). Brand managers should make some informal
and anonymous form of participation easy, for example,
pop-up polls on issues in addition to promoting posts.
This should enable those who feel restrained or wor-
ried about their contribution to start to participate and
gain positive psychological rewards. OBCs can be used
as platforms for problem solving and sources of inno-
vation (F¨uller, Jawecki, & M¨uhlbacher, 2007; F¨uller,
Matzler, & Hoppe, 2008). Brand managers could use
crowdsourcing models (Brabham, 2008) that encourage
simple participation that lurkers will be more willing to
participate with, for example, just a button press rather
than leaving comments, lurkers may not post, but they
might click.
Brand managers should do their best to implement a
two-tier recognition system that rewards both posters’
and lurkers’ contribution and enable visits and reading
of other posts to be rewarded in some way. They should
try to track members’ movements on their online com-
munities and reward them appropriately. For exam-
ple, the length of time spent on the community Web
site, number of pages visited, items downloaded, refer-
ral, forwarding or resending the information to another
party, in addition to the posting contribution. The re-
sults of this study suggest that referral, forwarding, and
resending are likely to be positively influenced by social
identity formation for all brand community members,
as they constitute a type of WOM behavior. Brands
can reward both posters and lurkers by sending emails
with discounts, invitations to special online events, or
receive special offers to try new products or services.
The provision of rich information will also provide ma-
terial for more general WOM.
Moreover, managers should encourage all visitors to
the OBC to get in touch directly with any issues they
have, and make this easy with dedicated staff, for ex-
ample using chat sessions, providing lists of frequently
asked questions or company posts that show the brand
listens to customers. All these activities will help mem-
bers, both posters and lurkers, to feel that they are part
of the community, increase their self-esteem, and so feel
committed to the community and the brand itself.
Finally, the limitations of the present study suggest
implications for future research. The sample members
of this study are residents in the United States. Testing
for cross-national and cross-cultural effects enhances
the external validity of research results. The possible
impact of other factors such as the size of the com-
munity, level of member involvement, and length of
388 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
14. membership on self-categorization remains open for ex-
ploration. Although research into brand communities
is well established, the same cannot be said about the
research into the members’ participation types, specif-
ically the importance of lurkers. There is a need for
further research into lurkers. Why do lurkers feel that
they are important members of the community when
they do not actively participate, and how can brands
increase the feeling of social identity among lurkers
in their online communities? While there is a relation-
ship between participation and length of OBC mem-
bership, there is still much unexplained about length
of membership and its impact. Future research should
investigate this relationship in more detail. Further,
Breitsohl et al. (2015) distinguish between firm-hosted
and customer-led brand communities; this research fo-
cused on firm-hosted OBCs, future research might in-
vestigate the model presented in this paper in other
types of OBC.
REFERENCES
Aaker, J. (1999). The malleable self: The tole of self-expression
in persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36, 45–57.
Aaker, J., Fournier, S., & Brasel, S. A. (2004). When good
brands do bad. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 1–16.
Adjei, M. T., Noble, S. M., & Noble, C. H. (2010). The influence
of C2C communications in online brand communities on
customer purchase behavior. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 38, 634–653.
Adjei, M. T., Noble, C. H., & Noble, S. M. (2012). Enhancing
relationships with customers through online brand commu-
nities. MIT Sloan Management Review, 53, 22–24.
Ahearne, M., Bhattacharya, C. B., & Gruen, T. (2005). An-
tecedents and consequences of customer-company identifi-
cation: Expanding the role of relationship marketing. Jour-
nal of Applied Psychology, 90, 574–585.
Ahluwalia, R., Burnkrant, R. E., & Unnava, H. R. (2000). Con-
sumer response to negative publicity: The moderating role
of commitment. Journal of Marketing Research, 37, 203–
214.
Algesheimer, R., Dholakia, U. M., & Herrmann, A. (2005).
The social influence of brand community: Evidence from
European car clubs. Journal of Marketing, 69, 19–34.
Alicke, M. D., & Sedikides, C. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of
self-enhancement and self-protection. New York: Guilford
Press.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation
modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step
approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411–423.
Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the
workplace: Some causes and effects. Journal of Organiza-
tional Behavior, 18, 449–469.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and
the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20–
39.
Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. (2008). Iden-
tification in organizations: An examination of four funda-
mental questions. Journal of Management, 34, 325–374.
Ashley, C., & Tuten, T. (2015). Creative strategies in social
media marketing: An exploratory study of branded social
content and consumer engagement. Psychology & Market-
ing, 32, 15–27.
Argyle, M. (1992). The social psychology of everyday life. Lon-
don: Routledge.
Baek, T. H., Kim, J., & Yu, J. H. (2010). The differen-
tial roles of brand credibility and brand prestige in con-
sumer brand choice. Psychology & Marketing, 27, 662–
678.
Bagozzi, R. P. (1995). Reflections on relationship marketing in
consumer markets. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 23, 272–277.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. M. (2002). Intentional social
action in virtual communities. Journal of Interactive Mar-
keting, 16, 2–21.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. M. (2006). Antecedents and
purchase consequences of customer participation in small
group brand communities. International Journal of Re-
search in Marketing, 23, 45–61.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural
equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sci-
ence, 16, 74–94.
Bandura, A. (1971). Vicarious- and self-reinforcement pro-
cesses. In R. Glaser (Ed.), The nature of reinforcement (pp.
228–278). New York: Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action:
A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Bansal, H. S., Irving, P. G., & Taylor, S. F. (2004). A
three-component model of customer commitment to service
providers. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
32, 234–250.
Bateman, P. J., Gray, P. H., & Butler, B. S. (2011). Research
note-the impact of community commitment on participation
in online communities. Information Systems Research, 22,
841–854.
Bergami, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000). Self-categorization, af-
fective commitment and group self-esteem as distinct as-
pects of social identity in the organization. British Journal
of Social Psychology, 39, 555–577.
Bhattacharya, C. B., & Sen, S. (2003). Consumer-company
identification: A framework for understanding consumers’
relationships with companies. Journal of Marketing, 67,
76–88.
Bhattacharya, C. B., Rao, H., & Glynn, M. A. (1995). Under-
standing the bond of identification: An investigation of its
correlates among art museum members. Journal of Mar-
keting, 59, 46–57.
Blanton, H., & Christie, C. (2003). Deviance regulation: A the-
ory of action and identity. Review of General Psychology, 7,
115–149.
Boomsma, A., & Hoogland, J. J. (2001). The robustness of LIS-
REL modeling revisited. In R. Cudeck, S. du Toit, & D.
Sorbom (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: Present and
future (pp. 1–25). Chicago, IL: Scientific Software Interna-
tional.
Brabham, D. C. (2008). Crowdsourcing as a model for problem
solving an introduction and cases. Convergence, 14, 75–90.
Breitsohl, J., Kunz, W. H., & Dowell, D. (2015). Does the
host match the content? A taxonomical update on online
consumption communities. Journal of Marketing Manage-
ment, 31, 1040–1064.
Brodie, R. J., Ilic, A., Juric, B., & Hollebeek, L. (2013). Con-
sumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An ex-
ploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66, 105–
114.
Brown, S. G. (1969). Laws of form. London: Allen and Unwin.
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 389
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
15. Brown, R., Condor, S., Mathews, A., Wade, G., & Williams, J.
(1986). Explaining intergroup differentiation in an indus-
trial organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 59,
273–286.
Brown, T. J., Barry, T. E., Dacin, P. A., & Gunst, R. F.
(2005). Spreading the word: Investigating antecedents of
consumers’ positive word-of-mouth intentions and behav-
iors in a retailing context. Journal of the Academy of Mar-
keting Science, 33, 123–138.
Burmann, C., & Zeplin, S. (2005). Building brand commit-
ment: A behavioral approach to internal brand manage-
ment. Journal of Brand Management, 12, 279–300.
Byrne, B. M. (2013). Structural equation modeling with
AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming.
New York: Routledge.
Byrne, B. M., & Watkins, D. (2003). The issue of measurement
invariance revisited. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
34, 155–175.
Carlson, B. D., Suter, T. A., & Brown, T. J. (2008). Social versus
psychological brand community: The role of psychological
sense of brand community. Journal of Business Research,
61, 284–291.
