The document discusses moral dilemmas, where a choice must be made between two moral wrongs. It provides the example of Socrates questioning whether it is always right to repay debts, as repaying a debt could involve harming others. The document then discusses Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, where pre-conventional thinking is based on obedience and consequences, conventional thinking follows social rules and expectations, and post-conventional thinking uses universal ethical principles. It analyzes the moral dilemma of Heinz considering stealing medicine to save his wife using Kohlberg's stages. Finally, it summarizes that Socrates chose to die according to his principles over escaping according to social rules.

1. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas

2. Moral dilemmas
Moral dilemmas
A situation in which, whatever choice is made,
A situation in which, whatever choice is made,
the agent commits a moral wrong
the agent commits a moral wrong

3. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas
 Example from Book I of Plato's
Example from Book I of Plato's Republic
Republic
Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth
Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth
and paying one's debts.
and paying one's debts.
Socrates quickly refutes this account by
Socrates quickly refutes this account by
suggesting that it would be wrong to repay
suggesting that it would be wrong to repay
certain debts (weapon)
certain debts (weapon)

4. Moral dilemmas
Moral dilemmas
Socrates' point is not that repaying debts is
Socrates' point is not that repaying debts is
without moral import; rather, he wants to show
without moral import; rather, he wants to show
that it is not always right to repay one's
that it is not always right to repay one's
debts….
debts….

5. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas
There is a conflict between two moral norms:
There is a conflict between two moral norms:
repaying one's debts and protecting others
repaying one's debts and protecting others
from harm.
from harm.

6. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas
The agent regards herself as having moral
The agent regards herself as having moral
reasons to do each of two actions, but doing
reasons to do each of two actions, but doing
both is not possible
both is not possible

7. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas
When one of the conflicting requirements
When one of the conflicting requirements
overrides the other, we do not have a genuine
overrides the other, we do not have a genuine
moral dilemma.
moral dilemma.
In the
In the Crito
Crito, Does Socrates confront a moral
, Does Socrates confront a moral
dilemma?
dilemma?

8. Moral Dilemmas
Moral Dilemmas
1.
1. Something morally
Something morally
right
right
2.
2. Something morally
Something morally
wrong
wrong
Bad outcome
Bad outcome
Good or better
Good or better
outcome
outcome

9. Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemma
A woman was near death from a unique kind of
A woman was near death from a unique kind of
cancer. There is a drug that might save her. The drug
cancer. There is a drug that might save her. The drug
costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband,
costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband,
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money and tried every legal means, but he could only
money and tried every legal means, but he could only
get together about $2,000. He asked the doctor
get together about $2,000. He asked the doctor
scientist who discovered the drug for a discount or
scientist who discovered the drug for a discount or
that he let him pay later. But the doctor scientist
that he let him pay later. But the doctor scientist
refused.
refused.

10. Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemma
Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal
Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal
the drug for his wife?
the drug for his wife?
(Why or why not?)
(Why or why not?)

11. Moral Stages
Moral Stages
 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-87)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-87)

12. Kohlberg
Kohlberg
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning,
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning,
which he thought to be the basis for ethical
which he thought to be the basis for ethical
behavior, develops through stages.
behavior, develops through stages.

13. Moral Stages
Moral Stages
Level 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Level 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Level 2: CONVENTIONAL
Level 2: CONVENTIONAL
Level 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL
Level 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL

14. Kohlberg’s Stages
Kohlberg’s Stages
Level 1 (Pre-conventional)
Level 1 (Pre-conventional)
Reasoners judge the morality of an action by its
Reasoners judge the morality of an action by its
direct consequences
direct consequences
Stage One: Obedience and Punishment
Stage One: Obedience and Punishment
Stage Two: Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
Stage Two: Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
Exchange
Exchange

15. Heinz Dilemma
Heinz Dilemma
Stage One (
Stage One (obedience
obedience): Heinz should not steal
): Heinz should not steal
the medicine, because otherwise he will be put
the medicine, because otherwise he will be put
in prison.
in prison.

16. Pre-conventional level
Pre-conventional level
Stage One (
Stage One (obedience orientation
obedience orientation)
)
Individuals focus on the direct consequences
Individuals focus on the direct consequences
that their actions will have for themselves.
that their actions will have for themselves.

17. Socrates’ Dilemma
Socrates’ Dilemma
 From the point of view of Stage One, Socrates
From the point of view of Stage One, Socrates
should not die because…
should not die because…

18. Heinz Moral Dilemma
Heinz Moral Dilemma
 Pre-conventional Level
Pre-conventional Level
Stage Two (
Stage Two (self-interest
self-interest): Heinz should steal
): Heinz should steal
the medicine, because he will be much happier
the medicine, because he will be much happier
if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence.
serve a prison sentence.

19. Kohlberg’s Stages
Kohlberg’s Stages
Stage Two (
Stage Two (self-interest orientation
self-interest orientation):
):
what's in it for me
what's in it for me position. Right behavior is
position. Right behavior is
defined by what is in one's own best interest.
defined by what is in one's own best interest.

20. Socrates’ Dilemma
Socrates’ Dilemma
 From a level two perspective, Socrates should
From a level two perspective, Socrates should
not die because…
not die because…

21. Kohlberg’s Stages
Kohlberg’s Stages
Level 2 (Conventional)
Level 2 (Conventional)
People who reason in a conventional way judge the
People who reason in a conventional way judge the
morality of actions by comparing these actions to
morality of actions by comparing these actions to
social rules and expectations.
social rules and expectations.
Stage Three: Interpersonal Concordance ("Good
Stage Three: Interpersonal Concordance ("Good
boy/girl")
boy/girl")
Stage Four: Law and Order
Stage Four: Law and Order

22. Heinz Moral Dilemma
Heinz Moral Dilemma
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
 Stage Three (
Stage Three (conformity
conformity): Heinz should steal
): Heinz should steal
the medicine, because his wife expects it.
the medicine, because his wife expects it.

23. Conventional level
Conventional level
Stage Three (
Stage Three (conformity orientation
conformity orientation)
)
Individuals seek approval from other people.
Individuals seek approval from other people.
They judge the morality of actions by
They judge the morality of actions by
evaluating the consequences of these actions
evaluating the consequences of these actions
for a person's relationships.
for a person's relationships.

24. Socrates dilemma
Socrates dilemma
 Socrates should not die because…
Socrates should not die because…

25. Heinz Dilemma
Heinz Dilemma
Stage Four (
Stage Four (law-and-order
law-and-order): Heinz should not
): Heinz should not
steal the medicine, because the law prohibits
steal the medicine, because the law prohibits
stealing.
stealing.

26. Conventional level
Conventional level
Stage Four (
Stage Four (law-and-order mentality
law-and-order mentality).
).
In stage four, individuals think it is important
In stage four, individuals think it is important
to obey the law and conventions of society.
to obey the law and conventions of society.

27. Socrates Dilemma
Socrates Dilemma
 Socrates should die because…
Socrates should die because…

28. Kohlberg’s Stages
Kohlberg’s Stages
Level 3 (Post-conventional)
Level 3 (Post-conventional)
(Most people do not reach this level of moral
(Most people do not reach this level of moral
reasoning)
reasoning)
 Stage Five: Human Rights
Stage Five: Human Rights
 Stage Six: Universal Ethical Principles
Stage Six: Universal Ethical Principles
(Principled Conscience)
(Principled Conscience)

29. Heinz moral dilemma
Heinz moral dilemma
Stage five (
Stage five (human rights
human rights):
):
Heinz should steal the medicine because
Heinz should steal the medicine because
saving his wife is more important than obeying
saving his wife is more important than obeying
the law.
the law.

30. Post-conventional level
Post-conventional level
Stage Five (
Stage Five (human rights orientation
human rights orientation)
)
 People have certain principles to which they
People have certain principles to which they
attach more value than laws, such as human
attach more value than laws, such as human
rights.
rights.
 An action is wrong if it violates certain ethical
An action is wrong if it violates certain ethical
principles.
principles.
 Laws that do not promote general social
Laws that do not promote general social
welfare should be changed
welfare should be changed

31. Socrates dilemma
Socrates dilemma
 Socrates should not die…?
Socrates should not die…?
We are at level 3!!!!
We are at level 3!!!!

32. Post-conventional level
Post-conventional level
 Stage six (
Stage six (universal human ethics
universal human ethics):
):
Heinz should steal the medicine, because
Heinz should steal the medicine, because
saving a human life is a more fundamental
saving a human life is a more fundamental
value than respecting the property of another
value than respecting the property of another
person.
person.

33. Post-conventional level
Post-conventional level
Stage Six (
Stage Six (ethical principle orientation
ethical principle orientation).
).
Moral reasoning is based on the use of abstract
Moral reasoning is based on the use of abstract
reasoning using universal principles.
reasoning using universal principles.
(People rarely, if ever, reach stage 6 of
(People rarely, if ever, reach stage 6 of
Kohlberg's model)
Kohlberg's model)

34. Socrates’ Decision
Socrates’ Decision
Socrates chose to die
Socrates chose to die
because….
because….

35. Socrates
Socrates
Should we return the weapon then (according
Should we return the weapon then (according
to Socrates)?
to Socrates)?

36. Socrates
Socrates
Socrates maintains that protecting others from
Socrates maintains that protecting others from
harm is the norm that takes priority
harm is the norm that takes priority

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