Mitigating Environmental Sustainability Challenges and Enhancing Health in Urban Communities: The Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure

How to Cite this Article:
Dipeolu, A. A., Akpa, O. M. and Fadamiro, J. A. (2020). Mitigating Environmental Sustainability Challenges and Enhancing Health in Urban
Communities: The Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 4(1), 33-46.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2020.v4n1-4
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2020, Volume 4, Number 1, pages 33– 46
Mitigating Environmental Sustainability Challenges
and Enhancing Health in Urban Communities: The
Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure
* Dr. Adedotun Ayodele Dipeolu 1 , Dr. Onoja Matthew Akpa 2 and Prof. Joseph Akinlabi
Fadamiro 3
1 Department of Architecture, College of Engineering and Environmental Studies, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ogun State, Nigeria
2 Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
3 Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
1 E mail: dipeolu.adedotun@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng, 2 E mail: onojamatthew@yahoo.co.uk , 3 E mail: joechrisdamiro@yahoo.com
A B S T R A C T
Green Infrastructure (GI) facilities have capacity to enhance health and mitigate
Environmental Sustainability Challenges (ESC). However, the extent of the
mitigation and health benefits is unclear in developing countries. This study
examined the impact of GI on ESC and Perceived Health (PH) of urban residents
in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select
1858 residents of Lagos Metropolis who completed semi-structured
questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and chi-square test were used to explore data
distributions and assess association of the availability of GI with resident’s PH and
ESC. Odds ratio with 95% confidence interval (OR;95%CI) were estimated for
good health and ESC mitigation. Participants were mostly men (58.9%) and
younger than 50 years old (86.3%). Good health (20.5%) and high mitigation of
ESC (collection and disposal of waste-52.7% and official development assistance-
63.9%) were reported where GI is mostly available. Participants were more likely
to report good health (OR:1.40; 95%CI:1.02-1.92) and high mitigation of ESC
[water quality (OR:1.42; 95%CI:1.12-1.81) passenger transport mode (OR:1.41;
95%CI:1.06-1.89)] where GI are mostly available. Availability of Green
infrastructure is supporting health and mitigating environmental sustainability
challenges in the study area. Green infrastructure should be provided in urban
areas where environmental sustainability is under threat.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2020), 4(1), 33-46.
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Copyright © 2019 Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Urban sprawl, rapid depletion of forest areas and
urban degradation among others has constituted
daunting challenges to the environment in recent
time. In addition, other more wide-spread land-
uses, such as agriculture and industrial activities,
have split up valuable landscapes, intensified the
use of more energy, fertilizer and water (Jongman,
2003; Gutman, 2007).
*Corresponding Author:
Department of Architecture, College of Engineering and
Environmental Studies, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ogun State,
Nigeria
Email address: dipeolu.adedotun@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng
A R T I C L E I N F O:
Article history:
Received 26 March 2019
Accepted 15 June 2019
Available online 29 August
2019
Keywords:
-Environmental
sustainability challenges;
- Green infrastructure;
- Perceived health;
- Mitigating Environmental
challenges;
Urban Communities
This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution -
NonCommercial - NoDerivs 4.0.
"CC-BY-NC-ND"
This article is published with Open
Access at www.ijcua.com

JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 4(1), 33-46/ 2020
Dr. Adedotun Ayodele Dipeolu, Dr. Onoja Matthew Akpa and Prof. Joseph Akinlabi Fadamiro 34
This uncurbed urbanisation and shift from forest
systems to mechanized and grey infrastructure
laden environment has resulted in the reduction of
species’ richness and weakened the capacity of
ecosystems for natural food production,
rejuvenation of human health, maintenance of
aquatic and terrestrial resources, regulate micro-
climate and air quality in the built environment
(Tzoulas et al., 2007; Ward Thompson, 2011). To
ameliorate some of these negative consequences
of urbanization, strategies of green infrastructure
was proposed as solution to tackle environmental
sustainability and human well-being especially in
rapidly developing urban centres (Pakzada &
Osmonda, 2016).
Green infrastructure (GI) is a network of multi-
functional green space facilities that can increase
connectivity between existing natural areas,
encourage ecological coherence while improving
the quality of life and well-being. Various research
efforts in the built environment are currently
geared towards improving ecosystem services
through the development of GI (Wolch, Byrne &
Newell, 2014; Maes et al., 2015), mostly as a
strategy to cope with divers’ environmental
sustainability challenges. However, in spite of the
numerous benefits of the green infrastructure,
rapid population growth and changes in land uses
have put these facilities under pressure. This poses
questions regarding the quantity and types of GI
within a neighbourhood/community which are
required to mitigate environmental sustainability
challenges and enhance human health (Maes et
al., 2015; Ward Thompson et al., 2016).