Cater, B., & Zabkar, V. (2009). Antecedents and consequences
of commitment in marketing research services: The client’s
perspective. Industrial Marketing Management, 38, 785–
797.
Chan, K. W., & Li, S. Y. (2010). Understanding consumer-to-
consumer interactions in virtual communities: The salience
of reciprocity. Journal of Business Research, 63, 1033–
1040.
Cheney, G. C. (1983). On the various and changing meanings of
organizational membership: A field study of organizational
identification. Communication Monographs, 50, 342–362.
Cheng, Z. C., & Guo, T. C. (2015). The formation of social iden-
tity and self-identity based on knowledge contribution in
virtual communities: An inductive route model. Computers
in Human Behavior, 43, 229–241.
Cheung, G. W. (2008). Testing equivalence in the structure,
means, and variances of higher-order constructs with struc-
tural equation modeling. Organizational Research Meth-
ods, 11, 593–613.
Curr´as-P´erez, R. C. (2009). Effects of perceived identity based
on corporate social responsibility: The role of consumer
identification with the company. Corporate Reputation Re-
view, 12, 177–191.
Curr´as-P´erez, R., Bign´e-Alca˜niz, E., & Alvarado-Herrera, A.
(2009). The role of self-definitional principles in consumer
identification with a socially responsible company. Journal
of Business Ethics, 89, 547–564.
Dholakia, U. M., Blazevic, V., Wiertz, C., & Algesheimer, R.
(2009). Communal service delivery how customers benefit
from participation in firm-hosted virtual P3 communities.
Journal of Service Research, 12, 208–226.
Dimitriadis, S., & Papista, E. (2010). Integrating relation-
ship quality and consumer-brand identification in build-
ing brand relationships: Proposition of a conceptual model.
Marketing Review, 10, 385–401.
Dutton, J. E., & Dukerich, J. M. (1991). Keeping an eye on the
mirror: Image and identity in organizational adaptation.
Academy of Management Journal, 34, 517–554.
Einwiller, S. A., Fedorikhin, A., Johnson, A. R., & Kamins,
M. A. (2006). Enough is enough! When identification no
longer prevents negative corporate associations. Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 34, 185–194.
Eisenbeiss, M., Blechschmidt, B., Backhaus, K., & Freund, P.
A. (2012). “The (real) world is not enough:” Motivational
drivers and user behavior in virtual worlds. Journal of In-
teractive Marketing, 26, 4–20.
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy
to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin,
101, 91–119.
Eisingerich, A. B., Rubera, G., Seifert, M., & Bhardwaj, G.
(2011). Doing good and doing better despite negative infor-
mation? The role of corporate social responsibility in con-
sumer resistance to negative information. Journal of Ser-
vice Research, 14, 60–75.
Elbedweihy, A. M., Jayawardhena, C., Elsharnouby, M. H., &
Elsharnouby, T. H. (2016). Customer relationship building:
The role of brand attractiveness and consumer–brand iden-
tification. Journal of Business Research, 69, 2901–2910.
Ellemers, N., Kortekaas, P., & Ouwerkerk, J. W. (1999). Self-
categorisation, commitment to the group and group self-
esteem as related but distinct aspects of social identity.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 371–389.
Escalas, J. E., & Bettman, J. R. (2003). You are what they
eat: The influence of reference groups on consumers’ con-
nections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13,
339–348.
Finkel, E. J., Rusbult, C. E., Kumashiro, M., & Hannon, P. A.
(2002). Dealing with betrayal in close relationships: Does
commitment promote forgiveness? Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 82, 956.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural
equation models with unobservable variables and measure-
ment error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
F¨uller, J., Jawecki, G., & M¨uhlbacher, H. (2007). Innovation
creation by online basketball communities. Journal of Busi-
ness Research, 60, 60–71.
F¨uller, J., Matzler, K., & Hoppe, M. (2008). Brand commu-
nity members as a source of innovation. Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 25, 608–619.
Fullerton, G. (2005). The impact of brand commitment on loy-
alty to retail service brands. Canadian Journal of Adminis-
trative Sciences, 22, 97–110.
Gangadharbatla, H. (2008). Facebook me: Collective self-
esteem, need to belong, and internet self-efficacy as predic-
tors of the iGeneration’s attitudes toward social networking
sites. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 8, 5–15.
