This document provides an overview of techniques for assessing water quality in streams. It discusses parameters such as dissolved oxygen, suspended sediments, turbidity, conductivity, pH and temperature. Methods are described for measuring these parameters in the field using probes and other tools. The document also covers topics like sediment embeddedness and how factors like development and erosion can impact water quality. Overall it serves as a guide for monitoring common indicators of stream water quality.
This presentation was created to teach community members in the Eola Hills Groundwater Limited Area (northwest of Salem, OR) about groundwater level measurement. Please see this webpage for more information: http://www.wrd.state.or.us/OWRD/GW/NGWN_homepage.shtml.
OMAE2013-10454: Experimental Study on Flow Around Circular Cylinders with Low...Rodolfo Gonçalves
Experiments were carried out in a recirculating water channel regarding the flow around stationary circular cylinders with low aspect ratio piercing the water free surface. Eight different aspect ratios were tested, namely L/D= 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0; this range corresponds to aspect ratio related to circular offshore systems, such as spar and monocolumn platforms. Force was measured using a six degree-of-freedom load cell and Strouhal number is inferred through the transverse force fluctuation frequency. The range of Reynolds number covers 10,000 < Re < 50,000. PIV measurements were performed in some aspect ratio cases, namely 0.3, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 for Reynolds number equal to 43,000. The results showed a decrease in drag force coefficients with decreasing aspect ratio, as well as a decrease in Strouhal number with decreasing aspect ratio. The PIV showed the existence of an arch-type vortex originated in the cylinder free end.
DSD-INT 2018 A Methodology Study for Model Build and Calibration of 2D Hydrod...Deltares
Presentation by Edward Shen, Ove ARUP & Partners, Hong Kong, at the Delft3D - User Days (Day 2: Hydrodynamics), during Delft Software Days - Edition 2018. Tuesday, 13 November 2018, Delft.
This presentation was created to teach community members in the Eola Hills Groundwater Limited Area (northwest of Salem, OR) about groundwater level measurement. Please see this webpage for more information: http://www.wrd.state.or.us/OWRD/GW/NGWN_homepage.shtml.
OMAE2013-10454: Experimental Study on Flow Around Circular Cylinders with Low...Rodolfo Gonçalves
Experiments were carried out in a recirculating water channel regarding the flow around stationary circular cylinders with low aspect ratio piercing the water free surface. Eight different aspect ratios were tested, namely L/D= 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0; this range corresponds to aspect ratio related to circular offshore systems, such as spar and monocolumn platforms. Force was measured using a six degree-of-freedom load cell and Strouhal number is inferred through the transverse force fluctuation frequency. The range of Reynolds number covers 10,000 < Re < 50,000. PIV measurements were performed in some aspect ratio cases, namely 0.3, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 for Reynolds number equal to 43,000. The results showed a decrease in drag force coefficients with decreasing aspect ratio, as well as a decrease in Strouhal number with decreasing aspect ratio. The PIV showed the existence of an arch-type vortex originated in the cylinder free end.
DSD-INT 2018 A Methodology Study for Model Build and Calibration of 2D Hydrod...Deltares
Presentation by Edward Shen, Ove ARUP & Partners, Hong Kong, at the Delft3D - User Days (Day 2: Hydrodynamics), during Delft Software Days - Edition 2018. Tuesday, 13 November 2018, Delft.
The Remarkable Benefits and Grave Dangers of using Artificial Intelligence in...Steve Cuddy
Overview
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Petrophysical Case Studies showing successful applications
- Evolution of shaly water saturation equations
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance T1 & T2 spectra analysis
- Prediction of shear velocities
- Litho-facies and permeability prediction
- The log quality control and repair of electrical logs
Narrow vs. General vs. True AI
The grave dangers of using AI
- More than AI making poor petrophysical predictions!
- I describe an end of civilisation scenario
Why we need a Water Saturation vs. Height function for reservoir modelling.
Definitions: Free-Water-Level, HWC, Net, Swirr
Several case studies showing applications to reservoir modelling.
To determine a field’s hydrocarbon in place, it is necessary to model the distribution of hydrocarbon and water
throughout the reservoir. A water saturation vs. height (SwH) function provides this for the reservoir model. A
good SwH function ensures the three independent sources of fluid distribution data are consistent. These being
the core, formation pressure and electrical log data. The SwH function must be simple to apply, especially in
reservoirs where it is difficult to map permeability or where there appears to be multiple contacts. It must
accurately upscale the log and core derived water saturations to the reservoir model cell sizes.
This presentation clarifies the, often misunderstood, definitions for the free-water-level (FWL), transition zone
and irreducible water saturation. Using capillary pressure theory and the concept of fractals, a convincing SwH
function is derived from first principles. The derivation is simpler than with classical functions as there is no
porosity banding. Several case studies are presented showing the excellent match between the function and
well data. The function makes an accurate prediction of water saturations, even in wells where the resistivity
log was not run, due to well conditions. Logs and core data from eleven fields, with vastly different porosity and
permeability characteristics, depositional environments, and geological age, are compared. These
demonstrates how this SwH function is independent of permeability and litho-facies type and accurately
describes the reservoir fluid distribution.
The function determines the free water level, the hydrocarbon to water contact (HWC), net reservoir cut-off,
the irreducible water saturation, and the shape of the transition zone for the reservoir model. The function
provides a simple way to quality control electrical log and core data and justifies using core plug sized samples
to model water saturations on the reservoir scale. The presentation describes how the function has been used
to predict fluid contacts in wells where they are unclear, or where the contact is below the total depth of the
well. As the function uses the FWL as its base, it explains the apparently varying HWC in some fields and how
low porosity reservoirs can be fully water saturated for hundreds of feet above the FWL.
This simple convincing function calculates water saturation as a function of the height above the free water level
and the bulk volume of water and is independent of the porosity and permeability of the reservoir. It was voted
the best paper at the 1993 SPWLA Symposium in Calgary.
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
DSD-INT 2019 Lake Eutrophication Modelling with Delft3D Suite, Wuhan City, Ch...Deltares
Presentation by Qingtao Liao, Ewaters Shanghai Ltd, China, at the Delft3D - User Days (Day 4: Water quality and ecology), during Delft Software Days - Edition 2019. Thursday, 14 November 2019, Delft.
In this slide there is a description of liquid level transducer and its types. In this there is detail description of all its types with there diagrams. In this there is also a advantage and disadvantage of this transducer. Its application are also in these slides.
The Remarkable Benefits and Grave Dangers of using Artificial Intelligence in...Steve Cuddy
Overview
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Petrophysical Case Studies showing successful applications
- Evolution of shaly water saturation equations
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance T1 & T2 spectra analysis
- Prediction of shear velocities
- Litho-facies and permeability prediction
- The log quality control and repair of electrical logs
Narrow vs. General vs. True AI
The grave dangers of using AI
- More than AI making poor petrophysical predictions!
- I describe an end of civilisation scenario
Why we need a Water Saturation vs. Height function for reservoir modelling.
Definitions: Free-Water-Level, HWC, Net, Swirr
Several case studies showing applications to reservoir modelling.