Specifically, empirical evidences show that
activities or living around green spaces promotes
physical health, psychological well-being, and the
general public health of users (Takano, Nakamura,
Watanabe, 2002; Wolch et al., 2014; Maes et al.,
2015). Exposure to street trees, vegetation, green
parks, gardens and other green spaces in urban
areas has been connected with multiple health
benefits, including reduced mortality, morbidity,
mental fatigue, stress, and being more physically
active (Takano et al., 2002; de Vries et al., 2003;
Maas et al., 2009). Other environment-related
benefits range from carbon sequestration,
improved air and water quality, control of air
pollution to urban heat island effect (Gómez-
Mu˜noza, Porta-Gándarab & Fernándezc, 2010).
In addition, studies from Australia (Humpel et al.,
2004; Sugiyama, Leslie, Giles-Corti & Owen, 2008)
have identified that the quality of parks and
landscapes in people’s neighbourhood may
contribute to more active lifestyles. Similar studies
in Netherlands demonstrated the benefits of green
spaces near homes and their impact on stress and
other patterns of morbidity associated with
accessing distance green spaces (Maas, Verheij,
Spreeuwenberg & Groenewegen, 2008; Maes et
al., 2015). Apart from that, in a recent study among
poor black and minority ethnic (BME) communities
in the UK, result suggested that health and
recreation policy in the UK needs to create more
opportunities and green facilities closer to BME
communities in order to address the health
inequalities experienced by these groups (Roe,
Aspinall, & Ward Thompson, 2016; Ward Thompson
et al., 2016). Also, availability of green spaces has
been reported to enhance factors such as
community cohesion and revitalization, improved
housing conditions, neighbourhood pedestrian
corridors, job availability, and more active youths
in productive ventures (Jennings, Baptiste, Jelks &
Skeete, 2017).
In general, green infrastructure has the capacity to
enhance health and mitigate environmental
sustainability challenges (Pakzada & Osmonda,
2016; Jennings et al., 2017), but the aspect or
dimension of the challenges, the extent of the
mitigation and the effect that these will have on
the health of urban residents in developing nations
like Nigeria is unclear. The present study therefore,
examined the mitigating effects of GI on selected
environmental sustainability issues as well as the
extent to which availability of GI can enhance self-
reported (perceived) health of urban residents in
Lagos Nigeria.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
A total of 1858 residents of Lagos state, Nigeria
participated in this study. Participants were
household heads or adult representative who can
and were willing to provide the needed
information. The sampling frame consisted of the
16 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Lagos
Metropolis. Selected LGAs were sub-divided into
participants’ neighbourhood defined by
Enumeration areas (EAs). In each EA, households
were systematically sampled from the list of
numbered houses (households) until the required
sample size allocated to the EA was reached.
Consenting participants (household heads) were
given the study questionnaire to complete in
English language. Ethical approval (with number
MOE/OES/7250/52) for this study was obtained
from the Lagos State Ministry of Environment
Ethical Review Committee.
2.2. Measures
Demographic information
The study used a semi-structured questionnaire to
collect data on participant’s demography. Some
of the information in the socio-demographic
section of the questionnaire included gender,
age, family size, marital status, household size,

ethic group, religion, occupation and rank in
occupation/income level.
Availability of green infrastructure
Preliminarily, participants were asked to specify if
green infrastructure is available in their
neighbourhood, the approximate distance of the
GI facilities from their location, the type of GI
facilities available in their neighbourhood, reasons
for visiting GI sites and other related questions. To
measure the availability of GI in the
neighbourhood; the literature was used to
ascertain GI types (Takano et al., 2002; Wolch et
al., 2014) while the authors verified and
documented all available GI types in the study
area. The available GI in the study areas were
grouped into four namely: Green spaces GI, Tree
features GI, Water features GI and other spaces
green infrastructure (consisting of green
infrastructure facilities that cannot be categorised
into any of the first three groups). Respondents
were required to identify from the list of GIs in each
group, all GI facilities present in their
neighbourhood.
2.2.3. Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure
(HBGI).
The Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure (HBGI)
was measured with the 12-item General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ) developed by Goldberg. This
(GHQ) instrument is a measure of current mental
health of participants. The GHQ has been
previously used and validated in different nations,
settings and cultures with very reliable results
(Goldberg, 1992). Originally, the questionnaire was
developed as a 60-item instrument but shortened
versions of the questionnaire were later developed
in response to some criticisms of the instrument.
Such versions include GHQ-30, the GHQ-28, the
GHQ-20, and the GHQ-12. The scale assessed
recent experiences of respondents on a particular
symptom or behaviour. Each item is rated on a 4-
point scale (1=less than usual, 2=no more than
usual, 3=rather more than usual and 4=much more
than usual) (Golderberg et al., 1998). Examples of
items include “been able to enjoy your normal day
to day activities”, “been able to concentrate on
what you’re doing” etc (Supplementary Table S1).
In the present study, HBGI of the participants was
measured in relation to whether or not they visit
green infrastructure sites over the past 4 weeks. This
selected duration (one-month) was considered
sufficient to assess the health impacts of GI on
users based on recommendations of the British
Heart Foundation National Centre (Milton, Bull &
Bauman, 2011). The 12-item GHQ has been used
to assess health benefits in some settings with
reasonable coefficient of reliability. In particular,
Montazeri et al. (2003) reported an alpha
coefficient of 0.87 for the GHQ scale in a study
conducted in Iran, to assess the reliability and
validity of the 12-item instrument.
2.2.4. Environmental Sustainability Challenges
Five facets measuring general environmental
sustainability challenges were extracted from 27
facets of sustainability in a Report of the Joint
UNECE/OECD/Eurostat working group on statistics
for sustainable development.
(UNECE/OECD/Eurostat, 2008). The five facets
were selected (for their relevance to the issues of
environmental sustainability in the study setting) for
the present study: Air Pollution (APL), Collection
and Disposal of Waste (CDW), Water Quality
(WQT), Passenger Transport Mode (PTM) and
Official Development Assistance (ODA). Literature
informed indicators or items relevant to the
selected facets were used to measure
sustainability challenges related to the facet (SCI,
2012; Müller et al., 2009; Bonaiuto et al., 2003).
Participants were required to show their
agreement or disagreement to the 21 indicators
(arranged within 5 facets) on a 7-point scale
ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly
agree. Examples of indicators include “residents’
health in this neighbourhood is threatened by air
pollution” and “residents have access to clean
drinkable water in this neighbourhood”
(Supplementary Table S2).
2.3. Data Management and Statistical Analysis
Techniques
Initially, frequency tables and cross tabulations
were used to explore the distribution of the data
and to enhance data cleaning/editing. Total raw
score was calculated for each group of the GI
type [i.e Total Green spaces GI (TGRS), Total Tree
Features GI (TTRF), Total Water Features GI (TWTF)
and Total Other Spaces GI (TOTH)] as the sum of GI
facilities available in the area as indicated by the
respondent. A GI availability index was created
using the total raw score as a percentage of the
total GI facilities listed in the group. An overall GI
index was created for each respondent as a total
of the group specific indices. The four groups of GI
availability indices (TGRS, TTRF, TWTF, TOTH), were
categorized into 3 using the mean (M) and the
standard deviation (SD) as follows: poorly
available (if score < M+SD), moderately available
(if M-SD  score  M+SD), and mostly available (if
score > M+SD). Similarly, the total score for the
Health Benefits of GI (HBGI) was categorized into 3
using the mean (M) and the standard deviation
(SD) as follows: poor health (if score < M+SD), fair
health (if M-SD  score  M+SD), and good health
(if score > M+SD). Each facet of the Environmental
Sustainability Challenges were also categorized

into 3 using the mean (M) and the standard
deviation (SD) as follows: low mitigation (if score <
M+SD), moderately mitigation (if M-SD  score 
M+SD, and high mitigation if  M+SD (Issa &
Bayeiwu, 2006; Akpa & Bamgboye, 2015).
The Chi-square test was used to assess whether
level of mitigation of the environmental
sustainability challenges and good health benefit
were associated with availability of GI facilities in
the study area. The categories of the HBGI and
each facet of the Environmental sustainability
challenges were further dichotomized by
combining the two upper categories so as to form
only two outcomes. Binary logistic regression
analysis (Adjusted and unadjusted analyses) was
performed to estimate the odds ratio (OR) and
their respective 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) for
factors associated with HBGI and each facet of
environmental sustainability challenges.
Covariates were included in the logistic regression
depending on whether or not, there significant in
the bivariate (Chi-sqaures) test. All analysis were
performed using IBM SPSS statistics version 20 with
significance level set at 5%.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Participants’ Demography and Social
Factors
More than half (58.9%) of the participants are men
while 41.1% of them are women. Participants are
mostly younger than 50 years (86.3%) and
approximately 57% of them are married. Although
most of them had completed tertiary education
(59.9%), 12% of them did not complete secondary
education. About 43% of the participants were
self-employed, 28.2% were employees of
public/private organizations while 11.9% of them
are unemployed (Table 1).
Table 1: Socio-demographics Characteristics of Respondents (N=1858)
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 1095 58.9
Female 763 41.1
Total 1858
Current Age
˂30 699 37.6
30-49 905 48.7
˃=50 222 11.9
Not Reported 32 1.7
Total 1858
Marital Status
Never Married 711 38.3
Married 1049 56.5
Formerly Married 85 4.6
Not Reported 13 0.7
Total 1858
Household Size
<=4 1063 57.2
˃4 786 42.3
Not Reported 9 0.5
Total 1858
Ethnic Group
Yoruba 1298 69.9
Others 559 30.1
Not Reported 1 0.1
Total 1858
Highest Educational Qualification
Less than Secondary Education 223 12.0
Secondary Education 516 27.8
Tertiary Non Degree Education 604 32.5
Tertiary Degree/Postgraduate Education 510 27.4
Not Reported 5 0.3
Total 1858
Occupation
Unemployed 221 11.9
Self Employed 797 42.9
Private/Public Employees 524 28.2
Students & Others 316 17.0
Total 1858
Rank in Occupation/Income Level
Junior Staff 478 25.7
Senior Staff 275 14.8
Management Staff/Business Owners 597 32.1
Not Reported 508 27.3
Total 1858

3.2. Factors associated with participants’
perceived Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure
The proportion (20.5%) of participants reporting
perceived good health was significantly higher
among those reporting that GI (overall) is mostly
available in their neighbourhood. Also, the
proportion of younger participants, aged <50
years (85.1%) reporting perceived good health
was significantly higher compared to participants
aged > 50 years (14.8%). Participants who have
completed tertiary education (58.8%) reported
perceived good health than those who did not
have more than secondary school education
(41.1%). Poor health was mostly reported among
participants who were not yet married (23.6%)
(Table 2).
Table 2: Factors associated with perceived Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure
% with poor health % with fair health % with good health P
Green Space GI 0.04
Poorly Available 33(17.0) 119(61.3) 42(21.6)
Moderately Available 206(22.7) 559(61.5) 144(15.8)
Mostly Available 136(19.3) 421(59.9) 146(20.8)
Tree Feature GI 0.59
Water Feature GI 0.48
Other Spaces 0.22
Overall GI index 0.03
Participants’ Demography
Sex 0.29
Male 221(20.3) 679(62.4) 189(56.4)
Female 168(22.1) 447(58.7) 146(43.6)
Current Age 0.01
˂30 173(24.9) 405(58.3) 117(35.3)
30-49 164(18.2) 572(63.5) 165(49.8)
˃=50 45(20.3) 128(57.7) 49(14.8)
Marital Status 0.009
Never Married 166(23.6) 410(58.3) 127(38.4)
Married 194(18.5) 666(63.5) 189(57.1)
Formerly Married 27(31.8) 43(50.6) 15(4.5)
Household Size 0.34
<=4 233(22.0) 644(60.8) 182(54.5)
˃4 156(19.9) 475(60.7) 152(45.5)
Ethnic Group 0.98
Yoruba 270(20.9) 787(61.0) 234(69.9)
Others 119(21.3) 338(60.6) 101(30.1)
Highest Educational Qualification 0.04
Less than Secondary 41(18.5) 128(57.7) 53(15.9)
Secondary 97(18.9) 332(64.7) 84(25.2)
Tertiary Non Degree 138(22.9) 348(57.7) 117(35.1)
Tertiary Degree/Postgrad 112(22.1) 316(62.3) 79(23.7)
Occupation 0.17
Unemployed 59(26.8) 119(54.1) 42(12.5)
Self Employed 149(18.7) 506(63.6) 140(41.8)
Private/Public Employees 113(21.6) 318(60.7) 93(27.8)
Students & Others 68(21.9) 183(58.8) 60(17.9)
Rank in Occupation 0.32
Junior Staff 92(19.3) 296(62.1) 89(38.0)
Senior Staff 56(20.4) 180(65.5) 39(16.7)
Management Staff 135(22.7) 355(59.6) 106(45.3)
Note: percentages were calculated based on the row total of the the 3 categories of each facet of the Environmental Sustainability challenges
GI-Green Infrastructure

The results of the logistic regression analyses are
presented as adjusted and unadjusted odd ratios
(OR and aOR) with their respective 95%
confidence intervals (CI) in Table 3. The odds of
reporting good health was higher for participants
in areas where GI (overall) are mostly available
(OR: 1.40; 95%CI: 1.02-1.92). Similarly, the odds of
reporting good health was higher among
participants that are aged 30-49 years (OR: 1.49;
95%CI: 1.17-1.90) compared to participants that
are less than 30 years of age. Being formerly
married (OR: 0.47; 95%CI: 0.28-0.81) and aged 30-
49 years (OR: 1.39; 95%CI: 1.06-1.61) are
independently associated with perceived health
benefits of GI (Table 3).