Gruen, T. W., Summers, J. O., & Acito, F. (2000). Relationship
marketing activities, commitment, and membership behav-
iors in professional associations. Journal of Marketing, 64,
34–49.
Gustafsson, A., Johnson, M. D., & Roos, I. (2005). The effects
of customer satisfaction, relationship commitment dimen-
sions, and triggers on customer retention. Journal of Mar-
keting, 69, 210–218.
Hagel, J., & Armstrong, A. G. (1997). Net gain: Expanding
markets through virtual communities. Boston, MA: Har-
vard Business School Press.
Hair, J. F., William, B., Barry, J. B., & Rolph, E. A. (2010).
Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Hair, J. F., William, B., Barry, J. B., & Rolph, E. A. (2014).
Multivariate data analysis: Pearson new international edi-
tion. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Hartmann, B. J., Wiertz, C., & Arnould, E. J. (2015). Exploring
consumptive moments of value-creating practice in online
community. Psychology & Marketing, 32, 319–340.
Hollebeek, L. D., Glynn, M. S., & Brodie, R. J. (2014). Con-
sumer brand engagement in social media: Conceptualiza-
tion, scale development and validation. Journal of Interac-
tive Marketing, 28, 149–165.
390 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
16. Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social identity theory and self-
categorization theory: A historical review. Social and Per-
sonality Psychology Compass, 2, 204–222.
Jackson, J. W., & Smith, E. R. (1999). Conceptualizing social
identity: A new framework and evidence for the impact
of different dimensions. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 25, 120–135.
Jans, L., Postmes, T., & Van der Zee, K. I. (2012). Sharing
differences: The inductive route to social identity forma-
tion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1145–
1149.
Jim´enez, F. R., & Mendoza, N. A. (2013). Too popular to ig-
nore: The influence of online reviews on purchase intentions
of search and experience products. Journal of Interactive
Marketing, 27, 226–235.
Johnson, D. S., & Lowe, B. (2015). Emotional support, per-
ceived corporate ownership and skepticism toward out-
groups in virtual communities. Journal of Interactive
Marketing, 29, 1–10.
J¨oreskog, K. G., & S¨orbom, D. (1999). LISREL 8: User’s refer-
ence guide. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software Inter-
national.
Kim, J. W., Choi, J., Qualls, W., & Han, K. (2008). It takes a
marketplace community to raise brand commitment: The
role of online communities. Journal of Marketing Manage-
ment, 24, 409–431.
Koll, O., von Wallpach, S., & Kreuzer, M. (2010). Multi-method
research on consumer–brand associations: Comparing free
associations, storytelling, and collages. Psychology & Mar-
keting, 27, 584–602.
Kuenzel, S., & Vaux Halliday, S. (2008). Investigating an-
tecedents and consequences of brand identification. Journal
of Product & Brand Management, 17, 293–304.
Lai, H. M., & Chen, T. T. (2014). Knowledge sharing in interest
online communities: A comparison of posters and lurkers.
Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 295–306.
Lee, J., & Peccei, R. (2007). Perceived organizational sup-
port and affective commitment: The mediating role of
organization-based self-esteem in the context of job in-
security. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 661–
685.
Lam, S. K. (2012). Identity-motivated marketing relation-
ships: Research synthesis, controversies, and research
agenda. AMS review, 2, 72–87.
Lariviere, B., Keiningham, T. L., Cooil, B., Aksoy, L., & Malt-
house, E. C. (2014). A longitudinal examination of customer
commitment and loyalty. Journal of Service Management,
25, 75–100.
Li, Z. G., & Dant, R. P. (1997). An exploratory study of ex-
clusive dealing in channel relationships. Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 25, 201–213.
Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem
scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302–318.
Mael, F., & Ashforth, B. E. (1992). Alumni and their alma
mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organi-
zational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
13, 103–123.
Marin, L., & Ruiz, S. (2007). “I need you too!” Corporate iden-
tity attractiveness for consumers and the role of social re-
sponsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 71, 245–260.