To determine a field’s hydrocarbon in place, it is necessary to model the distribution of hydrocarbon and water
throughout the reservoir. A water saturation vs. height (SwH) function provides this for the reservoir model. A
good SwH function ensures the three independent sources of fluid distribution data are consistent. These being
the core, formation pressure and electrical log data. The SwH function must be simple to apply, especially in
reservoirs where it is difficult to map permeability or where there appears to be multiple contacts. It must
accurately upscale the log and core derived water saturations to the reservoir model cell sizes.
This presentation clarifies the, often misunderstood, definitions for the free-water-level (FWL), transition zone
and irreducible water saturation. Using capillary pressure theory and the concept of fractals, a convincing SwH
function is derived from first principles. The derivation is simpler than with classical functions as there is no
porosity banding. Several case studies are presented showing the excellent match between the function and
well data. The function makes an accurate prediction of water saturations, even in wells where the resistivity
log was not run, due to well conditions. Logs and core data from eleven fields, with vastly different porosity and
permeability characteristics, depositional environments, and geological age, are compared. These
demonstrates how this SwH function is independent of permeability and litho-facies type and accurately
describes the reservoir fluid distribution.
The function determines the free water level, the hydrocarbon to water contact (HWC), net reservoir cut-off,
the irreducible water saturation, and the shape of the transition zone for the reservoir model. The function
provides a simple way to quality control electrical log and core data and justifies using core plug sized samples
to model water saturations on the reservoir scale. The presentation describes how the function has been used
to predict fluid contacts in wells where they are unclear, or where the contact is below the total depth of the
well. As the function uses the FWL as its base, it explains the apparently varying HWC in some fields and how
low porosity reservoirs can be fully water saturated for hundreds of feet above the FWL.
This simple convincing function calculates water saturation as a function of the height above the free water level
and the bulk volume of water and is independent of the porosity and permeability of the reservoir. It was voted
the best paper at the 1993 SPWLA Symposium in Calgary.
A pumping test is a field experiment in which a well is pumped at a controlled rate and water-level response (drawdown) is measured in one or more surrounding observation wells and optionally in the pumped well (control well) itself; response data from pumping tests are used to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifers, evaluate well performance and identify aquifer boundaries.
DSD-INT 2019 Lake Eutrophication Modelling with Delft3D Suite, Wuhan City, Ch...Deltares
Presentation by Qingtao Liao, Ewaters Shanghai Ltd, China, at the Delft3D - User Days (Day 4: Water quality and ecology), during Delft Software Days - Edition 2019. Thursday, 14 November 2019, Delft.
In this slide there is a description of liquid level transducer and its types. In this there is detail description of all its types with there diagrams. In this there is also a advantage and disadvantage of this transducer. Its application are also in these slides.
Groundwater and CO2CRC - insights from the Otway project and monitoring activ...Global CCS Institute
The Groundwater and Storage interactions project arose out of a meeting on the shoulder of the Greenhouse Gas Technologies Conference in Amsterdam in 2010. It was decided to concentrate initially on the Australian Flagships projects. On 3 May 2011 Australian researchers and government agencies met and presented their work to date.
In these slides, Allison Hortle, Senior Researcher, Petroleum Hydrogeology, Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC), presents Groundwater and CO2CRC - Insights from the Otway Project and Monitoring Activities
Water Impurity Measurement System using MicrowavesSanket Yavalkar
Microwaves can be used to find water impurities like salinity i.e. hardness, Chlorinity, etc. A simple system (prototype) is being designed and tested in this ppt. for measuring salinity of water. This work is done with the help of by Gov. of India's SAMEER organisation as well as Gov. of Maharashtra's Irrigation Department.
Presentation given by Alexandre Morin of SINTEF Energy Research on "WP1.3 – Transient fluid dynamics of CO2 mixtures in pipelines" at the EC FP7 Projects: Leading the way in CCS implementation event, London, 14-15 April 2014
Analytical modelling of groundwater wells and well systems: how to get it r...Anton Nikulenkov
Aquifer tests are probably the most widely used methods to obtain hydrogeological properties that are vital for any mine dewatering or environmental impact assessments. Numerous softwares and methods currently exist that provide quick and easy tests interpretation by fitting theoretical and measured drawdown curves. However, misinterpreting a-priory groundwater concepts and not accounting correctly for such factors as skin-effect, well storage or partial penetration may result in hydraulic conductivity errors by several hundred precents. As illustrated by case studies from WA, both numerical and analytical models generally suffer from non-uniqueness that can be overcome by understanding a-priory groundwater concepts and implementing them appropriately into the interpretation algorithms.
The presentation also discusses an analytical approach for well systems design. The methodology is presently incorporated in ANSDIMAT software package that is developed by the Russian Academy of Sciences. The method uses standard and research analytical solutions and it is based on the principle of superposition. Unlike numerical models, the method allows calculating drawdowns inside a pumping well and regional drawdowns, for example, on an open pit contour. A particle tracking component, incorporated into the methodology, provides a practical alternative to numerical models for simplified environmental impact assessments.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL course material by Prof S S JAHAGIRDAR,NKOCET,SOLAPUR for BE (CIVIL ) students of Solapur university. Content will be also useful for SHIVAJI and PUNE university students
What Does the PARKTRONIC Inoperative, See Owner's Manual Message Mean for You...Autohaus Service and Sales
Learn what "PARKTRONIC Inoperative, See Owner's Manual" means for your Mercedes-Benz. This message indicates a malfunction in the parking assistance system, potentially due to sensor issues or electrical faults. Prompt attention is crucial to ensure safety and functionality. Follow steps outlined for diagnosis and repair in the owner's manual.
5 Warning Signs Your BMW's Intelligent Battery Sensor Needs AttentionBertini's German Motors
IBS monitors and manages your BMW’s battery performance. If it malfunctions, you will have to deal with an array of electrical issues in your vehicle. Recognize warning signs like dimming headlights, frequent battery replacements, and electrical malfunctions to address potential IBS issues promptly.
Why Is Your BMW X3 Hood Not Responding To Release CommandsDart Auto
Experiencing difficulty opening your BMW X3's hood? This guide explores potential issues like mechanical obstruction, hood release mechanism failure, electrical problems, and emergency release malfunctions. Troubleshooting tips include basic checks, clearing obstructions, applying pressure, and using the emergency release.
Symptoms like intermittent starting and key recognition errors signal potential problems with your Mercedes’ EIS. Use diagnostic steps like error code checks and spare key tests. Professional diagnosis and solutions like EIS replacement ensure safe driving. Consult a qualified technician for accurate diagnosis and repair.
Fleet management these days is next to impossible without connected vehicle solutions. Why? Well, fleet trackers and accompanying connected vehicle management solutions tend to offer quite a few hard-to-ignore benefits to fleet managers and businesses alike. Let’s check them out!
In this presentation, we have discussed a very important feature of BMW X5 cars… the Comfort Access. Things that can significantly limit its functionality. And things that you can try to restore the functionality of such a convenient feature of your vehicle.
What Exactly Is The Common Rail Direct Injection System & How Does It WorkMotor Cars International
Learn about Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDi) - the revolutionary technology that has made diesel engines more efficient. Explore its workings, advantages like enhanced fuel efficiency and increased power output, along with drawbacks such as complexity and higher initial cost. Compare CRDi with traditional diesel engines and discover why it's the preferred choice for modern engines.
Comprehensive program for Agricultural Finance, the Automotive Sector, and Empowerment . We will define the full scope and provide a detailed two-week plan for identifying strategic partners in each area within Limpopo, including target areas.:
1. Agricultural : Supporting Primary and Secondary Agriculture
• Scope: Provide support solutions to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability.
• Target Areas: Polokwane, Tzaneen, Thohoyandou, Makhado, and Giyani.
2. Automotive Sector: Partnerships with Mechanics and Panel Beater Shops
• Scope: Develop collaborations with automotive service providers to improve service quality and business operations.
• Target Areas: Polokwane, Lephalale, Mokopane, Phalaborwa, and Bela-Bela.
3. Empowerment : Focusing on Women Empowerment
• Scope: Provide business support support and training to women-owned businesses, promoting economic inclusion.
• Target Areas: Polokwane, Thohoyandou, Musina, Burgersfort, and Louis Trichardt.
We will also prioritize Industrial Economic Zone areas and their priorities.
Sign up on https://profilesmes.online/welcome/
To be eligible:
1. You must have a registered business and operate in Limpopo
2. Generate revenue
3. Sectors : Agriculture ( primary and secondary) and Automative
Women and Youth are encouraged to apply even if you don't fall in those sectors.
"Trans Failsafe Prog" on your BMW X5 indicates potential transmission issues requiring immediate action. This safety feature activates in response to abnormalities like low fluid levels, leaks, faulty sensors, electrical or mechanical failures, and overheating.
Core technology of Hyundai Motor Group's EV platform 'E-GMP'Hyundai Motor Group
What’s the force behind Hyundai Motor Group's EV performance and quality?
Maximized driving performance and quick charging time through high-density battery pack and fast charging technology and applicable to various vehicle types!
Discover more about Hyundai Motor Group’s EV platform ‘E-GMP’!
Things to remember while upgrading the brakes of your carjennifermiller8137
Upgrading the brakes of your car? Keep these things in mind before doing so. Additionally, start using an OBD 2 GPS tracker so that you never miss a vehicle maintenance appointment. On top of this, a car GPS tracker will also let you master good driving habits that will let you increase the operational life of your car’s brakes.
𝘼𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙦𝙪𝙚 𝙋𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙙𝙚𝙧𝙨 𝙞𝙨 𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙮 𝙛𝙖𝙢𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙪𝙛𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙞𝙧 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙙𝙪𝙘𝙩𝙨. 𝙒𝙚 𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙚 𝙖𝙡𝙡 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨 𝙪𝙨𝙚𝙙 𝙞𝙣 𝙖𝙪𝙩𝙤𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙖𝙪𝙩𝙤 𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙩𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙖𝙡𝙡 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙛𝙖𝙢𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙘𝙤𝙢𝙥𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙗𝙪𝙮 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨 𝙛𝙧𝙤𝙢 𝙪𝙨.
Over the 10 years, we have gained a strong foothold in the market due to our range's high quality, competitive prices, and time-lined delivery schedules.
Ever been troubled by the blinking sign and didn’t know what to do?
Here’s a handy guide to dashboard symbols so that you’ll never be confused again!
Save them for later and save the trouble!
1. Module 10/11
Stream Surveys
Stream Surveys – February 2004
Part 1 – Water Quality Assessment
2. Objectives
Students will be able to:
· describe techniques used to determine dissolved oxygen.
· list factors that influence high turbidity and suspended
solids in streams.
· explain methods used to determine total suspended solids.
· evaluate the relationship between total suspended solids
and turbidity.
· identify methods used to determine water clarity in streams.
· assess habitat degradation by determining the degree of
sediment embeddedness in a stream.
· analyze the impact of dissolved salts, pH and temperature
on streams.
· describe accepted sampling methods used in stream
surveys.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s2
5. Water Quality Parameters
· Dissolved oxygen
· Suspended sediments (TSS) and turbidity
· Specific conductivity (EC)
· alkalinity
· pH
· Temperature
· Major ions
·All of these parameters are presented in
greater detail in Module 9 – Lake surveys
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s5
7. DO – importance and reporting
· Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis and
consumed during respiration and
decomposition.
· Generally < 3 mg/L is stressful to aquatic life.
· Units of measurement are:
· Concentration: mg/L = ppm; concentrations range 0.0 to
20 mg/L
· % saturation – used to determine if water is fully
saturated with oxygen at a particular temperature
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s7
8. DO – techniques
· Probe types and measurement techniques:
· Winkler titration
· Amperometric (polarographic) method, most
commonly used
http://www.lumcon.edu/education/StudentDatabase/gallery.asp
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s8
9. DO – probes
· Most common sensor is the temperature
compensated polarographic membrane-type
(amperometric)
· Temperature sensitive (but virtually all are
compensated).
· The probes actually consume O2 as they work so
measurements require moving water using either
a built-in stirrer (typical in multiparameter sondes
and BOD probes) or “hand jiggling” during the
measurement.
· in situ sensors are prone to fouling by
algal/bacterial slimes and by silt in streams.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s9
10. DO probes and meters
· The WOW units use either Hydrolab or YSI
multiprobe datasounds, but there are many others
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s10
11. Sedimentation/siltation
· Excessive sedimentation in streams and rivers is
considered to be a major cause of surface water
pollution in the U.S. by the USEPA
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s11
12. Measures of sedimentation
· Suspended sediments
· Turbidity
· Embededdness
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s12
13. High turbidity and suspended solids
· Caused by many factors including:
· soil erosion
· domestic and industrial wastewater discharge
· urban runoff
· flooding
· algal growth due to nutrient enrichment
· dredging operations
· channelization
· removal of riparian vegetation and other stream
bank disturbances
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s13
14. Total suspended solids and turbidity
· Both are indicators of the amount of solids
suspended in the water
· Mineral (e.g., soil particles)
· Organic (e.g., algae, detritus)
· TSS measures the actual weight of material per
volume of water (mg/L)
· Turbidity measures the amount of light
scattered
· Therefore, TSS allows the determination of an
actual concentration or quantity of material
while turbidity does not
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s14
15. Measuring TSS
1. Filter a known amount of
water through a pre-washed,
pre-dried at 103-105 oC, pre-weighed
(~ + 0.5 mg) filter
2. Rinse, dry and reweigh to
calculate TSS in mg/L (ppm)
3. Save filters for other analyses
such as volatile suspended
solids (VSS) that estimate
organic matter
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s15
16. Total suspended solids - method
What type of
filter to use?
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s16
17. Total suspended solids
Calculate TSS by using the equation below
TSS (mg/L) = ([A-B]*1000)/C
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s17
where
A = final dried weight of the filter (in milligrams = mg)
B = Initial weight of the filter (in milligrams = mg)
C = Volume of water filtered (in Liters)
18. TSS
· Range of results and what the results mean
· Example:
Suspended solids concentrations at Slate Creek
WA average 150.8 mg/l with a range of 50 to 327
mg/l. It is generally desired to maintain total
suspended solid concentrations below 100 mg/l.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s18
19. Measuring turbidity
·Turbidity measures the
scattering effect
suspended particles have
on light
·inorganics like clay and silt
·organic material, both fine
and colored
·plankton and other
microscopic organisms
·Transparency or turbidity
tubes
Even small amounts of wave action can
erode exposed lakeshore sediments, in
this case a minepit lake from northeastern
Minnesota. Guess the mineral mined here.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s19
20. Turbidity
· Field turbidity measurements are made with
· Turbidimeters (bench meter for discrete samples)
· Submersible turbidity sensors (Note - USGS
currently considers this a qualitative method)
Hydrolab turbidity probe
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s20
21. Turbidity - Nephelometric optics
· Nephelometric turbidity estimated by the
scattering effect suspended particles have on
light
· Detector is at 90o from the light source
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s21
22. Turbidity – units and reporting
• Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) standards
are formazin or other certified material
• JTU’s are from an “older” technology in which
a candle flame was viewed through a tube of
water
1 NTU = 1 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s22
23. Turbidity - standards
· Top - a range of
formazin standards
· Bottom –the same
NTU range using a
clay suspension
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s23
24. Turbidity
· Range of results and what the results mean
· Ex: Salmon Creek Watershed (OR/WA border)
TMDL for turbidity is:
"Turbidity shall not exceed 5 NTU over
background turbidity when the background
turbidity is 50 NTU or less. Or more than a 10%
increase in turbidity when the background
turbidity is > 50 NTU”.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s24
25. How do turbidity and TSS relate?
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s25
26. TSS vs Turbidity relationship
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s26
TSS
Turbidity
Yearly
average
Summer range
(May-Oct)
Winter range
(Nov-Apr)
Cedar River 3.6
1.1
0.6-5.0
0.4-1.2
3.5-6.2
1.0-2.0
Newaukum Ck 5.7
2.4
1.6-5.1
0.7-1.5
7.5-8.8
3.1-4.0
Springbrook Ck 19.8
22.0
8.0-26.0
13.0-44.0
6.7-44.0
13.0-35.0
27. Water clarity – transparency tubes
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s27
28. Water clarity – transparency tubes
• Used in streams, ponds,
wetlands, and some
coastal zones
· Analogous to secchi
depth in lakes: a measure
of the dissolved and
particulate material in the
water
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s28
29. Water clarity – transparency tubes
· Useful for shallow water or fast
moving streams bodies where
a secchi would still be visible
on the bottom
• It is a good measure of
turbidity and suspended
sediment (TSS)
• Used in many volunteer
stream monitoring programs
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s29
30. Horizontal secchi
· Newer method – all-black disk viewed
horizontally
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s30
31. Embeddedness
· Measure of fine sediment deposition in the
interstitial spaces between rocks
· High embeddedness values indicate habitat
degradation
· Visual assessment used to estimate the
degree of embeddedness
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s31
32. Embeddedness – cont.
· The stream-bottom
sediments to the top right
provide spaces for fish to
lay eggs and for
invertebrates to live and
hide.
· Excess erosion has
deposited fine grained
sediments on the stream
bottom to the bottom right.
There are no spaces
available for fish spawning
or for invertebrate habitat.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s32
33. Embededdness – visual assessment
· Embeddedness: General guidelines
· 0% = no fine sediments even at base of top
layer of gravel/cobble
· 25% = rocks are half surrounded by sediment
· 50% = rocks are completely surrounded by
sediment but their tops are clean
· 75% = rocks are completely surrounded by
sediment and half covered
· 100% = rocks are completely covered by
sediment
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s33
35. EC25 - importance
· Cheap, easy way to characterize the total
dissolved salt concentration of a water sample
· For tracing water masses and defining mixing
zones
· Groundwater plumes
· Stream flowing into another stream or into a lake or
reservoir
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s35
36. EC25 – units and reporting
Principle of measurement
• A small voltage is applied between 2 parallel
metal rod shaped electrodes, usually 1 cm apart
• Measured current flow is proportional to the
dissolved ion content of the water
• If the sensor is temperature compensated to
25oC, EC is called “specific” EC (EC25)
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s36
37. EC25 - units
· What in the world are
microSiemens per centimeter (μS/cm)?
• Units for EC and EC25 are mS/cm or μS/cm
@25oC. The WOW site reports it as EC @25oC (in
μS/cm).
• Usually report to 2 or 3 significant figures (to + ~ 1-
5 μS/cm)
·More details can be found in Module 9
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s37
38. Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s38
EC25
· EC25 values in streams reflect primarily a combination
of watershed sources of salts and the hydrology of the
system
· wastewater from sewage treatment plants and
industrial discharge
· wastewater from on-site wastewater treatment and
dispersal systems (septic systems and drainfields)
· urban runoff
· agricultural runoff
· acid mine drainage
· atmospheric inputs
41. pH – importance in aquatic systems
· The pH of a sample of water is a measure of the
concentration of hydrogen ions.
· pH determines the solubility and biological
availability of chemical constituents such as
nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon)
and heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.).
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s41
42. pH - reporting
· pH can be measured electrometrically or
colorimetrically (pH paper) BUT ONLY the
former technique is approved by the EPA and
USGS for natural waters.
· The electrometric method uses a hydrogen ion
electrode.
· pH meters require extensive care in handling
and operation.
· Report to the nearest 0.1 standard pH unit
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s42
43. pH – probes
· Field probe types:
· Combination probes (e.g.YSI)
· Less expensive; more rugged design
· Less precise
· Shorter life because reference solution cannot be
replenished
· Separate reading and reference electrodes (e.g.,
Hydrolab)
· Costs more
·More precise; faster response time
· Allows user maintenance; Teflon junction and electrolyte
can be replaced
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s43
44. pH – probes
· Or, alternatively, a bench or hand-held meter
and probe can be used in a fresh subsample if
you don’t have a field meter with a pH probe.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s44
46. Temperature importance
· Temperature affects:
· the oxygen content of the water (oxygen levels
become lower as temperature increases)
· the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
· the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms
· the sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes,
parasites, and diseases
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s46
47. Temperature measurement - probes
· Types of probes
· Liquid-in-glass
· Thermistor: based on measuring changes in electrical
resistance of a semi-conductor with increasing
temperature.
thermistor on a YSI sonde
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s47
48. Temperature changes
· Causes of temperature change include:
· weather
· removal of shading streambank vegetation,
· impoundments (a body of water confined by a
barrier, such as a dam)
· discharge of cooling water
· urban storm water
· groundwater inflows to the stream
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s48
49. Temperature changes - continued
Graph showing
factors that
influence
stream
temperature,
from Bartholow
(1989).
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s49
50. Temperature criteria – example
Here’s an example of a temperature TMDL for a California
stream
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s50
52. Temperature – summer rain storm
Summer rainfall event
Bump in stream temp (and
turbidity)
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s52
53. Other Water Quality Parameters
· Nutrients – nitrogen and phosphorus
· Fecal coliforms
· Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
· Metals
· Toxic contaminants
· Details on analyzing these parameters are in
Module 9 – Lake Surveys
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s53
54. Fecal coliforms
· Pathogens are number one
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s54
55. Water sampling - microbes
· Sterile technique:
· Containers must be
sterilized by autoclaving
or with gas used to kill
microbes
· Take care not to
contaminate the
container
· Water samplers should
be swabbed with 70 %
alcohol
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s55
56. Bacteria – E. coli and fecal coliforms
· Fecal bacteria are used as indicators of
possible sewage contamination
· These bacteria indicate the possible presence
of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and
protozoans that also live in human and animal
digestive systems
· E. coli is currently replacing the fecal coliform
assay in most beach monitoring programs
See Module 9 for a detailed discussion of
measuring pathogens
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s56
57. Water sample collection – grab samples
Grab samples for fecal
coliforms are taken with
sterile containers
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s57
58. Water sample collection
·General considerations:
· Sample in the main
current
· Avoid disturbing bottom
sediments
· Collect the water sample
on your upstream side
· A detailed discussion on how to manually collect stream
and river water can be found in the USGS Field Manual
Chapter 4: Collection of Water Samples
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s58
59. Suggested sample volumes
Analyte Volume needed
chlorophyll >500 mLs
TSS Often > 1 L
total phosphorus
total nitrogen
anions
200 to 500 mLs
Dissolved nutrients ~ 100mLs
Total and dissolved carbon ~60 mLs
Metals ~60 mLs
color, DOC ~60 mLs
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s59
60. Stream sampling– sample labeling
· An unlabeled sample
may as well just be
dumped down the
drain.
· Use good labels not
masking tape, etc.
Poor labels often fall
off when frozen
samples are thawed.
· Use permanent
markers NOT ball
point pens, pencils in
a pinch
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s60
61. Lake Stream sampling sampling – sample – sample labeling
labeling
· A simple sample label with the minimum amount of
information needed…
project Site,
WOW
Tischer Creek 7/26/02 Reach 3
RAW, frozen
date,
location
Sample processing and
preservation info
Often, much more information may be needed by the laboratory
performing your analyses. You will also need to supply a chain of
custody form.
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s61
63. Water sampling - automated
· Automated stream
sampling stations
provide continuous
monitoring of a variety of
parameters
· These units are capable
of both collecting water
samples and measure
various water quality
parameters
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s63
64. Automated stream samplers
· Flow weighted composites
· Flow weighted discrete
· Sampling triggered by predetermined set point
such as:
· Flow
· Precipitation
· Any other parameter measured by in-stream
sensors
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s64
65. Automated sampling – Duluth Streams
· These stream monitoring units are not “state of the art”
but provide near real-time data for delivery into the data
visualization tools
Developed by: Updated: U5-m21a-s65
Editor's Notes
You could probably drop this slide, the next slide covers this
Business end of a YSI 6800 series sonde (NRRI photo)
The most commonly measured parameters in streams are related to water quality. Many federal and state laws specify the values that are typical for good and poor water quality. In addition, there are several parameters that are useful for generally characterizing water quality for aquatic life and other beneficial uses of water.
Major ions = alkalinity/ANC, SO4, Cl,Ca, Mg, Na, K, Na
Anions (negatively charged)
Bicarbonate and carbonate (HCO3- and CO3-2 : also called alkalinity and acid-neutralizing capacity or ANC); usually measured together by titration with sulfuric acid)
Sulfate (SO4 –2)
Chloride (Cl -)
Silicate (SiO –3)
Cations (positively charged)
Mg +2 and Ca +2 (divalent cations)
Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+)
Minor ions = nutrients (N and P)
Phosphorus: total P (TP), inorganic-P (SRP or ortho-P or PO4 –3), organic P, particulate P
Nitrogen: total N (TN), inorganic N (NH4+-N, [NO3- + NO2- ] N), organic N, particulate N
Dissolved oxygen is essential for fish and invertebrates and is produced by biological transformations and physical processes in water.
The Winkle titration is a simple and accurate chemical test for DO that has been used for decades, particularly before more sophisticated electronic equipment was affordable and reliable.
Photo taken from http://www.lumcon.edu/education/StudentDatabase/gallery.asp
Details of the Winkler titration are in Module 9
Note: very high velocity may also cause inaccuracy (cavitation).
To learn how to maintain a DO sensor see Module 9
Sediment has been cited as the second most important pollutant in streams and rivers of the U.S. Sediment can be both suspended in the water column or it may be deposited on the bottom of a stream. There are specific measuring procedures for both of these locations.
Sediment gets into stream through a variety of common land uses.
soil erosion associated with agricultural practices, construction site runoff
domestic and industrial wastewater discharge
urban runoff from roads, parking lots and other impervious surfaces
flooding and chronically increased flow rates
algal growth due to nutrient enrichment
dredging operations in the stream itself or in feeder tributaries or ditches
channelization
removal of riparian vegetation and other stream bank disturbances
too many bottom-feeding fish (such as carp) that stir up bottom sediments
Total Suspended Solids (More detail can be found in Module 9)
TSS, or total suspended solids or total suspended sediment is pretty simple in theory. But, like most water quality parameters, it has some methodological problems and choices that require you to think before performing the measurement.
The measurement is simple - separate the solids from the water using a piece of filter paper (actually you use a filter that looks like paper but is really made of glass fibers, pressed together; sort of like the fibers in the glass wool that is used for a fish tank). Then the filter plus the material on top of it are dried and weighed. If you remembered to weigh the filter before you used it (called “measuring the tare” or “taring” the filter), you can subtract this weight with the remainder being the weight of the solids.
Some technique notes (more are attached to slide #2:
1. Filtration apparatus: A variety are available and vary considerably between the limnology/academic research community and the wastewater lab community. Fritted glass filter support bases work very well and provide a very uniform layer of material, but in time may clog. Our lab prefers plastic frits with fine slots, especially if you can get those with magnetic bases that allow you to place the filtration funnel on without a clamp. (Figure 1).
2. You need to have enough particulate material on the filter to allow you to get a significant weight change (the more the better !), BUT if you try to filter too much water it could take you into tomorrow to filter it and the remember that the pore size is changing. Standard Methods (APHA) recommends that the final weight on the filter pad be 10 to 200 mg.
It turns out that the filter you choose and how much water you filter may be important. Different brand filters have somewhat different nominal pore sizes and in fact these change as water is filtered and particles gradually plug up the pores. Unfortunately, this is not stated in standard reference manuals such as the various water quality methods “bibles” published by EPA, USGS, the American Public Health Association (see http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/ for list). Under the Federal NPDES program, EPA method 160.2 and Standard Methods 2540D are approved for measuring TSS in effluents or natural waters subject to regulatory requirements for discharges. Commonly used glass fiber filters include
Whatman GF/F, GF/C and GF/A (from finer to coarser pores)
Reeve-Angel 984-AH and 934 AH (finer-coarser)
Gelman AE (approximately similar to Whatman GF/C’s)
4. Because of difference you may get in your TSS numbers just because of the filter you use (the NRRI Lab has found that values can vary by &gt;50%), it is probably better to use the same filters year after year so that long-term trends will not be affected by methodology changes (“glitches” is the technical term).
5. Washing the filter is important because loose material can introduce an error. He filters must be pre-washed, dried and weighed to a constant weight (&lt;0.5 mg variation or &lt;4% of initial weighing). For non-regulatory routine monitoring work, do some preliminary checks to see how big these variations are to allow you to streamline your technique. After the washed filters are dried and tared, we store them in small plastic petri dishes (XX cms diam) that can be labeled with the filter # and weight and date and sample ID and even re-used later.
Details on how to calibrate a turbidity sensor are in Module 9
Reference: (from http://www.bradwoods.org/eagles/turbidity.htm (Aug 2002))
Turbidity is due to:
Inorganic particles such as clays and silts
Organic material, both living and detrital, autocthonous and allocthonous
The Relationship between Among JTU&apos;S, and NTU&apos;sThe Secchi disk measurement in feet has been roughly correlated with Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU&apos;s). These units were based upon a standard suspension of 1000 parts per million diatomaceous earth in water. By diluting this suspension, a series of standards was produced.
Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU&apos;s) are the application of these standards to the original device for measuring turbidity called the “Jackson tube.” The Jackson tube is a long glass tube suspended over a lit candle. A sample of water was slowly poured into the tube until the candle flame as viewed from above could no longer be seen. This device is no longer used because it is not sensitive to very low turbidities.
A turbidimeter measures turbidity as nephelometer turbidity units (NTU). Instruments such as the turbidimeter that measure the scattering of light are called nephelometers. Both NTU&apos;s and JTU s are interchangeable units. They differ only in that their name reflects the device used to measure turbidity.
SALMON CREEK WATERSHED
http://oaspub.epa.gov/pls/tmdl/waters_list.tmdl_report?p_tmdl_id=1363
http://www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl/examples/
How does turbidity relate to TSS ?
Also remember that plankton contribute to turbidity as well and that living cells are &gt; 70 % water. A sample with high turbidity due to plankton may NOT correlate well to TSS as one with particulates due to erosional or resuspended silt.
See also http://www.duluthstreams.org/understanding/param_turbidity.html for a discussion focusing on stream turbidity and TSS.
Summary information for three western Washington streams during 1988-89
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/management/joysmanual/streamtss.html
REFERENCES:
1. USEPA Estuary Volunteer Monitoring Manual, Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids: Procedure C—Measuring water clarity with a transparency tube
http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/monitor/chptr15.html#measure
2. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 2001. Citizen Stream-Monitoring Program: Year 2000 Report on the Water Quality of Minnesota Streams. December 2001, Environmental Outcomes Division, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, St. Paul, MN 55155, USA. http://www.pca.state.mn.us/water/csmp-reports.html
3. Globe Program. 2002 (website). Hydrology Chapter: Water Transparency Protocol. NOAA/Forecast Systems Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado USA (http://www.globe.gov/sda-bin/wt/ghp/tg+L(en)+P(hydrology/WaterTransparency). July 2002.
Turbidity Tube Theory & Operation
The turbidity tube is a relatively new tool increasingly being used by volunteer stream monitoring programs. It provides an analogous measure of turbidity in streams to the secchi depth in lakes. The earliest reference I have found to its use is from the GLOBE program which is an international environmental education program designed for elementary, middle and high school kids. However, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency’s Citizen Stream Monitoring Program credits Australian stream ecologists with introducing this tool (citation above).
Tubes can now be purchased from many vendors (do a web search for information) and a number of states have set up stream monitoring programs that use them. NRRI is using them in a study of Laurentian Great Lakes coastal wetlands and nearshore zones (2001-2003 data collections) and developing relationships between turbidity tube transparency, TSS and turbidity.
They typically come in 60 and 120 cm sizes and we recommend the 120 cm tubes to allow you to obtain data from clearer systems. The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency has had a program since 1999 and publishes a useful document on-line that includes annual data as well as supporting information (http://www.pca.state.mn.us/water/csmp.html). Their basic tube has been only 60 cms which worked well for impacted streams. Since 2001 they have been cross comparing 60 cm with 100 cm tubes.
Theory: Stream water transparency is an indirect measure of the concentration of dissolved and suspended materials. For most water bodies, light is attenuated mostly by suspended particulates (TSS = total suspended solids). In lakes, this TSS is mostly algae (phytoplankton). In streams and rivers, the TSS is mostly soil particles (predominantly silts and clays) that eroded from the watershed or stream channel.
A low transparency reading reflects high levels of sediment (excess soil and/or algae) in the water. This excess sediment is a pollutant since it: reduces light penetration needed for the growth of beneficial aquatic plants and for fish and invertebrates to feed; it can smother fish eggs, keeping them from getting the oxygen needed to survive as well as contributing excess oxygen demand from the decomposition of its organic matter; it clogs spaces between rocks where aquatic insects live; and it also adsorbs and transports other pollutants contributed by urban and agricultural runoff such as phosphorus, petroleum products, heavy metals, and microbial pathogens. These pollutants degrade the quality of flowing water, as well as downstream lakes or reservoirs.
Note - Although this section focuses on streams, the same comments and precautions would apply to ponds, wetlands and coastal zone waters although there is little available information as yet.
Operation: Simple –
Set the tube on a white towel.
Slowly pour the well mixed water sample into the tube, stopping intermittently to see if the black and white pattern has disappeared. To avoid introducing air bubbles, pour the water against the inside wall of the tube.
With your back to the sun (avoid direct sunlight by shielding the tube with your body), use your toes to control the valve at the bottom and release water until you can see the mini-secchi disk on the bottom stopper.
Record the water depth in centimeters as marked on the side of the tube. If you can see the secchi when the tube is full, record the datum as &gt;120 cm (or &gt;60 cm for the short tube).
Precautions:
Readings in transparency tubes can be rendered inaccurate (in the sense of estimating turbidity and suspended particulate material) in cases of highly colored waters.
A transparency reading taken from one tube cannot be compared with a reading taken from another tube from a different manufacturer if the dimensions are different.
It may take a number of tries because of overshooting the endpoint so collect plenty of water for this analysis. Our standard 120 cm x ~4.5 cm O.D. tube requires ~ 1.5 liters to fill it so we dedicate at least 4 liters of water (cubitainers and Supermarket 1 gallon “distilled/deionized water” water jugs work well). Although many commercially available tubes have valves tubes at the bottom that we control with our toes, it’s easy to overshoot the mark and so you need extra water.
Be sure to vigorously mix the sample before and during filling – fast settling sand and larger silt particles may require replicate measurements. However, take care not to produce air bubbles which will scatter light and affect the measurement.
Be sure to save an adequate amount of water from the same site to be able to determine TSS and/or nephelometric turbidity (see Module 8 Methods) as a calibration.
The rubber stoppers (with attached secchi) can pop out pretty easily. Tape it with black vinyl electricians tape and carry an extra stopper-secchi
Tubes won’t last forever, especially if not cleaned periodically with mild dish soap and a cotton wash rag.
Although water from the tube could be saved for turbidity and TSS measurements, do NOT save it for nutrient or many other pollutant analyses because it has not been cleaned according to certified protocols.
Sample collection – SEE MODULE 7 - #xxx for sampling considerations. For streams, collect the sample in a bottle or bucket at mid-depth if possible, avoid stagnant water, sample as far from the shoreline as is safe, and avoid collecting bottom sediment.
Particles settle fast so subsampling and settling are important issues. A big stopper for the top is useful to allow for resuspension during the measurement if there are lots of rapidly settling sediments.
Avoid sunglasses and avoid direct sunlight by shielding the tube with your body when possible.
Similar suspended sediment concentration waters can have very different transparency since smaller particles scatter more light
Dissolved color due to organic matter (humic and fulvic acids usually from bogs and conifer needles) can confound stream to stream or wetland to wetland comparisons of turbidity.
Although this section focuses on streams, the same comments and precautions would apply to ponds, wetlands and coastal zone waters although there is little available information as yet.
From: IF VISUAL WATER CLARITY IS THE ISSUE, THEN WHY NOT MEASURE IT?
Davies-Colley, R. J. and D.G Smith, 2001. Turbidity, Suspended Sediment, and Water
Clarity: A Review. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 37: 1085-1101.
Increased embeddedness decreases the living space between particles and limits the available area and cover for small fish, macroinvertebrates, and periphyton.
Siltation can also smother fish eggs
Reference:
An Evaluation of Techniques for Measuring Substrate Embeddedness by Traci Sylte and Craig Fischenich
http://stream.fs.fed.us/news/streamnt/oct03/oct_03_01.htm
Simonson, T.D., J. Lyons and P.D. Kanehl. 1994. Guidelines for Evaluating Fish Habitat in Wisconsin Streams. USDA Forest Service Technical Report NC-164. 36pp.
A relatively simple method of assessing several chemical characteristics of streams is through measuring electrical conductivity.
A water sample consists of pure water containing various dissolved substances (gases and solids), and particulates (substances not dissolved in the water). These fractions may be functionally defined by passing the water through a fine filter to remove the solids (see TSS section in Module 8 for specific filtration details). The total amount of solids dissolved in the water as ions and other molecules = the total dissolved solids or TDS. It’s measured simply by filtering out the particulates, evaporating the water in a pre-weighed dish, and then weighing the residual solids from the known volume of sample. Units are milligrams per liter (mg/l).
Note that the weight of dissolved gases is not included in the TDS. Note also that if we weighed the solids caught on the filter, we would have a value for TSS (total suspended solids) in the same sample.
Note that some fine particulates may pass through the filter (depending on its effective (also called nominal) pore size and so would be erroneously included in the TDS.
Conductivity indirectly estimates the TDS based on how well the water sample conducts an electrical current, a property which is proportional to the concentration of ions in solution.
Salinity is a parameter used primarily to characterize marine or estuarine water TDS based upon concentration of ocean salts. Technically, the measurement of salinity requires comparing a sample&apos;s TDS or conductivity, or other physico-chemical property with that of a standard sea water. Salinity is the usual measure of salts in sea water and in brackish water derived from mixing of fresh and sea water in estuaries.
Re: Temperature compensation:
EC increases with increasing temperature. Therefore, even if a water body had a constant salt concentration its EC would decrease in winter and with depth in the summer. However, in most cases, we want to use EC as a measure of the total salt concentration of a sample and so we remove this temperature variation by normalizing (also called standardizing) the readings to what they would be if the sample were measured at 25 oC . We then call it specific EC and abbreviate it as EC@ 25 oC or just EC25.
BE CAREFUL when you examine other people’s data – they often fail to specify what their probe was measuring. Many older instruments, in particular the YSI 33 S-C-T meter that has been a faithful instrument for many decades, are not temperature compensated and require re-calculation after the fact. In stratified lakes as the summer progresses the telltale clue is a decreasing EC with depth below the thermocline that is due to decreasing temperatures. In fact EC25 typically increases with depth in the hypolimnion over the course of the summer due to the buildup of bicarbooate and other ions by bacterial repiration and remineralization (I.e. decomposition) activity.
What in the world are microSiemens per centimeter (µS/cm)?
(http://waterontheweb.org/under/waterquality/conductivity.html)
These are the units for electrical conductivity (EC). The sensor simply consists of two metal electrodes that are exactly 1.0 cm apart and protrude into the water. A constant voltage (V) is applied across the electrodes. An electrical current (I) flows through the water due to this voltage and is proportional to the concentration of dissolved ions in the water - the more ions, the more conductive the water resulting in a higher electrical current which is measured electronically. Distilled or deionized water has very few dissolved ions and so there is almost no current flow across the gap (low EC).
As an aside, fisheries biologists who electroshock know that if the water is too soft (low EC) it is difficult to electroshock to stun fish for monitoring their abundance and distribution. For their purposes in selecting the right size shocker, they want to know the actual EC value, not the temperature compensated value.
Up until about the late 1970&apos;s the units of EC were micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm) after which they were changed to microSiemens/cm (1 µS/cm = 1 µmho/cm). You will find both sets of units in the published scientific literature although their numerical values are identical. Interestingly, the unit &quot;mhos&quot; derives from the standard name for electrical resistance reflecting the inverse relationship between resistance and conductivity - the higher the resistance of the water, the lower its conductivity. This also follows from Ohm’s Law, V = I x R where R is the resistance of the centimeter of water. Since the electrical current flow (I) increases with increasing temperature, the EC values are automatically corrected to a standard value of 25°C and the values are then technically referred to as specific electrical conductivity.
All WOW conductivity data are temperature compensated to 25°C (usually called specific EC). We do this because the ability of the water to conduct a current is very temperature dependent. We reference all EC readings to 25°C to eliminate temperature differences associated with seasons and depth. Therefore EC 25°C data reflect the dissolved ion content of the water (also routinely called the TDS or total dissolved salt concentration).
SourcesEC25 is also one of a number of general indicators of the overall “health” of a stream and variations from its normal range may indicate sources of pollution such as:
wastewater from sewage treatment plants and industrial discharges. These are point sources of pollutants. Domestic sewage is enriched by human wastes in addition to food, laundry and other materials that find their way down household drains. Depending on the municipality, a variety of industrial wastewaters that have been pre-treated to varying degrees, are then mixed with the domestic wastewater prior to treatment. However, treatment at this stage usually has little effect on TDS since the primary goals are to break down organic matter, remove particulate materials, remove nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and disinfection. Some industrial wastes are extremely salty, to the point of being called “brines”, and require expensive pre-treatment to prevent the high TDS levels from harming the microorganisms that are the main sewage treatment process .
wastewater from on-site wastewater treatment and dispersal systems (septic systems and drainfields)
urban runoff from roads and construction sites (especially road salt; see winter storm graph from Chester Creek, November 2002). This source has a particularly episodic nature with pulsed inputs when it rains or during more prolonged snowmelt periods. It may &quot;shock&quot; organisms with intermittent extreme concentrations of pollutants which seem low when averaged over a week or month. Road de-icing salts can be quite varied but typically are mostly sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
agricultural runoff of water draining agricultural fields typically has extremely high levels of dissolved salts (another major nonpoint source of pollutants). Although nutrients (ammonium-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen and phosphate from fertilizers) and pesticides (insecticides and herbicides mostly) comprise a minor fraction of the total dissolved salts, their concentrations are greatly elevated relative to natural ecosystems and typically cause significant negative impacts on streams and lakes receiving agricultural drainage water. High EC25 values are also often associated with increased soil erosion. Soils washed into receiving waters also add oxygen depleting organic matter in addition to nutrients and pesticides.
acid mine drainage - drainage from operating and abandoned mine sites can contribute iron, sulfate, copper, nickel, cadmium, arsenic, and other compounds if minerals containing these constituents are present and are exposed to air and water. The high TDS of mine drainage in coal and metal mines in particular is well known to cause serious ecological damage in some parts of the U.S. Acid mine drainage, often referred to as AMD, results when the mineral pyrite (FeS2) is exposed to air and water, resulting in the formation of sulfuric acid and iron hydroxide. The combination of high acidity, high TDS (sulfate usually) and iron coatings can be devastating to stream communities. Pyrite is usually present in coal-mining and many metal mining areas. AMD becomes a problem when the overlying rocks are exposed and removed during surface mining to get to the coal. Minnesota&apos;s Iron Range iron mining area has had little impact from AMD except for mineralized (sulfide-bearing rock) Duluth Complex waste rock piles at the Dunka Pit iron mine near Babbitt, MN which have required a variety of treatment methods to protect downstream water resources.
atmospheric inputs of ions are typically small except near seashores where ocean water increases the salt load ( &quot;salinity&quot; ) of precipitation. Sea spray can also be important and this oceanic effect can extend inland about 50-100 kilometers and be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
From http://www.duluthstreams.org/understanding/param_ec.html
This graph summarizes some of the results from a snowmelt runoff study conducted by MPCA-Duluth staff in 1999 for Kingsbury Creek, Amity, Keene and Miller Creeks (MPCA 2000). Their first sample on March 25 was collected when the spring runoff had just begun and flow was still relatively low (9 cfs). Both EC25 and TDS were at their highest levels in this study due to road salt loads that washed into the stream with the first flush of snowmelt. Four days later these levels had decreased sharply due to dilution when streamflow jumped from 9 to over 90 cfs due to warm weather. After another 4 days, flows had dropped, but were still high and so EC25 and TDS remained relatively low. A final set of samples was collected in late September during the very low base-flow period and EC25 and TDS were higher since groundwater seepage comprised most of the flow at this time. Similar patterns were observed at the other streams. Additional sampling at Miller Creek by the South St. Louis County Soil and Water Conservation District (SSLSWCD) prior to the peak spring runoff showed much higher salt levels. This clearly demonstrated that the large load of urban pollutants that can accumulates over the winter when the stream is mostly frozen, can be suddenly released and potentially ”shock” fish and other aquatic organisms.
pH is an essential chemical measurement to take while collecting water quality samples because it influences an number of important chemical and biological process.
Image courtesy of USGS at http://www.usgs.gov/
Review:
For example, in addition to affecting how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the water, pH may also determine whether aquatic life can use it. In the case of heavy metals, the degree to which they are soluble determines their toxicity. Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH because they are more soluble.
Details of pH measurement and probe calibration can be found in Module 9.
Details on temperature measurement and probe calibration can be found in Module 9.
Absolutely NO mercury (Hg) thermometers, existing Hg thermometers should be turned in at your state water quality agency.
Temperature is always measured concurrently with oxygen, pH, and conductivity because all of these parameters are temperature dependent.
Most sensors have built-in temperature compensation.
Thermal pollution (i.e., artificially high temperatures) in larger streams usually occurs as a result of discharge of municipal or industrial effluents. Except in very large lakes, it is rare to have an effluent discharge.
In urban areas with smaller streams runoff that flows over hot asphalt and concrete pavement before entering a stream or pond will be artificially heated and can cause significant warming.
In running waters, particularly small urban streams during low flow periods, elevated temperatures from road and parking lot runoff can be a serious problem for populations of cool or cold-water fish already stressed from the other contaminants in urban runoff. During summer, temperatures may approach their upper tolerance limit.
Higher temperatures also decrease the maximum amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in the water, leading to oxygen stress if the water is receiving high loads of organic matter. Since trout eggs require cool, well oxygenated water, reproduction may be directly impaired by this pollutant in addition to its effects on adult and juvenile fish survival.
Since bacteria and other disease causing organisms grow faster in warm water, the susceptibility of aquatic organisms to disease in warm water increases as well.
Water temperature fluctuations in streams may be further worsened by cutting down trees, which provide shade, and by absorbing more heat from sunlight due to increased water turbidity.
Image taken from:
http://www.krisweb.com/stream/temperature.htm#factors
Bartholow, J.M. 1989 . Stream temperature investigations: field and analytic methods. Instream flow information paper no. 13. Biological Report 89(17). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Co
Maximum average temperatures for growth and short-term maximum temperatures for selected fish
http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/vms53.html
References:
Brungs, W.S. and B.R. Jones. 1977. Temperature Criteria for Freshwater Fish: Protocols and Procedures. EPA-600/3-77-061. Environ. Research Lab, Ecological Resources Service, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Duluth, MN.
Example of how urban runoff during a summer rainstorm can cause an increase in stream temperatures.
http://www.duluthstreams.org/streams/data/
See Module 9 for more detailed information on pathogen monitoring
REFERENCES
1. US Geological Survey (USGS), Water Resources--Office of Water Quality, National Field Manual Chapter 7.1 FECAL INDICATOR BACTERIA
http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter7.1/7.1_contents.html
2. http://ohioline.osu.edu/b795/b795_2.html
These indicator bacteria are generally not considered harmful by themselves although some can be pathogenic (disease causing).
Details in Module 9
http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/chapter4/html/Ch4_contents.html
The following text adapted from the EPA Volunteer Stream Monitoring Methods Manual (http://www.epa.gov/volunteer/stream/vms50.html).
Sample away from the streambank in the main current. Never sample stagnant water. The outside curve of the stream is often a good place to sample, since the main current tends to hug this bank. In shallow stretches, carefully wade into the center current to collect the sample.
Disturb bottom sediment as little as possible. In any case, be careful not to collect water that has sediment from bottom disturbance. Stand facing upstream. Collect the water sample on your upstream side, in front of you.
A boat will be required for deep sites. Try to maneuver the boat into the thalweg to collect the water sample.
Some suggested sample volumes. True needs are based upon the specific analytical method requirements.
Make sure you allow for volume loss during sample processing (e.g. filtration).
We (NRRI and WOW) use Tyvek type labels but many others are available.
Often, much more information may be needed by the laboratory performing your analyses. You may also need to supply a chain of custody form.
This module will not cover automated stream sampling in depth. The standard in automated stream sampling is set by the USGS.
USGS 1998. National Field Manual for the collection of water quality data. Chapter A2: Selection of equipment for water sampling. TWRI Book 9.
The Duluth Streams monitors are described at:
http://waterontheweb.org/under/instrumentation/smu.html