Table 3: Association of Green Infrastructure with Perceived Health benefit of GI
Factors
Odds of
Good Health
(95% CI)
Adjusted Odds of
Good Health
(95% CI)
Green Space GI
Poorly Available - -
Moderately Available 0.70(0.47-1.05) 0.64(0.42-0.99)
Mostly Available 0.86(0.56-1.30) 0.72(0.46-1.13)
Overall GI Index
Poorly Available
Moderately Available 1.36(0.98-1.89) 1.39(0.98-1.96)
Mostly Available 1.40(1.02-1.92) 1.37(0.95-1.97)
Current Age
˂30 -
30-49 1.49(1.17-1.90) 1.39(1.06-1.61)
˃=50 1.30(0.90-1.89) 1.24(0.83-1.85)
Highest Educational Qualification
Less than Secondary -
Secondary 0.97(0.65-1.46) 0.85(0.55-1.32)
Tertiary Non Degree 0.76(0.52-1.13) 0.67(0.44-1.02)
Tertiary Degree/Postgrad. 0.80(0.54-1.19) 0.67(0.44-1.03)
Marital Status
Never Married - -
Married 1.36(1.08-1.72) 1.19(0.91-1.55)
Formerly Married 0.66(0.41-1.08) 0.47(0.28-0.81)
3.3. Adjusted Effects of Green Infrastructure on
Environmental Sustainability Challenges and
Participant’s Health
Proportion reporting high mitigation of CDW
(52.7%) and ODA (63.9) challenges were
significantly higher in areas were GI (overall) are
mostly available. High mitigation was equally
reported for WQT (48.0%) and ODA (65.0%)
challenges where tree features and green spaces
GI were respectively mostly available in the study
area (Table 4).

Table 4: Association between Availability of GI and Environmental Sustainability challenges
Air Pollution
Collection and
Disposal of waste Water Quality
Passenger
Transport Mode
Official
Development
Assistance
Green
Infrastructure
% reporting
High
mitigation P
%
reporting
High
mitigation P
%
reporting
High
mitigation P
%
reporting
High
mitigation P
%
reporting
High
mitigation P
Green Space GI 0.16 0.52 0.80 0.71 0.03
Poorly Available 97(50.0) 102(52.6) 91(46.9) 111(57.2) 114(58.8)
Moderately
Available 474(52.1) 470(51.6.2) 437(48.0) 524(57.8) 520(57.4)
Mostly Available 327(46.2) 384(54.2) 340(48.0) 387(55.0) 457(65.0)
Tree Feature GI 0.89 0.25 0.007 0.78 0.76
Poorly Available 288(48.7) 327(55.3) 281(47.5) 333(56.6) 360(61.2)
Water Feature GI 0.33 0.33 0.38 0.99 0.49
Moderately
Available 565(50.4) 583(52.0) 556(49.6) 647(58.1) 688(60.0)
Other Spaces 0.77 0.82 0.21 0.05 0.30
Moderately
Available 473(49.9) 505(53.3) 468(49.4) 532(56.4) 563(59.7)
Overall GI Index
Poorly Available 158(55.8)
<0.00
1 130(45.9) 0.02 142(50.2) 0.45 172(61.2) 0.23 161(57.3) 0.02
Moderately
Available 323(49.5) 364(55.8) 312(47.9) 365(56.2) 372(57.3)
Note: percentages were calculated based on the row total of the 3 categories of each facet of the Environmental Sustainability Challenges
GI- Green Infrastructure
The results of the logistic regression further show
that the odds of reporting high mitigation of water
quality challenges was higher in areas where tree
feature GI are mostly available (OR: 1.42; 95%CI:
1.12-1.81) than where they are poorly available.
Similarly, the odds of reporting high mitigation of
challenges relating to passenger transport mode
(transportation systems in the cities) was higher in
neighbourhoods where other spaces GI are mostly
available (OR: 1.41; 95%CI: 1.06-1.89) than where
they are moderately available (Table 5).
Table 5: Association of Green Infrastructure with Mitigation of Environmental Sustainability Challenge
Odds of APL
(95% CI)
Odds of CDW
(95% CI)
Odds of WQT
(95% CI)
Odds of PTM
(95% CI)
Odds of ODA
(95% CI)
Green Space GI
Poorly Available -
Moderately Available 0.92(0.58-1.45)
Mostly Available 0.96(0.59-1.55)
Tree Feature GI
Poorly Available -
Other Spaces
Moderately Available -
Overall GI
Poorly Available - - -
Moderately Available 0.44(0.29 -0.68) 1.08(0.75-1.54) 1.34(0.91-1.99)
Mostly Available 0.63(0.41- 0.97) 1.29(0.91-1.82) 1.42(0.94-2.16)
GI-Green Infrastructure, APL-Air Pollution, CDW- Collection and Disposal of waste, WQT-Water Quality, PTM- Passenger Transport Mode, ODA-Official
Development Assistance

4. Discussions
In this study, we report comparative results for the
mitigating effects of GI on selected environmental
sustainability variables. We as well measured the
extent of self-reported improvement on health of
urban residents in Lagos Metropolis, in relation to
the availability and access to green infrastructure.
This study was premised on the literature (Takano
et al., 2002; Tzoulas et al., 2007; Pakzada &
Osmonda, 2016; Ward Thompson et al., 2016;
Jennings et al., 2017) addressing links between
access to GI facilities and health, particularly levels
of reported good health in areas with green
spaces and poor health induced by
environmental sustainability challenges in urban
centres. We explored potential mitigating effects
of GI on selected environmental sustainability
issues as well as the extent to which availability of
GI can enhance self-reported (perceived) health
of urban residents in Lagos Nigeria.
First, we attempted to discover the socio-
demographical factors associated with perceived
health benefits of GI facilities so as to isolate the
independent capacity of GI to impact health in
the study area. A number of socio-demographic
characteristics of the study participants were
found to impact perceived health. For instance,
health benefit of GI was reported mostly among
younger participants and individuals who have
completed tertiary education. In particular, more
of participants aged 30-49 years reported health
benefit of GI than any other age group. Actually,
the links between socio-economic and
demographic status and health are well
ascertained (e.g. Dunn & Hayes, 2000; Ross, 2000;
Tzoulas et al., 2007). The 30-39 years age group
consists of energetic and productive individuals
compared to ages below or above the range.
Consequently, participants within this age group
have higher opportunity and possibly better
emotional and social orientations to enjoy access
to green infrastructure facilities in their
neighbourhood compared to other individuals
(Conedera, 2015). When controlled for age, sex,
marital and socio-economic status, among older
adults, past studies have provided evidence of a
positive association between self-reported health
(including longevity) and green space (de Vries et
al., 2003; Takano et al., 2002).
Although we also observed that married
participants and those who were formerly married
reported health benefit of GI than those who had
never being married, we are unable to provide
any immediate explanation for this. However, this
result seems to suggest that people are more likely
to benefit from their recreation/outdoor activities
and access to GI facilities when they engage in
such activities with other people than doing so
alone. This finding is not alien to the literature as
previous studies have reported evidences of the
positive effect gained by nearby green spaces
since this provides a place of contact between
people and nature, increases the potential of
meeting neighbours, and enables social well-
being and social cohesion (Kuo, Bacaicoa &
Sullivan 1998; Wolch et al., 2014).
Furthermore, we found that availability of street
trees, green garden and parks, private garden or
allotment, fountain, streams and other GI facilities
even when available moderately, have provided
improved health to residents in the study area. The
link between green spaces and health has been
demonstrated in a number of studies. For instance,
Payne et al. (1998) found that park users reported
better general perceived health, higher levels of
activity and improved ability to relax than non-
users. Also, it has been shown in previous studies
that those who visit green spaces at least once a
month in winter reported significantly better health
than those who refused to visit green spaces (Ward
Thompson et al., 2016). In fact, research has also
been focussed on the effect of nearby trees and
grass visible from apartment buildings on residents’
effectiveness in facing major life problems
including intra-family aggression by enhancing
mental health (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001; Tzoulas et al.,
2007). However, it must be acknowledged that,
even though these and other related studies were
controlled for possible confounders, it is impossible
to completely exclude the possibility of
confounding factors; especially in relation to
lifestyle that may inform health in
neighbourhoods/communities near parks.
The impact of green infrastructure on
environmental sustainability in the present setting is
unclear. Participants in the present study reported
high mitigation of environmental sustainability
challenges (including collection and disposal of
waste, poor water quality, passenger transport
mode and official development assistance) in
neighbourhoods where green infrastructure are
moderately or mostly available. Previous studies in
this area/direction confirmed that green
infrastructure helps to maintain a healthy urban
environment by using trees and other vegetations
to screen and providing clean air, improving the
urban climate and preserving the delicate
balance of nature (Tzoulas et al., 2007; Nowak,
Crane & Stevens, 2006). It is therefore not surprising
to found in the present study, that participants
from areas where tree feature GI are mostly
available where 42% more likely to report high
mitigation of water quality challenges than where
they are poorly available. There are many
evidences in the literature supporting our findings.
Tavakol-Davani et al. (2015) reported that GI
facilities can reduce the amount of storm water
entering urban drainage systems and thus improve

water quality at urban centres. Many other studies
have also evaluated the roles of various types of
GI on storm water management, carbon sinks and
emission controls (Liu, Chen & Peng, 2014; Liu et al.,
2015). The roots of some trees have also been
reported to serve as filters for underground water
and thus improving the quality of drinking water.
(Dong, Guo & Zeng, 2017). Also, participants from
areas where other spaces GI (such as non green
open spaces, non green Parks, school yards etc)
are mostly available were 41% more likely to report
high mitigation of challenges relating to passenger
transport mode (transportation systems in the
cities) than where they are moderately available.
Similarly, recent studies have advocated for more
street trees to create tree corridors where
pedestrian can treck or cycle to various
destination in the city (Singh, 2016; Thaiutsa et al.,
2008). This measure has been suggested as a
mitigation strategy against environmental
challenges related to passenger transport mode
or the transportation systems within the cities. The
approach is seen as a sustainable transport mode
that can eventually encourage sustainability in the
cities.
5. Strengths and limitations
The present study is a strong and comprehensive
contribution to literature on the impact of GI
availability on health and environmental
sustainability challenges from this study setting. The
epidemiological nature of the study provides a
great opportunity for targeted policy and
intervention strategies. The major limitation of this
study may be the self-administered nature of the
questionnaires which might have introduced some
biases. Also, the GHQ-12 version of the General
Health Questionnaire adopted for this study may
equally provide a limitation to the robustness of our
findings as we considered no criteria in our
selection of the GHQ-12 among several other
versions (GHQ-60, GHQ-30, GHQ-28, GHQ-20) of
the scale. There were no local studies with which
to immediately compare our findings, this may
confer some contextual limitations on the
conclusion of the present study.
6. Conclusion
Green infrastructure plays an integral role in
supporting health in the urban communities
studied, through the provision of environmental,
social and economic benefits. There are also
evidences that green infrastructure mitigates
environmental sustainability challenges in the
urban communities studied. In particular, green
infrastructure improves the liveability of the built
environment through maintenance of ecosystems,
storm water reduction, improved air, water and
habitat quality and enhances landscape
connectivity for urban flora and fauna.
Acknowledgement
This research received no specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to report for
this research.
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How to Cite this Article:
Dipeolu, A. A., Akpa, O. M. and Fadamiro, J. A. (2020). Mitigating
Environmental Sustainability Challenges and Enhancing Health in Urban
Communities: The Multi-functionality of Green Infrastructure. Journal of
Contemporary Urban Affairs, 4(1), 33-46.

Supplementary Tables
Table S1: Health Benefits of Green Infrastructure
Item
Less than
usual
(%)
No more than
usual
(%)
Rather more
than usual
(%)
Much more
than usual
(%)
Been able to concentrate on what you’re doing? 238(12.9) 339(18.3) 671(36.3) 602(32.5)
Lost much sleep over worry? 922(49.8) 480(25.9) 306(16.5) 142(7.6)
Felt that you are playing a useful part in things? 160(8.6) 354(19.1) 791(42.8) 545(29.5)
Felt capable of making decisions about things? 141(7.6) 273(14.8) 779(42.1) 655(35.5)
Felt constantly under strain? 791(42.8) 545(29.5) 327(17.7) 187(10.1)
Felt you couldn’t overcome your difficulties? 717(38.8) 581(31.4) 310(16.8) 242(13.1)
Been able to enjoy your normal day to day
activities? 214(11.6) 256(13.8) 821(44.4) 559(30.1)
Been able to face up to your problems? 188(10.2) 305(16.5) 764(41.3) 593(32.0)
Been feeling unhappy or depressed? 770(41.6) 598(32.3) 292(15.8) 190(10.3)
Been losing confidence in yourself? 790(42.7) 669(36.2) 229(12.4) 162(8.7)
Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person? 788(42.6) 624(33.7) 285(15.4) 153(8.3)
Been feeling reasonably happy, all things
considered? 160(8.6) 242(13.1) 736(39.8) 713(38.4)
Table S2: General Environmental Sustainability
STATEMENT
Strongly
disagree
(%)
Disagree
(%)
Undecided
(%)
Agree
(%)
Strongly
agree
(%)
Air pollution (APL)
Residents’ health is threatened by air
pollution in this neighbourhood 417(22.5) 581(31.3) 314(16.9) 319(17.2) 223(12.0)
The air in this neighbourhood is clean i.e
free from automobiles, industry or farming
pesticides and chemicals pollution. 570(30.7) 377(20.3) 381(20.5) 396(21.3) 130(7.0)
The heavy traffic in this neighbourhood is
very annoying 292(15.7) 733(39.5) 360(19.4) 288(15.5) 182(9.8)
Air pollution caused by cars is very heavy
in this neighbourhood 333(18.0) 739(39.8) 336(18.1) 269(14.5) 178(9.6)
Air pollution caused by industry is very
noticeable in this neighbourhood 191(10.3) 557(30.1) 430(23.2) 401(21.7) 271(14.6)
Air pollution caused by pesticides and
chemicals used in farming is very
noticeable in this neighbourhood 123(6.6) 285(15.4) 476(25.6) 494(26.6) 478(25.8)
Collection and disposal of waste (CDW)
Residents in this neighbourhood avoid
dirtying the environment 159(8.6) 289(15.6) 265(14.3) 773(41.6) 370(19.9)
In this neighbourhood, residents find
personal solution to their waste
management 136(7.3) 226(12.2) 326(17.6) 824(44.4) 344(18.5)
We have proper provision for waste
disposal and management in this
neighbourhood 125(6.7) 217(11.7) 287(15.5) 848(45.7) 379(20.4)
Residents make good use of the
neighbourhood waste collection effort
effectively 138(7.4) 205(11.0) 289(15.6) 834(44.9) 390(21.0)
Water quality (WQT)
Residents have access to clean drinkable
water in this neighbourhood 136(7.3) 245(13.2) 411(22.1) 638(34.4) 426(23.0)
Available water in this neighbourhood is
not clean enough for drinking 137(7.4) 327(17.6) 618(33.3) 404(21.8) 370(19.9)

Many residents have to make personal
bore holes to get clean drinkable water in
this neighbourhood 350(18.9) 648(34.9) 422(22.7) 261(14.1) 175(9.4)
The underground water in this
neighbourhood is contaminated 151(8.1) 264(14.2) 649(35.0) 368(19.8) 424(22.8)
Passenger transport mode (PTM)
The quality of public transportation is poor
in this neighbourhood 162(8.8) 285(15.4) 289(15.7) 526(28.5) 584(31.6)
In this neighbourhood, there are specific
and adequate provisions for cycling routes. 663(35.9) 539(29.2) 341(18.5) 221(12.0) 82(4.4)
There are enough tree corridors under
which people can treck on sunny days 706(38.2) 469(25.4) 352(19.1) 223(12.1) 96(5.2)
If you like cycling, this neighbourhood is
not suitable 720(39.0) 693(37.5) 217(11.8) 128(6.9) 88(4.8)
Many residents in this neighbourhood
support the use of public transport (such as
public bus) instead of constantly driving
their private cars 92(5.0) 124(6.7) 259(14.0) 689(37.3) 682(36.9)
Official development assistance
(Government support) (ODA)
Government support for green
infrastructure facilities is noticeable in this
neighbourhood 464(25.1) 611(33.1) 472(25.6) 200(10.8) 99(5.4)
The Local Government in this area should
strive to increase greenery in all
neighbourhoods 41(2.2) 115(6.2) 223(12.1) 898(48.6) 569(30.8)
Government to ensure sustainability as the
future of all environmental projects 38(2.1) 81(4.4) 162(8.8) 806(43.7) 759(41.1)
Government should regularly orient
citizens about benefits of green
infrastructure 42(2.3) 57(3.1) 133(7.2) 703(38.1) 911(49.3)

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