McWilliam, G. (2000). Building stronger brands through on-
line communities. Sloan Management Review, 41, 43–54.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component con-
ceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Re-
source Management Review, 1, 61–89.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the work-
place: Theory, research and application. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
Mottet, T. P., & Richmond, V. P. (1998). An inductive anal-
ysis of verbal immediacy: Alternative conceptualization of
relational verbal approach/avoidance strategies. Commu-
nication Quarterly, 46, 25–40.
Muniz Jr., A. M., & O’Guinn, T. C. (2001). Brand community.
Journal of Consumer Research, 27, 412–432.
Nielsen, J. (2006). The 90–9-1 rule for participation in-
equality in social media and online communities. Re-
trieved November 9, 2015, from http://www.nngroup.com/
articles/participation-inequality/.
Nonnecke, B., & Preece, J. (2000). Lurker demographics:
Counting the silent. In Proceedings of the CHI 2000 Confer-
ence on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 73–80).
The Hague: ACM.
Nonnecke, B., Preece, J., & Andrews, D. (2004). What lurk-
ers and posters think of each other. In Proceedings of the
37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences (pp. 195–203). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer
Society.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Pagiaslis, A., & Krontalis, A. K. (2014). Green consumption
behavior antecedents: Environmental concern, knowledge,
and beliefs. Psychology & Marketing, 31, 335–348.
Pagani, M., Hofacker, C. F., & Goldsmith, R. E. (2011). The
influence of personality on active and passive use of social
networking sites. Psychology & Marketing, 28, 441–456.
Peltier, J. W., Zahay, D., & Lehmann, D. R. (2013). Organi-
zational learning and CRM success: A model for linking
organizational practices, customer data quality, and per-
formance. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 27, 1–13.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N.
P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A
critical review of the literature and recommended remedies.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012).
Sources of method bias in social science research and rec-
ommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psy-
chology, 63, 539–569.
Porter, C. E., & Donthu, N. (2008). Cultivating trust and har-
vesting value in virtual communities. Management Sci-
ence, 54, 113–128.
Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Swaab, R. I. (2005). Social influ-
ence in small groups: An interactive model of social identity
formation. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 1–42.
Postmes, T., Spears, R., Lee, A. T., & Novak, R. J. (2005).
Individuality and social influence in groups: Inductive and
deductive routes to group identity. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 89, 747.
Preece, J., Nonnecke, B., & Andrews, D. (2004). The top
five reasons for lurking: Improving community experiences
for everyone. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 201–
223.
Ratchford, B. T. (2015). Some directions for research in in-
teractive marketing. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 29,
v–vii.
Ridings, C., Gefen, D., & Arinze, B. (2006). Psychological bar-
riers: Lurker and poster motivation and behavior in online
communities. Communications of the Association for Infor-
mation Systems, 18, 16.
Schlosser, A. E. (2005). Posting versus lurking: Communicat-
ing in a multiple audience context. Journal of Consumer
Research, 32, 260–265.
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 391
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
17. Schneider, A., Von Krogh, G., & J¨aGer, P. (2013). “What’s
coming next?” Epistemic curiosity and lurking behavior in
online communities. Computers in Human Behavior, 29,
293–303.
Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner’s guide
to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Shankar, V., & Batra, R. (2009). The growing influence of
online marketing communications. Journal of Interactive
Marketing, 23, 285–287.
Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A crit-
ical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 287–300.
Slade, E. L., Dwivedi, Y. K., Piercy, N. C., & Williams, M.
D. (2015). Modeling consumers’ adoption intentions of re-
mote mobile payments in the United Kingdom: Extending
UTAUT with innovativeness, risk, and trust. Psychology &
Marketing, 32, 860–873.
Smidts, A., Pruyn, A. T. H., & Van Riel, C. B. (2001). The
impact of employee communication and perceived external
prestige on organizational identification. Academy of Man-
agement Journal, 44, 1051–1062.
Steinmann, S., Mau, G., & Schramm-Klein, H. (2015). Brand
communication success in online consumption communi-
ties: An experimental analysis of the effects of communica-
tion style and brand pictorial representation. Psychology &
Marketing, 32, 356–371.
Stokburger-Sauer, N. (2010). Brand community: Drivers and
outcomes. Psychology & Marketing, 27, 347–368.
Stokburger-Sauer, N. E., & Wiertz, C. (2015). Online consump-
tion communities: An introduction. Psychology & Market-
ing, 32, 235–239
Stokburger-Sauer, N., Ratneshwar, S., & Sen, S. (2012).
Drivers of consumer–brand identification. International
Journal of Research in Marketing, 29, 406–418.
Suh, A. (2013). The influence of self-discrepancy between the
virtual and real selves in virtual communities. Computers
in Human Behavior, 29, 246–256.
Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Stud-
ies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London:
Academic Press.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cam-
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). Social psychology of inter-
group relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole CA.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004). The social identity theory of
intergroup behavior. In J. T. Jost, & J. Sidanius (Eds.), Po-
litical psychology: Key readings (pp. 276–293). New York:
Psychology Press.
Tsai, H. T., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2014). Contribution behavior
in virtual communities: Cognitive, emotional, and social
influences. MIS Quarterly, 38, 143–163.
Turner, J. C. (1982). Toward a cognitive redefinition of the
social group. In: H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and in-
tergroup relations (pp. 15–40). Cambridge, England: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Van Dick, R. (2001). Identification in organizational contexts:
Linking theory and research from social and organiza-
tional psychology. International Journal of Management
Reviews, 3, 265–283.
Van Dick, R., Wagner, U., Stellmacher, J., & Christ, O. (2004).
The utility of a broader conceptualization of organiza-
tional identification: Which aspects really matter? Jour-
nal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77,
171–191.
Walker, B., Redmond, J., & Lengyel, A. (2013). Are they all
the same? Lurkers and posters on the net. eCULTURE, 3,
16.
Wirtz, J., den Ambtman, A., Bloemer, J., Horv´ath, C., Ra-
maseshan, B., van de Klundert, J., et al . (2013). Managing
brands and customer engagement in online brand commu-
nities. Journal of Service Management, 24, 223–244.
Wolter, J. S., & Cronin Jr., J. J. (2015). Re-conceptualizing
cognitive and affective customer–company identification:
The role of self-motives and different customer-based out-
comes. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44,
397–413.
Wulf, K. D., Odekerken-Schr¨oder, G., & Iacobucci, D. (2001).
Investments in consumer relationships: A cross-country
and cross-industry exploration. Journal of Marketing, 65,
33–50.
Zaglia, M. E. (2013). Brand communities embedded in social
networks. Journal of Business Research, 66, 216–223.
Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The
behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Mar-
keting, 60, 31–46.
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron
and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis.
Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 197–206.
Zhou, Z., Wu, J. P., Zhang, Q., & Xu, S. (2013). Transform-
ing visitors into members in online brand communities:
Evidence from China. Journal of Business Research, 66,
2438–2443.
Zhou, Z., Zhang, Q., Su, C., & Zhou, N. (2012). How do
brand communities generate brand relationships? Inter-
mediate mechanisms. Journal of Business Research, 65,
890–895.
Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to:
Sahar Mousavi, School of Business and Economics, Sir
Richard Morris Building, Loughborough University, LE11
3TU (S.Mousavi@lboro.ac.uk).
392 MOUSAVI, ROPER, AND KEELING
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
18. Appendix
Table A1. Summary of Fit Statistics for Testing Measurement Invariance of the Model for Posters/Lurkers
Groups.
Model χ2 df RMSEA CFI
Model
Comparison χ2 df p
Separate groups
Lurkers 636.490 296 0.053 0.97
Posters 622.096 296 0.057 0.97
Model 1 1336.069 592 0.041 0.96 ___ ___ ___
Configural Invariance
Model 2 1392.540 611 0.041 0.96 2 vs. 1 55.471 19 0.000
All factor loadings
constrained equal
Model 3 (partial metric
invariance)
1356.746 606 0.041 0.96 3 vs. 1 20.677 13 0.110
All factor loadings
constrained equal except
for BPrest2, CBSE4,
CAC2, ABC3, ABC4
Note: RMSEA = root mean squared error of approximation; CFI = comparative fit index; χ2
= difference in chi-square values between models;
df = difference in number of degrees of freedom between models; BPrest = brand prestige; CBSE = community-based self-esteem; CAC =
community affective commitment; ABC = affective brand commitment.
SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ONLINE BRAND COMMUNITIES 393
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar