Menambah Baik Pengeluaran Kambing Di Kawasan Tropika

Improving
Goat Productionin the
Tropics
A Manual for
Development
Workers
risiie r^eacoc
An Oxfam/FARM-Africa Publication

OXFAM
LIBRARY
This book is due for return on or before the last date shown below.
I S MAY £001
Don Gresswell Ltd., London, N.21 Cat. No. 1208 DG 02242/71
Oxfam (UK and Ireland)
in association with FARM-Africa

First published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland) 1996
© FARM-Africa and Oxfam (UK and Ireland) 1996
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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Published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland)
274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK
(registered as a charity, no. 202918)
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This book converted to digital file in 2010

To the memory of
ProfessorJoseph Peacock
and
Wagaye Ayele

Contents
List of tables xiv
List of illustrations xvi
Acknowledgements xix
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical background 1
1.2 Current status 2
1.3 The role of goats in developing countries 2
1.4 The environmental question 4
1.5 Research and development 5
1.6 The potential role of goats in development programmes 6
1.7 The aimofthisbook 7
Further reading 7
2 Common problems of goats in the tropics
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Africa 9
2.2.1 Pastoral systems: arid and semi-arid 9
2.2.2 Agro-pastoral systems: semi-arid 10
2.2.3 Mixed farming: humid 11
2.2.4 Mixed farming: sub-humid 12
2.2.5 Mixed farming: highland 13
2.3 Asia 14
2.3.1 Mixed farming: humid (irrigated) 14
2.3.2 Mixed farming: humid/sub-humid (rain-fed) 15
2.3.3 Extensive systems: semi-arid (high altitude) 16
2.4 Central and South America 17
2.4.1 Extensive systems: semi-arid 17
2.4.2 Mixed farming: sub-humid 18

Contents
2.5 Minor systems 19
2.5.1 Perennial tree-crop systems 19
2.5.2 Urban goat-keeping 19
2.6 Which system is closest to the one in which you work? 20
Further reading 20
3 Assessing goat-production problems
3.1 Introduction 21
3.1.1 Methods to identify specific problems 21
3.2 Low-cost methods of assessing production problems 22
3.2.1 Secondary information 24
3.2.2 Public meetings 24
3.2.3 Approaching interviews and discussions 25
3.2.4 Group discussions 25
3.2.5 Feed calendars 26
3.2.6 Disease calendars 27
3.2.7 Ranking problems and identifying improvements 29
3.2.8 Rapid flock-appraisal method 31
3.2.9 Individual interviews 40
3.2.10 Key informant interviews 40
3.2.11 Direct observation 41
3.2.12 Maps and walks 41
3.2.13 Problem analysis and objectives analysis 42
3.2.14 Reporting 44
3.2.15 Community consultation 44
3.2.16 Have a go! 46
3.3 Higher-cost methods of assessing production problems 46
3.3.1 Selection of sample sites 47
3.3.2 RRA procedures 48
3.3.3 Setting objectives 48
3.3.4 Sampling size and recording frequency 48
3.3.5 Farmer participation 49
3.3.6 Setting up the monitoring study 49
3.3.7 Goat identification 51
3.3.8 Weighing goats 53
3.3.9 Continuous monitoring 55
3.3.10 Milk measurement 55
3.3.11 Investigating and monitoring disease 58
3.3.12 Feed monitoring 61
3.3.13 Management monitoring 62
VI

Contents
3.3.14 Marketing studies 63
3.4 On-farm trials of improvements 63
Further reading 64
4 Basic nutrition
Introduction 65
4.1 The feeding habits of goats 66
4.2 The feeds available to goats, and their characteristics 68
4.2.1 Natural bushes and trees 68
4.2.2 Natural grasses 69
4.2.3 Crop weeds and thinnings 69
4.2.4 Crop residues 69
4.2.5 Planted legumes 70
4.2.6 Planted grasses 70
4.2.7 Crop by-products 70
4.2.8 Crops 70
4.3 The composition of feeds 70
4.4 Methods of feed analysis 72
4.5 Digestion in the adult goat 74
4.6 Manipulation ofdigestion in the rumen and small intestine 77
4.7 Digestion in the kid 79
4.8 Digestibility 80
4.9 Feed in-take 81
4.10 The feed requirements of goats 83
4.10.1 How much dry matter? 84
4.10.2 How much energy and protein? «^
4.10.3 How much water? 90
Further reading 91
5 Improved nutrition
5.1 Introduction 92
5.1.1 Checklist of questions on feeding
5.1.2 Common feeding problems of goat;
5.1.3 What practical options are available
5.2 Improving feed supply: grazing manage
5.3 Improving feed supply: forage developi
5.3.1 Forage for what? 96
5.3.2 When and where can forage be gro

Contents
5.3.3 What species to use? 99
5.3.4 Back-yard pasture 104
5.3.5 Forage strips and alley farming 108
5.3.6 Undersowing 112
5.3.7 Oversowing and improving communal grazing areas 114
5.3.8 Fodder crops 116
5.3.9 Permanent grass/legume pasture for goats 116
5.3.10 Planning and implementing forage development 117
5.3.11 Planting trees, herbaceous legumes, and grasses 119
5.4 Feed conservation 125
5.4.1 Drying 126
5.4.2 Silage 127
5.5 Improving the quality of feed and quantity eaten 127
5.5.1 Treatment of fibrous feeds 128
5.5.2 Supplementation 130
5.5.3 Improving feed intake: methods of feeding goats 133
5.6 Feeding special goats 135
5.6.1 Feeding the doe 135
5.6.2 Feeding the kid 139
5.6.3 Feeding for fattening 141
5.7 Case studies 143
5.7.1 Housed goats in Java, Indonesia 143
5.7.2 Tethered dairy goats in the highlands of Ethiopia 147
5.7.3 Goat herding by the Maasai in Kenya 149
Further reading 152
6 Goat health
6.1 Introduction 153
6.1.1 The goat, its environment and defence mechanisms 154
6.2 Assessing health and disease: the clinical examination 156
6.2.1 Observations to make of a sick goat 157
6.2.2 Physical examination 158
6.2.3 History of disease 158
6.2.4 Taking samples 160
6.3 Common disease problems 161
6.3.1 Kid death (with or without diarrhoea) 161
6.3.2 Diarrhoea and loss of condition (adults) 162
6.3.3 Respiratory problems and fever 162
vm

Contents
6.3.4 Skin diseases and swellings 163
6.3.5 Poor condition, anaemia, pale mucous membranes 164
6.3.6 Lameness 165
6.3.7 Nervous diseases 166
6.3.8 Female and male infertility 166
6.3.9 Abortion 169
6.3.10 Udder problems 169
6.4 Common diseases of goats 171
6.4.1 Internal parasites 171
6.4.2 Mange 185
6.4.3 Tick-borne diseases and tick control 188
6.4.4 Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) 194
6.4.5 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) 195
6.4.6 Pneumonia 196
6.4.7 Caseous lymphadenitis 197
6.4.8 Brucellosis 200
6.4.9 Mastitis 200
6.4.10 Foot problems 202
6.4.11 Orf 202
6.5 Other goat diseases 203
6.5.1 Diseases of the digestive system 203
6.5.2 Diseases of the respiratory system 206
6.5.3 Diseases of the reproductive system 206
6.5.4 Diseases of the blood, lymph, and immune system 207
6.5.5 Diseases of the muscles and skeleton 208
6.5.6 Diseases of the mammary gland 209
6.5.7 Diseases of the eye and skin 210
6.5.8 Diseases of the nervous system 212
6.5.9 Diseases of nutrition and metabolism 214
6.5.10 Diseases of the liver 217
6.6 Treating and investigating diseases 217
6.6.1 Treatment and nursing of sick goats 217
6.6.2 Procedure after death 218
6.7 The organisation of goat health care 226
6.7.1 Training of paravets 227
6.7.2 Organising, monitoring, and evaluating paravets 232
Further reading 234
IX

Contents
7 Management of reproduction
Introduction 235
7.1 Reproduction in the goat 235
7.1.1 Female reproduction 235
7.1.2 Male reproduction 237
7.1.3 Mating and fertilisation 238
7.1.4 Age at first mating 239
7.1.5 Intersex goats 239
7.2 Mating management 239
7.2.1 Detecting oestrus 239
7.2.2 Manipulation of breeding 241
7.2.3 Planning breeding seasons 242
7.2.4 Artificial insemination 242
7.2.5 Embryo transfer 244
7.2.6 Oestrus stimulation and synchronisation 244
7.3 Reproductive problems 244
7.4 Pregnancy 248
7.4.1 Normal pregnancy 248
7.4.2 Causes of abortion 248
7.4.3 Kidding 248
7.4.4 Difficult kidding 250
7.4.5 After kidding 250
7.4.6 Problems after kidding 251
7.5 Measures of reproductive efficiency 251
Further reading 252
8 Breeds and breeds improvement
Introduction 253
8.1 Principles of breed improvement 253
8.1.1 Variation 254
8.1.2 Selection 255
8.1.3 Genetic progress 255
8.1.4 Relationships between traits 256
8.1.5 Identification of superior stock for selection 256
8.1.6 Mating plans 258
8.1.7 Cross-breeding 258
8.1.8 Grading up 261
8.1.9 In-breeding 261
8.1.10 The application ofbio-technology in breeding 261
8.2 Tropical goat breeds

Contents
8.2.1 The development of tropical breeds 262
8.2.2 The characteristics of tropical breeds 264
8.2.3 Conservation of goat genetic resources 265
8.3 Practical breed improvement for individual farmers 267
8.3.1 Improvement of individual flocks 267
8.3.2 Breeding and culling guidelines 268
8.4 Practical methods of breed improvement for groups and
governments 268
8.4.1 Selection within a breed 269
8.4.2 Cross-breeding methods 275
Further reading 286
9 Management of large goat farms
9.2 Setting up a goat farm 288
9.2.1 Definition of objectives 289
9.2.2 Assessment of resources 289
9.2.3 Flock-management system 290
9.2.4 Farm layout and infrastructure 290
9.2.5 Housing 290
9.2.6 Equipment 296
9.2.7 Purchase of foundation stock 298
9.2.8 Staff recruitment 298
9.2.9 Records and record-keeping 300
9.3 Annual planning 301
9.4 Daily management 305
Further reading 306
10 Processing and marketing goat products
Introduction 307
10.1 Milk 308
10.1.1 Milking practice 308
10.1.2 Milk handling 309
10.1.3 Milk collection, processing, and marketing 310
10.1.4 Milk products 310
10.2 Meat and carcass products 315
10.2.1 How to kill a goat 315
10.2.2 Preservation of meat 316
XI

Contents
10.3 Skins 317
10.3.1 Preservation of skins 317
10.4 Mohair and cashmere 318
10.5 Manure 319
10.5.1 Soil fertiliser 319
10.5.2 Fish-pond fertiliser 320
10.6 Marketing goats and goat products 322
Further reading 324
11 Goat-improvement programmes
11.2 Goat-improvement strategies 325
11.2.1 Improvement of existing systems 325
11.2.2 Stocking/restocking people with goats 328
11.3 Participatory planning 329
11.3.1 Introduction 329
11.3.2 The planning process: alternatives analysis and participation
analysis 329
11.4 Writing a plan 333
11.4.1 Objectives 333
11.4.2 Physical context 333
11.4.3 Socio-economic context and target population 334
11.4.4 Statement of current situation and problems 334
11.4.5 Project activities and organisation 334
11.4.6 Project period, phasing of activities, and targets 336
11.4.7 Inputs required 336
11.4.8 Making predictions about the future 338
11.4.9 Flock projections 339
11.4.10 Partial budgets 340
11.4.11 Expected benefits and number of beneficiaries 341
11.4.12 Environmental impact 341
11.4.13 Other side-effects of proposals 342
11.4.14 Budget 342
11.5 Methods of implementation 344
11.5.2 Farmer/pastoralist organisations 345
11.5.3 Training 346
11.5.4 Extension materials 347
xn

Contents
11.6 The role and management of credit 349
11.6.1 Why do producers need credit? 349
11.6.2 Likely sources of credit for goat purchase 350
11.6.3 Terms and conditions 351
11.6.4 Repayment in cash 352
11.6.5 Repayment in kind 353
11.6.6 Insurance 354
11.6.7 Purchasing goats 355
11.6.8 Group development and training for credit
management 357
11.6.9 Gifts of goats 357
11.6.10 Restocking pastoralists 358
11.7 Evaluation of goat-improvement programmes 360
11.7.2 Quantifiable information 361
11.7.3 Qualitative information 362
Further reading 363
Glossary 364
Appendix: useful addresses 368
Index 371
xni

List of tables
1.1 Goat population estimates 2
1.2 Goat products and services 3
1.3 Some advantages and disadvantages of goats 6
3.1 Procedures to identify problems of goat production 23
3.2 Guide to problem specification 30
3.3 The age of goats as shown by dentition 36
3.4 Sex and age structure of Maasai goats in Kenya 38
3.5 Parturition histories 39
3.6 Off-take methods 40
3.7 Conversion of heartgirth measurements to weight 53
3.8 Body-condition scores 55
4.1 Feed components of proximate analysis 73
4.2 Proximate feed analysis for Leucaena leucocephala 73
4.3 Degradability and by-passability of proteins from different
feeds 77
4.4 Total energy requirements for goats 86
4.5 Digestible crude-protein requirements for maintenance
and growth 86
4.6 Energy and protein requirements for one kg milk 87
4.7 General nutritive value of common feed types 87
4.8 Alternative sources of the energy requirement 89
4.9 Alternative sources of the protein requirement 89
5.1 Options to improve feed supply, nutrient balance, and
quantity of feed consumed 94
5.2 Key features of the major forage types 100
5.3 Common forage species suitable for different climates 100
5.4 Characteristics of common forage crops 102-105
5.5 Typical nutritional values of some fibrous residues 128
5.6 The effect of urea treatment on rice straw 130
xiv

List oftables
5.7 Ranking of common supplements 131
5.8 Quantity of different feeds required by a 30 kg doe 137
6.1 Likely causes of kid death 162
6.2 Likely causes of diarrhoea and loss of condition (adults) 163
6.3 Likely causes of respiratory problems and fever 164
6.4 Likely causes of skin diseases and swellings 165
6.5 Likely causes of poor condition, anaemia and pale mucous
membranes 166
6.6 Likely causes of lameness 167
6.7 Likely causes of nervous diseases 168
6.8 Likely causes of female and male infertility 169
6.9 Likely causes of abortion 170
6.10 Likely causes of udder problems 171
6.11 A guide to the interpretation of faecal egg counts 174
6.12 Anthelmintics for goats 183
6.13 Acaricides for goats 193
6.14 Some natural ectoparasite control medicines 194
6.15 Mineral-deficiency symptoms 215
6.16 Vitamin-deficiency symptoms 216
8.1 Heritabilities of some characteristics in goats 255
8.2 Advantages and disadvantages of tropical goat breeds 265
8.3 The major goat breeds in the tropics 266
8.4 Some goat improver breeds 277
9.1 Influence of farm objective on management system 288
9.2 Effect of available resources on management system 289
9.3 Factors affecting goat-house design 291
9.4 Example of a calendar of goat-farm activities 302
9.5 A cash-flow budget for a farm of 100 milking does 304
10.1 Composition of goat milk 308
10.2 Composition of goat manure 319
11.1 Projected flock structure (before the project) 338
11.2 Projected flock structure (after the project) 339
11.3 Goat enterprise budget for 10-doe flock 340
11.4 Sample budget format for a project proposal 343
11.5 Basic monitoring information required for quantifiable
outputs 361
xv

List of illustrations
2.1 African pastoral system 9
2.2 Agro-pastoral system 11
2.3 Dry sub-humid system 12
2.4 Housed goats inJava 15
2.5 A mixed flock of sheep and goats in Bolivia 17
2.6 Urban goats in Addis Ababa 19
3.1 A seasonal feed calendar 28
3.2 A disease calendar 29
3.3 Low milk production: a causal chain 31
3.4 Form for recording goat-flock structure and progeny histories
34
3.5 Sets of teeth at different ages 36,37
3.6 Flock size distribution by household 37
3.7 Age pyramid of a goat flock 38
3.8 Problem analysis: low milk production 43
3.9 Objectives analysis to increase milk production 45
3.10 Applying an ear-tag 51
3.11 Initial format for goat monitoring 52
3. 12 Construction of a weighing sling 54
3.13 Construction of a tripod 54
3.14 Weighing a goat with a sling and a spring balance 54
3.15 Some formats for monitoring goat flocks 56,57
4.1 A goat browsing on its hind legs 66
4.2 Goats kneeling to eat from the ground 67
4.3 Feeding heights of sheep, goats, cattle, and camels 67
4.4 The main components of food 71
4.5 Digestive system of the goat 75
4.6 Protein digestion in the rumen and small intestine 76
4.7 Rumen and small intestine feeding 78
4.8 Factors affecting feed in-take 82
5.1 A forage-development strategy 98
5.2 The forage strategies appropriate for different slots of space
and time 99
xvi

List ofillustrations
5.3 Back-yard pasture 106
5.4 High cutting of tree legumes 107
5.5 Grass strip used to feed goats and check soil erosion 108
5.6 Alley farming: maize intercropped with leucaena 109
5.7 Simple Agro-Livestock Technology 111
5.8 Multi-layered pasture for goats 116
5.9 A legume root with nodulation 121
5.10 Bare-root planting 121
5.11 Key features of a community tree nursery 123
5.12 A woman weeding sesbania in her own tree nursery 124
5.13 Planting elephant grass 124
5.14 Hay-box construction 126
5.15 Using a manually operated chopping machine 129
5.16 A tied bundleof leucaena 134
5.17 A simple feeding rack 135
5.18 Energy and protein needs of does at different stages 136
5.19 Breeding season matched with feed supply 138
5.20 Sweet-potato vines hung to feed recently weaned kids 140
5.21 Traditional goat house, Java 143
5.22 Rainfall, cropping, and feed calendar, westJava 144
5.23 Improved house design 146
5.24 A goat tethered at the edge of a field 148
5.25 Shaking seed pods from an Acacia tortilis tree 150
6.1 Measuring respiration rate, pulse, and temperature 159
6.2 Location of main parasites in the goat 172
6.3 Life cycle of Haemonchus contortus 175
6.4 A case of bottlejaw 177
6.5 Drenching regime: two wet seasons 180
6.6 Drenching regime: one wet season 180
6.7 Methods of applying anthelmintics 181
6.8 Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica 184
6.9 A case of sarcoptic mange 185
6.10 Using a castor-bean wash 186
6.11 Demodectic mange 187
6.12 Amblyomma variegatum 188
6.13 Rhipicephalus tick 190
6.14 Two ways of applying acaricide 192
6.15 AchroniccaseofPPR 196
6.16 Simple goat house 197
6.17 A case of Caseous lymphadenitis 198
6.18 Treating an abscess 199
6.19 Infusing an infected teat with antibiotic 201
xvn

List ofillustrations
6.20 Foot trimming 202
6.21 AcaseofOrf 203
6.22 Post-mortem procedure 219-226
6.23 Pictorial treatment guide and treatment chart 229
7.1 Female reproductive organs 236
7.2 Male reproductive organs 238
7.3 When to mate? 240
7.4 Using a buck apron to prevent conception 241
7.5 A Burdizzo castrator 242
7.6 Why no kids born? 245
7.7 Normal and abnormal presentations 249
8.1 Histogram of variations in weaning weight 254
8.2 Selection differential 256
8.3 Heterosis in good and bad environments 259
8.4 Criss-cross mating 260
8.5 How to decide the method of breed development 270
8.6 Cooperative breeding scheme 274
8.7 Breed and management improvement 276
8.8 Goat breeds 280
9.1 Goat-house layouts 292
9.2 Principles of good ventilation 293
9.3 Milking platform 294
9.4 Dip-bath design 295
9.5 Water-trough dimensions 296
9.6 Kid-box design 297
9.7 Weighing crate 297
10.1 The conversion of milk into its products 311
10.2 ILRI butter churner 312
11.1 Alternatives analysis 331
11.2 A flip-chart in use 348
11.3 A doe with a good wedge shape and a well-hung udder
356
xvin

Acknowledgements
The book has greatly benefited from the suggestions of Bill Forse,
David Hadrill, Nick Honhold, David Little, Alemayehu Mengistu,
Alan Mowlem, Emyr Owen, Clare Oxby, Dick and Stephen
Sandford, David Sherman, and Alan Wilson.
Many extension staff read early drafts of the book. The
comments of Gezu Bekele, Teferra Gebre-Meskel, Getenet
Lemma, Nima Lepcha, Teferi Seifu, Feleke Tadele, Sisay Takele,
and Kettema Yilma have been particularly helpful.
I am very grateful for the support and encouragement of David
Campbell of FARM-Africa, Chris Mason and Liz Stone of Oxfam
(UK and Ireland) in Ethiopia, and my mother.
Catherine Robinson edited the text, and Paul Kendall designed
it. All line illustrations were drawn by Mandefro Haile-Giorgis.
Most of the photographs were taken by Jenny Matthews or
myself, but some have kindly been provided by David Little, Alan
Mowlem, John Petheram, Peter Roeder, Alan Walters, Trevor
Wilson, and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
Financial support during the writing of the book was provided
by FARM-Africa, through a generous grant from the Baring
Foundation.
xix

FARM-Africa
FARM-Africa specialises in agricultural development in Africa.
Established in 1985, it is committed to helping the smallholder
farmers and herders ofAfrica to help themselves, thereby break-
ing the cycle of famine and bringing new prosperity to neglected
marginal communities. In partnership with local people, FARM's
projects pioneer new strategies and techniques in crop and
animal husbandry, aiming to produce more food and income in a
sustainable way that does not damage the environment. Current
projects cover dairy goats, pastoralist development, farmers'
research, community forestry management, and general rehabil-
itation and resettlement projects. FARM currently operates in
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa.
FARM-Africa is the recognised development organisation of
the United Kingdom's agricultural community, and provides a
channel through which supporters can give direct assistance to
rural people in Africa.
Oxfam (UK and Ireland)
Oxfam (UK and Ireland) was founded in 1943 to send relief
supplies from British people to starving civilians in Greece
during World War II. Now working in over 70 countries in
Africa, Asia, the Middle East, the Caribbean, Latin America, and
Eastern Europe, Oxfam provides assistance and training to
support people's efforts to build secure and productive lives for
themselves and their families. Its staff work with local counter-
parts in fields as diverse as emergency relief, health, human
rights, capacity building, and agricultural production.
Oxfam's funds are derived from a wide range of sources,
including individual donations, trading activities, the British
government, the European Union, and international agencies.
Oxfam believes that every man, woman, and child has a basic
right to a life free from misery and want. Poverty is not inevitable:
it can be tackled and must be ended.
xx

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Historical background
Goats have helped people to survive and thrive for countless
generations. The goat (Capra hircus) is thought to have been the
first animal to be domesticated for economic purposes. Evidence
suggests that domestication took place about 7,000 BC in south-
west Asia, on the borders of present-day Iran and Iraq, where
agriculture was already advanced. From there goats spread into all
the tropical zones and most temperate areas. Now there is hardly a
climate zone without goats.
Immediately after domestication, physical differentiation into
breeds and types began. Early physical changes affected the ears,
horns, colour, and hair type. These changes arose from natural
mutation and from selection by goat keepers within the environ-
ment in which goats were reared, usually in relative isolation.
Early goat keepers must also have selected for the production
charact-eristics which were appropriate to their needs. New blood
probably entered goat populations when people migrated for
economic reasons or in times of conflict. There is a huge range of
size, colour, and hair type among modern breeds of goats.
1.2 Current status
There are now estimated to be about 592 million goats in the
world. Goats have shown themselves to be extremely adaptable
animals and now are found as far north as Scandinavia and as far
south as South America. They can be found at very altitudes. The
long-haired Pashmina goats can live in the high Himalaya, while
dwarf goats are able to thrive in the humid forests of West Africa.
Table 1.1 shows that the vast majority ofgoats (more than 90 per
cent) are found in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and
South America. Goats in developed countries are really of minor
agricultural importance. There are dairy goat industries in France
and Switzerland which specialise in cheese-making, but otherwise

Introduction
goats are kept by enthusiasts, partly for profit, but also for
pleasure. However, in developing countries goats are of very
great importance. Large flocks, of several hundred, are kept by
the pastoralists of Asia and Africa, and millions of farmers keep
goats in small numbers on small farms.
Table 1.1 Goat population estimates
Area Population (million)
Asia
Africa
South America
Europe
North America
Former Soviet Union
Oceanic
Total
359
172
23
14
16
7
1
592 ""
Percentage of
total population
60.6
29.1
3.9
2.4
2.6
1.2
0.2
100
1.3 The role of goats in developing countries
The contribution of goats to the people and economies of
developing countries is obscured by several factors combining to
give an underestimate of their true value. Firstly, estimates of
goat numbers are usually inaccurate. Most goats are kept in
developing countries which often cannot afford to carry out a
regular livestock census and so they are rarely, if ever, directly
counted. Cattle are more likely to be counted, but goat numbers
are often mere guesses. Goat products seldom enter a formal
marketing system, and so the goat's contribution to the rural and
national economy tends to be grossly underestimated. In
addition, goats are usually kept by poorer people, often tended
by women, who seldom have a voice in national discussion. For all
these reasons goats, and the people who keep them, are accorded
a low status and given a low priority in national development.
They are thought of as representing an old, primitive, low
technology. What people want is new, sophisticated, high
technology. In many countries there is even propaganda against
goats. They are wrongly accused of destroying the environment,
and prejudice has built up against them. As a result, little
attention has been paid to goats by politicians, policy-makers,
development administrators, and researchers.

The role ofgoats in developing countries
Table 1.2 Goat products and services
Products
Meat
raw
cooked
blood
soup
Milk
fresh
sour
yoghurt
butter
cheese
Skins
clothes
containers
tents
thongs
Hair
cashmere
mohair
coarse hair tents
judges' wigs
fish lures
Horns
Bones
Manure for
crops
fish
Services
Pack transport
Draught power
Medicine
meat and soup for a range of
conditions
milk for ulcers, allergies and
lactose intolerance
butter for wounds
aphrodisiacs
Cosmetics
Control of bush encroachment
Herding guide for sheep
Cash income
Security
Gifts
Loans
Religious rituals
Pleasure
Goats provide their owners with a vast range of useful products
and services. Some of them are listed in Table 1.2. They can be
regularly milked for small quantities of milk. In harsh environ-
ments, goats often produce milk when cattle have dried up. Goat
milk is highly nutritious and has a similar nutritional profile to
human milk, containing 4.5 per cent fat, 4.0 per cent lactose, and
3.0-4.0 per cent protein, depending on the goat's nutrition,
breed, and stage of lactation. The higher proportion of short- and
medium-chain fatty acids, compared with the milk of other
livestock species, allows goat's milk to be digested easily by infants
and those with digestive problems. Milk is an excellent source of
calcium and phosphorus for growing children and can also

Introduction
provide a vital supply of vitamin A, which is often deficient in the
diets of infants in developing countries. Goats' small size makes
them ideal to slaughter for a few people at family celebrations or
during religious holidays.
In addition to providing milk, meat, skins, and hair, goats have
several important economic functions. They are relatively cheap
to buy. Flocks can be built up until they contain many goats,
which spreads the risk inherent in livestock ownership. It is not
sensible for a family to put all its savings into one valuable cow or
buffalo, when several goats could be purchased with the same
money. Goats are often used as a first step up and out of poverty.
Once the family has acquired additional resources, part of the
goat flock can be sold and replaced by a large ruminant.
In marginal cropping areas, farmers will often try to keep
livestock as an insurance against crop failure. If all or part of the
crop fails, cattle or goats can be milked, or sheep or goats sold or
exchanged for grain. Such mixed farming is an important
drought-survival strategy. However, in some drought-prone
parts ofAfrica this strategy has been used to the limit and has now
broken down. Selling the last animal leaves families vulnerable to
the vagaries of the weather. Many of Africa's famines arise when
this dual strategy irreparably breaks down.
Goats reproduce very fast. Most tropical breeds regularly
produce twins and sometimes triplets. A small flock can quickly
expand until it forms a major part of the family's capital assets.
Goats can regularly and easily be sold for cash and can either be
part of a regular cash income or be sold in times of urgent need,
such as sickness, death, or the payment of school fees. Goats,
being small, can be looked after by young children.
Goats are kept in a wide range ofdifferent production systems.
Most of the important systems are described in Chapter 2. At one
extreme they are kept in large numbers, in extensive systems, by
pastoralists grazing common pastures; at another extreme they
may be intensively managed, permanently housed in specially-
constructed houses, fed by supplies that are cut and carried to
them, as in Java, Indonesia. Their hardiness means that they are
often kept by people living in marginal agricultural areas, where
they are particularly important.
1.4 The environmental question
There has been much propaganda against the goat, and the
animal has frequently been used by politicians and bureaucrats as
a convenient scapegoat for the environmental degradation
caused by human activity. Goats are often blamed for the
destruction of vegetation, when the real culprits are people and
the overuse they make of vegetation in fragile environments,

The environmental question
through tree-felling and over-grazing by all species of livestock.
The goat is often found in degraded environments, because it is
the only species able to survive in such conditions. Found at the
scene of the crime, it is blamed for it, with little thought given to the
complex impacts of different species (including humans) over the
preceding 20-30 years. The simplistic thinking which blames the
goat does little to solve the underlying problems of environmental
mismanagement.
Many ofthe goat's characteristics, in fact, mean that it makes little
impact on the environment. It is small and light and moves quickly,
compared with cattle and sheep. Cattle, grazing hillsides, are likely
to cause much more damage through trampling and overuse of
paths, which leads to gully erosion. Goats prefer to browse, which
tends to even out the pressure on mixed-species vegetation stands.
Sheep often pull out grass by their roots when grazing in sandy soils,
causing the loss of valuable ground cover and quickly leading to soil
erosion. The goat's natural preference for browse means that they
must be controlled, along with other livestock, in areas where young
trees have been planted or recently cut forests are regenerating.
Young trees can be eaten by hungry cattle and sheep, as well as by
goats. The emotive language used against the goat indicates that
some appear to believe they can cut down mature trees! People are
solely responsible for this, and must take the blame and live with the
consequences.
Goats turned loose and left to themselves in a confined, fragile
environment (which has occurred on a few small islands) are
sometimes too good at surviving and reproducing and may
damage the environment in the process. However, this can
happen with all species, placed in a similar situation. People must
take responsibility for properly managing all their domestic
livestock and keeping them in balance with the environment.
1.5 Research and development
Largely as a result of prejudice and ignorance of the importance of
goats to farmers in rural areas, there had been little research on
goats in developing countries, until about 20 years ago. Scientists
in a few developed countries carried out research to support the
intensive dairy-goat industries of Europe and North America, but
little research was done on goats in developing countries.
Having begun to realise the informal, and normally unquanti-
fied, contribution of goats to the rural economy, governments and
donors, from the early 1970s onwards, began to fund research and
development projects on goats in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Over the last 20 years a considerable body of knowledge has
accumulated on this previously neglected species. There are now
regular national, regional, and international research meetings and

Introduction
information networks on goats. The best known is the 'Inter-
national Conference on Goats' supported by the International
Goat Association, which is held in a different continent every five
years.
1.6 The potential role of goats in development
programmes
Mahatma Gandhi, the great Indian leader, righdy described the
goat as 'the poor man's cow'. But the goat is much more than this.
The range of products and services it provides is vast. The goat
couldjustly be called 'the poor person's bank', or 'the poor family's
insurance policy'. Goats, of course, can serve rich and poor alike.
But many of their characteristics (Table 1.3) lead them to play a
special role in alleviating the poverty of the poorest in many
developing countries. Goat-development programmes provide an
opportunity for development agencies to assist some ofthe poorest
families, in developing countries, through their goats.
Table 1.3 Some advantages and disadvantages of goats
Advantages
Efficient use of fibrous feeds
Preference for vegetation unused by other species
Efficient use of water
Wide climatic adaptation
Cheap to purchase
Spread risks
Fast reproductive rate quickly builds up flock
Fast reproductive rate allows early returns from in-
vestment
Small size allows easy and quick movement of
household when necessary
Easy for women and children to handle
Few facilities required
Lack of religious taboos against goat meat
Small size allows easy home slaughter
Disadvantages
Susceptible to predators
Small value makes formal credit
systems uneconomic
Small value makes formal insurance
systems difficult to administer
Susceptible to broncho-pneumonia
Susceptible to internal parasites
The philosophy underlying this book is that farmers and
pastoralists in developing countries are capable of improving
their own lives with very little outside assistance. Many of the
suggestions in the book cost little, if anything, to adopt. The
emphasis is on making more efficient use of the resources already
available, through reducing losses and wastage, and introducing
outside inputs to enhance production only when appropriate.

The aim of this book
1.7 The aim of this book
There are now many goat-development projects in the developing
world supported by governments, bilateral and multilateral
agencies, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Govern-
ment and NGO staff are expected to serve in government
extension services or on projects without, in most cases, any
training, either academic or in-service, specifically on goats.
Agricultural colleges in developing countries tend to present
sheep and goats together; because most textbooks are about
sheep, extrapolations are made, often wrongly, to goats.
This book is written for development workers who do not
necessarily have any formal training in livestock production. It
explains the theory underlying goat production and how this can
be used to design simple improvements. It contains many practical
suggestions for how to improve goat production, together with
suggestions for how they might be implemented in development
programmes. It is written in the belief that technical solutions
cannot be divorced from the social, economic, and organisational
context into which they are introduced. It is not enough for
development workers to know the technology — although they
must; they also need to understand the context in which that
technology must function. This book attempts to put goat
technology in this development context.
Further reading
Chambers, R. (1983) Rural Development: Putting the Last First,
Harlow, UK: Longman
Devendra, C. and M. Burns (1983) Goat Production in the Tropics,
Farnham, UK: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
Gall, C. (ed) (1981) Goat Production, London: Academic Press
Mason, I.L. (1984) Evolution of Domestic Animals, Harlow, UK:
Longman

CHAPTER 2
Common problems of goats
in the tropics
2.1 Introduction
Goats are kept in many different systems of production in the
tropical world. Different ways of feeding, breeding, and using
goats have evolved in response to factors such as the climate,
needs of the owner, economic environment, and level of
technology available. Within each system of production, goat
keepers have developed their own method of looking after goats,
according to their own particular circumstances.
If goat-production systems are to be improved, they must be
accurately described and their problems properly analysed. This
chapter describes the main goat-production systems of Africa,
Asia, and South America, classified according to the main
agricultural system of which each is part, and the major climate
zone in which it is found.
Until about 20 years ago there was very little written information
about goats in the tropics, but now there is sufficient research and
development experience to be able to predict with reasonable
accuracy some of the common problems most likely to occur in the
main systems of production. However, most of the difficulties
confronted in the field are not simple problems, but are caused by
a complex set of factors which all contribute to creating the
situation. For example, if many kids die before weaning, which is a
problem common to many systems of production, there is rarely
any single cause of death that can be simply identified and
remedied. Poor nutrition of the dam may cause her to produce
little milk, which undernourishes the kid and makes it susceptible
to diseases. Although it is a helpful start to know the common
problems of the system in which you are working, it is not enough.
Each village, district, or region is likely to have its own particular
problems, which must be identified before any sensible course of
improvement can be followed. Chapter 3 describes how to identify
the specific problems ofgoat production in a village or district. You
can make a start by trying to identify the system closest to the one in
which you work, using the descriptions below.

Africa
2.2 Africa
2.2.1 Pastoral systems: arid and semi-arid
Pastoral systems are found in arid and semi-arid areas of Africa,
where low rainfall causes varying degrees of nomadism among the
local inhabitants. The system is characterised by a marked
seasonality in feed supply; typically there is only one wet season.
Annual rainfall may vary from 700 mm to a level as low as 200 mm.
Goats may be kept in large flocks, and may, or may not, be mixed
with sheep or other species. Goats are kept for meat, milk, and
cash, as well as fulfilling various traditional cultural obligations.
They are valued for their ability to survive periods of drought
better than cattle or sheep. There is likely to be marked variability
in production from year to year, because of the highly variable
rainfall.
Typical problems found in pastoral goatflocksin Africa :
• high mortality rates in kids before weaning, typically as high as
30 per cent, or higher in periods of drought;
• long parturition intervals, up to two years;
• occasional epidemic diseases, such as contagious caprine
pleuropneumonia (CCPP), causing mortality rates of up to 100
per cent.
Factors contributing to problems
There is a marked seasonality in the quantity and quality of forage
consumed. During the dry season, low protein levels and high
fibre content limit production and may cause weight loss and low
milk production. Goats are able to take advantage of a pre-rains
Figure 2.1 African
pastoral system
GEOFF SAYER/OXFAM

Common problems ofgoats in the tropics
flush of growth in browse species which often occurs. There may
be occasional mineral deficiencies. Water is scarce, causing
infrequent watering and further reducing milk production.
Occasional epidemic diseases, particularly contagious caprine
pleuropneumonia (CCPP) and peste des petits ruminants (PPR),
may have devastating consequences. Internal parasites can be a
major cause ofkid mortality and loss of milk production. External
parasites, particularly ticks, may transmit diseases such as
heartwater. Mange can also cause high levels of mortality and
morbidity.
There is often a breeding season in pastoralists' goat flocks.
This may be due to green flushes of pasture and browse,
triggering oestrus and subsequent mating, or because the
pastoralists themselves exercise some control through the use of
a leather apron or other device. Having many kids born at the
same time can cause kid-management problems, especially if
there is a shortage of labour at that time. Kids may require special
attention and even bottle feeding. If weak kids do not get this
care, they may die. Kids weaned into a long dry season may have
problems.
Main opportunitiesfor improvement
Kid mortality can be reduced through better health care,
particularly parasite control, and management. Large flocks
mean that selection within a breed is possible. Pastoralists could
group together to organise group breeding schemes, such as an
Open or Closed Nucleus Breeding Scheme, for traits such as
growth rate. This could take place within oneflock,provided that
it is large enough (more than 200). Vaccination against epidemic
diseases is recommended where possible.
2.2.2 Agro-pastoral systems: semi-arid
Agro-pastoral systems are found on the margins between areas of
cultivation and pastoral areas. The emphasis is on keeping
livestock to provide the bulk of the family's food and income.
Crops supplement this to some extent. Livestock keepers may
grow an opportunistic crop or a regular crop during the wet
season and then may move all or part of their stock away during
the dry season. The Fulani ethnic group in WestAfrica are typical
agro-pastoralists, but many of them are taking up a more settled
existence.
Common problems of goats in agro-pastoral systems:
• high pre-weaning mortality rates;
• occasional epidemic diseases.
10

Africa
As in pastoral systems, there is a marked seasonal variation in the
quality and quantity of feed available. High fibre and low protein
levels cause low productivity, particularly in the dry season. This is
partly improved by access to crop residues in the dry season. As in
pastoral flocks, negative selection for growth may have occurred.
Main opportunities for improvement
Kid mortality should be reduced through better health care,
including parasite control, and vaccination of dams. Group
breeding schemes to select for fast growth rates would be possible.
2.2.3 Mixed farming: humid
Mixed farming systems in the humid tropics ofAfrica, for example
in Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Cote d'lvoire, and Cameroon,
may be divided into those involving cereal and root crops and
those predominantly using tree crops. Annual crops may include
maize, beans, and rice. Common root crops are cassava, sweet
potatoes, yams, and taro. Tree crop systems may include cocoa, oil
palm, rubber, plantain, and fruit trees. Goats are normally kept in
small numbers, which may range freely and combine with goats
from other households to form a village herd scavenging for food.
Goats may be tethered or penned during the crop-growing season
to prevent crop damage. There is typically a low labour input into
this system of goat keeping. Goat breeds in the humid tropics tend
to be small but prolific, such as the West African Dwarf goat. In
most humid areas ofAfrica, trypanosomiasis is a problem. Human
population pressure is high and increasing in the humid tropics,
which is leading to the year-round confinement of goats, and the
need to develop cut-and-carry systems of feeding. This will be a
continuing trend.
Figure 2.2 Typical
agro-pastoral system,
with the remains of crop
residues (millet stover)
on the ground
INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
11

Common problems in goats kept in the humid tropics:
• high pre-weaning mortality from internal parasites and PPR;
• high adult mortality rates, mainly from PPR (especially in the
wet season);
• high morbidity rates from sarcoptic mange, internal parasites,
and foot-rot.
Figure 2.3 Goats in a
dry sub-humid system
INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
12
The high moisture content of forage can limit feed intake. Some
in-breeding in village herds can occur. Communal herding
means that there is little selective mating. Increasing human and
livestock populations increase the incidence of disease. Internal
parasites are a year-round problem. Seasonally-confined goats
are more susceptible to disease and compete for labour during
the cropping season.
The main opportunities for improvement include vaccination
against PPR, drenching, improved housing, and the promotion of
cut-and-carry feeding in densely populated areas. Forage develop-
ment, especially using leucaena and glyricidia fodder trees, may
also allow the expansion of flock sizes and extend goat ownership.
Improved marketing would also increase the rate of off-take.
2.2.4 Mixed farming: sub-humid
The sub-humid zone lies between the humid and semi-arid zones
of West and Central Africa and has rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm
per year. Sorghum and maize are the main crops grown, with

Africa
some root crops near the humid zone. The zone may be split into
the dry sub-humid, inhabited by pastoralists such as the Fulani,
and the wetter sub-humid zone, inhabited by settled farmers.
Trypanosomiasis is a problem in the latter zone. Goats may be kept
in transhumant (seasonally moved) pastoral flocks which may
graze on crop residues in the dry season, returning to grazing
lands during the wet season. Some of the pastoralists in these areas
may be called agro-pastoralists. Settled farmers keep smaller flocks
of goats, which are normally herded with sheep and may be
allowed to roam freely during the dry season, but are tethered
during the cropping season. They are normally kept in the family
compound at night.
Common problems of goats in sub-humid zones:
• adult mortality from PPR near the humid zone.
Seasonal fluctuations in feed-supply restrict production.
Increasing human population is placing a strain on feed resources.
Internal parasites are also important in areas of high stock
numbers.
The development of forage crops can make a major contribution.
Vaccination against PPR and drenching for internal parasites are
important health interventions.
2.2.5 Mixed farming: highland
Goats are kept in small flocks throughout the highlands of Africa.
They may be found as high as 4,000 metres in Ethiopia, where they
frequently grow long hair. Typical crops grown on highland farms
are maize, wheat, barley, oats, teff, and potatoes. Goats may be fed
on crop residues as well as grazing on steep hillsides. They may be
seasonally tethered, or confined throughout the year in very
densely populated areas. Goats are kept for milk, meat, and skins,
as well as serving as a source of cash. Their manure provides a
small but valuable source of fertiliser for the thin, infertile
highland soils.
Common problem syndromes among goats in the highlands of
Africa:
• high pre-weaning kid mortality rates;
• poor reproductive performance;
• low milk production.
13

Commonproblems ofgoats in the tropics
The low intake of poor-quality feed, often crop residues, limits
production. Small flock sizes lead to poor conception rates and
the possibility of in-breeding. There are several serious disease
problems, such as internal parasites (including gastro-intestinal
parasites and liver fluke), mange, abortion, and external
parasites in lower altitudes.
Opportunities for improvement
The small farm sizes, owing to an increasing human population,
encourage the intensification of this production system. This may
be achieved through forage development, parasite control and,
in some cases, the use of improved breeds.
2.3 Asia
2.3.1 Mixed farming: humid (irrigated)
Arable crop production under irrigated conditions implies that
there is a high human population pressure. Rice is the main crop
irrigated, with occasional short-season legumes or cash crops, such
as sesame. Goats, if kept at all, are normally housed or tethered in
some way, and fed with crop residues and by-products. Forage may
be cut from rice bunds, or goats may be tethered by roadsides.
Countries where this system of production may be found are
Indonesia, the Philippines, India, and Malaysia. Goats are kept
mainly as a source ofcash, but may also be slaughtered at home for
special occasions. They may, occasionally, be milked. Goat breeds
kept in these systems tend to be prolific. Goats can be an important
source of income for landless labourers, who may graze goats on
rice bunds or roadside verges.
Common problems of goats in irrigated rice systems:
• high pre-weaning mortality rates (25 per cent);
• low reproductive rates;
• low growth rates.
Production may be constrained by low feed-intake rates, owing to
the high moisture content of cut forage and/or the high fibre
content of crop residues. The small flock sizes, when combined
with confinement, lead to poor conception rates. Farmers may
not always own a buck, and so oestrus detection can be difficult,
particularly if the goats are housed. If a buck is owned, in-
breeding may occur unless bucks are regularly replaced through
purchase, exchange, or loan. The humidity and the presence of
irrigation lead to a year-round problem with internal parasites.
14

Asia
Human population pressure and a strong urban demand for
animal products make these systems appropriate for
intensification. Feed-intake rates can be improved through
selection of palatable forage species, improved trough designs,
supplementary feeding, provision of salt, and better water
supplies. The design of goat houses can be improved to enable
easy oestrus detection. Bucks should be regularly rotated with
neighbours' bucks. Internal parasites can be controlled through
drugs, or by wilting forage before feeding. The use of improved
breeds may be appropriate.
2.3.2 Mixed farming: humid/sub-humid (rain-fed)
This is perhaps the most common system in which goats are kept
in South and South-East Asia. A wide range of systems of
production is practised, from full confinement in specially-
constructed houses to free grazing on hill sides and crop-stubble
fields. Many systems would fall between these extremes. Typically,
rain-fed crops would include rice, maize, cassava, yam, taro, sweet
potato, and other vegetables. Goats would mainly be kept for sale
to generate cash, meat, and manure. Some cultures may milk their
goats. Goats in rain-fed mixed farming
systems are generally more important to
their owners than those of the relatively
wealthier farmers living in irrigated systems.
Typical problems of goats in humid rain-
fed systems:
• low growth rates;
• low reproduction rates;
• high pre-weaning mortality rates.
Low rates of feed-intake are due to the high
moisture content of forage and high fibre
content ofcrop residues. There are generally
low levels of energy in feeds. Smallflocksizes
mean that breeding males cannot always be
kept. If this is combined with confinement, it
often leads to poor reproductive perform-
ance and in-breeding. Internal parasites are
a major problem.
Human population pressure and a large and
expanding urban demand for animal
products encourage intensification of this
Figure 2.4 Housed
goats in Java
JEREMY HARTLEY/OXFAM
15

system, particularly if close to urban market centres and sources
of feed supplements. In-take rates can be improved by selection
of forage species, improved trough design, feeding of energy
supplements, and provision of salt and water. Forage
development is an important option. Conception rates can be
improved through better oestrus detection (by allowing bucks
better access to does), or through more alert management.
Rotating bucks with neighbours' bucks reduces in-breeding.
Internal parasites can be controlled by use of anthelmintics or by
wilting forage before feeding. The use of improved breeds could
be considered.
2.3.3 Extensive systems: semi-arid (high altitude)
Extensive goat-raising systems are found in the arid and semi-
arid areas of Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Nomadism
is practised to varying degrees. Flock movement tends to follow a
transhumant pattern, with goats grazed at higher altitudes
during spring and summer returning to lower altitudes during
autumn and winter. Flocks may graze crop-stubble fields at the
lower altitudes during the winter. Kidding is seasonal, taking
place mainly in the spring. Kids are fattened on the high-altitude
summer pastures. Does are normally milked, and male kids
fattened for sale. Cashmere-fibre production and processing is
often an important by-product. The coarse hair may be used for
making rugs and rope.
Common problems of goats in extensive grazing systems:
• slow growth rates.
Seasonal fluctuations in quality and quantity of grazing,
combined with a general decline in available grazing areas, are a
major source of problems. A shortage of labour may lead to
problems in kid management during the peak kidding season.
Opportunitiesfor improvement
Higher off-take is probably the most important intervention.
Improving marketing and possibly encouraging the
development of specialised fattening systems at lower altitudes
would be useful. There are few nutritional interventions which
do not involve lowland cultivators in some provision of better
winter feed. Appropriate vaccination should be encouraged.
16

Central and South America
2.4 Central and South America
2.4.1 Extensive systems: semi-arid
Goats are kept in extensive grazing systems throughout the semi-
arid areas ofCentral and South America. Small flocks of 2-10 goats
may be allowed to graze freely, often with other species. These
small flocks are often owned by agricultural labourers working on
large estates or cattle ranches. Larger flocks of 20-50 may be
herded by family or hired labour. They are mainly kept for meat
and skins, which may constitute up to 30 per cent of the value of
the goat. In many cultures kids, 2-6 weeks old, are consumed as a
delicacy. There is a trend towards the greater home consumption
of goat milk and dairy products in many countries. Grazing is a
mixture of grass, herbaceous plants, and trees, known as caatinga
in Brazil, which is often vegetation regenerating after
deforestation of the area for ranching or cash-crop production.
Goats have proved to be relatively drought-tolerant and are the
last species sold during severe droughts.
Common problems among goats in extensive systems:
high pre-weaning kid mortality;
poor-quality skins;
low milk production.
Figure 2.5 A mixed
flock of sheep and goats
in Bolivia
SEAN SPRAC.UE/OXFAM
17

Seasonal fluctuation in feed supply restricts milk production and
increases kid mortality. Skins are often damaged through poor
flaying and preservation methods.
Supplementary feeding of lactating does, improved health care,
and better skin processing are some possibilities. The increasing
interest, among both rural and urban populations, in goat milk
and dairy products might lead to the further intensification of
goat production and the possibility of breed improvement.
2.4.2 Mixed farming: sub-humid
Goats are often kept tethered or housed in more intensive
systems in the sub-humid zones ofCentral America, including the
West Indies, and northern margins ofSouth America. Goats form
part of a more intensive mixed farming system. Natural
vegetation, including a wide variety of tree leaves, such as
Erythrina spp, makes up most of the diet, which may be cut and
carried to housed goats. This diet may be supplemented by tree
legumes, such as glyricidia, as well as cultivated grasses such as
Panicum spp, and crop by-products such as banana stems, and
other fruit and arable crop by-products. The main products are
meat, including kid meat, skins, and cheese. Goats are a
significant source of cash income, as well as being an important
form of savings.
The main problems of goats in intensive systems are listed
below:
• high pre-weaning mortality rates among kids;
• low milk production;
• some evidence for high abortion rates;
• respiratory problems in some housed goats.
Factors contributing to the problems
There are fluctuations in the quality and quantity of the diet, and
internal parasite problems. The main causes of abortion are
thought to be poor nutrition and brucellosis.
There is great potential for the intensification of this system
through forage development to reduce the seasonal fluctuations
in feed supply, through improved health care, and through the
use of improved breeds.
18

Minor systeins
2.5 Minor systems
2.5.1 Perennial tree-crop systems
Goats in many of the humid and sub-humid parts ofAsia, the Pacific
Islands, and to a lesser extent in Africa may be grazed underneath
perennial tree crops such as cocoa, coconuts, oil palm, and rubber.
There are two main systems of production. Large flocks may be kept
by estate owners, primarily to keep down the vegetation under the
trees and so improve tree growth and facilitate harvesting. Shade-
tolerant legumes may be grown to protect the soil and to provide
high-quality fodder to the goats. Tree crops such as oil palm and
rubber also produce effluent from processing factories which can be
used to fertilise improved pastures for goats or other ruminants.
Tree-crop processing may also provide by-products which can be
used as feed supplements, for example palm-kernel cake and palm-
oil sludge. In rubber-tree plantations there is a risk of goats disturb-
ing the latex-collection cups. Goats may also be kept by landless
estate workers as a valuable source of cash. A small herd may be
tethered in the estate or beside estate roads.
2.5.2 Urban goat-keeping
The sight of goats scavenging in urban areas in tropical countries
is relatively common. Being of such an independent character, Figure 2.6 Urban goats
goats easily adapt to looking after themselves in what would in Addis Ababa
appear to be an alien environment. Goats may also be kept JENNY MATTHEWS/OXFAM
19

confined in backyards, and feed collected or even purchased for
them. Their relatively small feed requirements make them more
convenient than cattle in providing members of the urban
population with a source of milk, meat, and cash. The problems
of urban goat-keeping are finding sufficient feed and, in
scavenging goats, digestive disturbance from the consumption of
plastic bags!
2.6 Which system is closest to the one in which
you work?
Think about the goat-keeping system in which you work. Which
of the systems described above is closest to the one you know?
What characteristics made you decide? What differences are
there between your system and the one described that you think
is closest to it?
Further reading
Gall, C. (ed) (1981) Goat Production, London: Academic Press
Wilson, R.T. (1991) Small Ruminant Production and the Small
Ruminant Genetic Resource in TropicalAfrica, Animal Production
and Health Paper 88, Rome: FAO
20

CHAPTER 3
Assessing goat-production
problems
3.1 Introduction
The start of any development initiative is the time to ask
fundamental questions about the situation to be improved, and
about what is an improvement. Often what is thought to be an
improvement by outside 'developers' is very different from
farmers' own ideas. Farmers have many reasons for keeping goats,
and unless these are understood it is impossible to develop
appropriate improvements. For example, scientists commonly
suggest methods of improving the growth rates of goats. This is
appropriate when farmers are trying to maximise their cash profit
and where the costs of inputs are carefully related to the levels of
output. However, most farmers and pastoralists in the tropics have
many different objectives in keeping goats, and trying to avoid
losses and reduce risks may be more important than maximising
profits. Before any practical steps are taken, the existing situation
must be assessed, and the farmers concerned must be consulted.
Unless they actively participate in evaluating their existing
situation, defining their problems, and expressing their
aspirations, the development initiative is doomed to fail.
The objective of this chapter is to give the reader the tools to be
able to identify the specific problems of goat production in a
village, district, or region, in order to develop, with farmers and
pastoralists, the means of improving goat production.
3.1.1 Methods to identify specific problems of goat
production
The common problems of goat production in different systems in
the tropics have been described in Chapter 2, which may be used as
a starting point in identifying the likely problems of goat-keeping
in an area. The next step is to investigate the particular problems
of a specific area, district, or village in order to identify the
21

Assessinggoat-production problems
purposes of the farmers in keeping their goats, and to identify
their problems and opportunities for improvement.
Many methods have been developed by agricultural scientists
for evaluating farming situations, identifying problems found in
the system, and developing solutions. The methods range from
the quicker methods such as Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) or
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques to more complic-
ated Farming Systems Research (FSR) methods requiring the
collection of a great deal of information about the agriculture of
an area. These methods can broadly be divided into those that
require only a few visits to an area and those that require the long-
term monitoring of the situation in question.
Two procedures will be described in this chapter. The first is
for the extension/development worker working in a remote area,
possibly alone or with a small group ofpeople. It is envisaged that
this worker has little assistance from outside and would not have
access to facilities such as laboratories to carry out feed analyses or
disease investigations. What low-cost methods can be used by
such a person with little or no external support, to identify
problems of goat production?
The second approach to problem identification is for an
individual, or more likely for a team, engaged in a goat project or
programme, possibly with external donor funding, or at least
with government support. It is imagined that this person or team
would have access to specialists, laboratories, libraries, and
perhaps computers, to assist in a detailed analysis of the
problems. What can be done with this higher level of external
support?
The steps followed and techniques used in each approach are
outlined in Table 3.1.
3.2 Low-cost methods of assessing goat-
production problems
It is assumed that a development worker wants to help a village or
district with goat production and that in this case goats are
already kept by at least some members of the community. The
questions to ask when considering the introduction of goats into
communities that have not previously kept them will be discussed
in Chapter 11.
The methods of assessment discussed below are methods that
focus specifically on goats and the people who keep them, and the
physical and social contexts in which they are kept. The methods
described require nothing more than a pencil and paper, although
access to a photocopier or stencil machine would save time. Many
development workers feel unable to initiate development activities
22

Low-cost methods of assessing goat-production problems
Table 3.1 Procedures to identify problems of goat production
Low-cost methods
Individual at village/district level
Define objectives
Secondary information
RRA Techniques
Public meeting
Group discussion
Feed calendars
Disease calendars
Problem ranking
Individual interviews
Flock structure
Progeny histories
Interview
Direct observation
Expert interview
Maps and walks
Community consultation
Outputs
Some specific problems of goats identified.
Farmers' needs and aspirations identified.
What constitutes an improvement?
How can it be achieved?
Higher-cost methods
Project planning team
Define objectives
Secondary information
RRA Techniques
Public meeting
Group discussion
Feed calendars
Disease calendars
Problem ranking
Individual interviews
Interview
Direct observation
Expert interview
Maps an< walks
Community consultation
Monitoring (minimum 1-2 years)
Select sample
Initial flock inventory, including flock
structures, progeny histories and weight
Ear-tag all goats, start regular recording of:
productivity
disease
feed
management
marketing
On-farm trials of improvements
Outputs
Detailed problems of farmers and goats identi-
fied, including seasonal dynamics ofproblems.
What constitutes an improvement?
How can it be achieved?
23

Assessing goat-production problems
without some sort ofexternal help from a donor agency. This need
not be so. There are many improvements to goat production that
do not require anything to come from the outside and can be
achieved with simple practical modifications to the existing system.
See what you can do in your area.
3.2.1 Secondary information
Start by finding out what is already known about the area in
which you work. Secondary information is information on an
area or topic that may already exist in government reports,
research papers, newspaper articles, and maps. Often this
information is hard to obtain, and in a remote area may be
impossible. However, it is important to try to find out what
information is already known about the area in which you are
working, so that you do not waste time collecting it again.
3.2.2 Public meetings
The involvement and active participation of goat keepers
themselves in identifying their own problems is the key to
obtaining an accurate picture of the current situation and
developing solutions that farmers truly want.
At the start of any information-gathering exercise, it is usually
a good idea to hold a public meeting, involving the whole village
or community, at which the objectives of collecting the
information are clearly explained. This provides an early
opportunity to build up trust, as the community is able to
question your credentials. Explain the sort of cooperation you
need. Choose a time and place that is convenient for the farmers
and notjust for you, perhaps on a holiday or at night after work,
or in a less busy season.
Start by introducing yourself, and then clearly explain the
objectives of collecting the information. If you come from a
government organisation, explain how the information will be
used. Be honest about your resources and the limitations on your
ability to assist the community. It is important at the first meeting
that you are open to questions. In some societies farmers are not
used to questioning outsiders at public meetings, particularly if
they come from the government; but they should be encouraged
to do so, to reduce suspicions. Make it clear that you have come to
learn and help them to solve their problems, and improve the
benefits that they get from their goats. Make it clear that you do
not have all the answers to their problems, but that together with
them you will try to help them as best you can and with the
resources at your disposal. Don't make empty promises.
Explain the timetable of the data collection and whether you
would like to talk to people individually or in groups. This is also a
24

Low-cost methods of assessinggoat-productionproblems
good moment to let those attending the meeting identify individuals
who are recognised experts, whom you can question later on.
In some cultures it is not possible to have meetings where men
and women can sit together and where women feel comfortable
speaking in public. If this is the case, try to organise a separate
meeting for women in a situation when and where they feel
comfortable to question you and freely respond to your questions.
Many approaches can be taken after the initial meeting. You and
your team can start talking to individuals, groups, or experts. This
may be in the week or two following the original meeting, or during
a couple of days a week for the following few weeks. Make a pro-
gramme for data collection that is convenient for the community.
3.2.3 Approaching interviews and discussions
There are many ways of carrying out interviews and discussions in
rural communities. They range from the formal questionnaire
survey of individual households to unstructured group discussions.
Each method has certain advantages and disadvantages; the choice
depends on the purpose of the interview and the sort of information
you hope to obtain from the community.
The most important precondition for any discussion, whether
with an individual or group, is that there is some degree of trust
between those asking questions and those answering. It is always
better if the interview can take the form of a dialogue rather than
a long list ofquestions. The quality of the information received will
be immeasurably better if the goat keepers have confidence in
those asking the questions. This may be hard to achieve, if you are
coming to a new area where you are not known. In this case, try to
obtain the help of a local extension person from the area, who is
already well known and respected by the community.
It is important that the purpose of the interview or discussion is
clearly explained, so there is no misunderstanding. If you are an
outsider arriving for the first time, people may have expectations
of assistance associated with you. Be aware of this and never make
promises you cannot keep, or your credibility will be lost.
3.2.4 Group discussions
Discussions held with groups ofgoat farmers, for one or two hours,
can be a very useful method of obtaining qualitative information
very quickly. A range of opinions can be obtained from the
different members of the group and a consensus can be reached
about what normally happens in that particular area. Listen to the
way farmers discuss issues and argue about them among them-
selves. A group discussion is also a useful forum to cross-check with
the group any queries that may arise from other group discussions
or individual interviews.
25

The main disadvantage of a group discussion is that normally
the information is exclusively qualitative. It is hard for the group
to calculate mortality rates over the last year, for example,
whereas this is relatively easy for an individual farmer to estimate
for his or her own flock. The group may give you an estimate of
how many goats in the village died from a recent epidemic, but
this is only an estimate and is likely to be exaggerated. You should
treat such group estimates as a figure used to show you the
severity of the epidemic.
The group discussion should be organised according to the
principles for the public meeting. The farmers should be
comfortable and undistracted. The meeting should be organised
at a convenient time and place and should not last too long. The
size of the group should be such that everyone in it has a good
chance of contributing to the discussion. If it is too small, you
won't get the breadth of experience that you are seeking.
Probably a group of five-ten is ideal. Do not allow one or two
individuals to dominate the meeting.
It is not always possible to select the knowledgeable farmers to
join the group, but you should try to choose the people who are
likely to have the knowledge you need. Women are often
responsible for looking after goats, so they must be involved in
group discussions, either with the men or separately. It is often
revealing to discuss the same issues with women that were
discussed with the men, to obtain their different perspectives on
the issue.
Do not rely on the results from one discussion. Several group
discussions should be held, often covering the same issues. In this
way a more accurate picture of problems can be built up and
investigation begun of the factors contributing to these problems.
What information is best collected from a group discussion?
Such a meeting can give a quick picture of goat production in the
area, which is a useful start to further investigations. Specifically,
it should enable you to do the following:
• compile feed calendars
• compile disease calendars
• rank problems
• identify improvements
• identify farmers' aspirations.
3.2.5 Feed calendars
In most systems of production in the tropics, the supply offeed to
goats varies according to the season. This is the case whether the
goats are grazing or feed is cut and carried to them. The main
sources of feed (hillside grazing, swamp grazing, crop residues,
feed supplements, etc.) and the methods of feeding them
26

Low-cost methods of assessinggoat-productionproblems
(herding, tethering, housing, etc.) are likely to vary through the
year, and it is crucial to understand this variation.
If you are working in a different culture from your own, first
name the months of the year according to the local names. Then
group them into seasons. Sometimes it is easier for farmers to
think about a specific year, say last year, and talk about that.
However, ifyou do use a specific year, be careful. If a season didn't
come (the rains failed), then farmers might miss out that season
altogether, because it didn't happen! Next, go through each
season and ask what is fed to goats in that season and how it is fed.
You can further refine this technique by asking about the quantity
of feed in each season and the times when there are particular
problems in finding enough feed. You may draw a line on the
ground to represent the year and get farmers to put leaves or
stones on the months when there is a lot of feed.
If you are in a mixed farming system, it is important to
understand the links between the cropping system and the goat
system. Try to get a picture of the cropping system and link feed
supply to the seasonal cropping pattern. The method of feeding
should also be linked to the labour demands for crop production,
in order to identify the busiest times of the year, and when goats
are most likely to compete with crop production for labour. It is
important to identify which members of the family are responsible
for the various tasks involved in goat-keeping. Seasonal calendars
can be constructed for each task, indicating the age and sex of the
person involved during each season. Remember that farmers may
keep other livestock which compete with goats for feed.
Figure 3.1 shows an example of a seasonal feed calendar for a
mixed farming system.
3.2.6 Disease calendars
The seasonal pattern of disease incidence can be described in a
similar way as for feed. First identify the common diseases of goats.
Farmers will use their own local names, so ask them to describe the
symptoms clearly, so that you are able to make a reasonable
identification of the disease. Ask which sorts of goat are affected
(kids, adults, males or females) and then ask when each disease is
most prevalent. It may occur all the year round or only in the wet
season. Ask the farmers to describe the effects of the disease (such
as sick but recovers, immediate death, etc.), so that at the end of the
session you are able to identify the most important diseases and
when they occur. If farmers keep other livestock, it may also be
important to describe their diseases, as there may be transmission
of diseases between species. An example of a disease calendar is
given in Figure 3.2.
27

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
I I I j i i • • • i l_
- ^
Traditional seasons
Bona Bedessa Shegni Gena Birra
Rainfall
Cropping calendar
Feeding method
eaT«r««re:e:aiFi
Jan1
Feb ' Mar ' Apr ' May 'june1
July ' Aug ' Sept1
Oct ' Nov 'Dec
Figure 3.1 A seasonal feed calendar
28

Gastro-
Rainfall
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
3.2.7 Problem ranking and identification of
improvements
The group discussion is an excellent forum to ask about the major
problems of goat-keeping and to hear what farmers think would
be an improvement. You need to take great care tofocusthe group
on issues that you and they can actually solve together. If you ask
any group offarmers what their problems are, they are likely to list
many things that are indeed problems, such as low goat prices or
lack of water, but which cannot be solved without a lot of money or
by a change in government policy. Explain again who you are and
what sorts of things you and your organisation are able to help the
community with. Talk through the problems that farmers have
identified, and begin to work towards identifying problems that
can, realistically, be solved by the farmers themselves. Table 3.2
sets out a simple format that might be used with a group to specify
more fully a problem identified in the discussion.
Get the group to list their problems and reach a consensus, by
vote perhaps, on which is the most important problem, the second
most important problem, and so on. Try to include a wide range of
Figure 3.2 Disease
calendar, Konso,
Ethiopia
29

Table 3.2 Guide to problem specification
Questions
What is the problem?
Where is it a problem?
When is it a problem?
Who has this problem?
What evidence is available?
Additional evidence required?
Class of problem?
Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3
views here. Men may easily say that their goats don't produce
enough kids because they are not fed well enough, but the women
who cut and carry the feed to the goats may say that their problem
is the amount of time it takes to collect the feed, taking them away
from other important tasks. These are both feeding problems
which could be overcome by the introduction ofimproved forages.
When different viewpoints emerge in response to the same
problem, it is sometimes helpful to draw a simple diagram setting
out the causes of the problem and linking them together into a
network of factors affecting the problem of concern (Figure 3.3).
These chains can be developed for several different problems; it
may emerge later that several problems share a common cause,
and these chains can be linked together to make a larger problem
tree. This will be discussed below in 3.2.13.
What constitutes an improvement in any situation is largely
influenced by the purpose for which goats are kept, and any
improvement programme is doomed to fail if the proposed
improvements are not in keeping with the purposes of the goat
owners. Goats may be kept for manure production, or merely to
have a goat for sale in times of trouble. Farmers may be more
concerned with reducing risk than with increasing production, if
that will increase the risks. It is offundamental importance that you
clearly understand the reasons for which goats are kept, so that you
are able to help farmers achieve their objectives better. This is not
to exclude the possibility that farmers may not change their
objectives over time. It is often found in goat-improvement
programmes that, in order to gain the interest of farmers,
programmes should be designed to meet traditional objectives, but
that, once farmers start to learn about new technologies, their
objectives may change to take advantage of the new technology.
30

Pump
broken

Disease
Water
shortage

Low milk
production
Breed
type
Poor
feeding
High kid
mortality
Poor mothering
ability of dams
Breed
type
' Competition for
household labour
3.2.8 Rapid flock-appraisal method
The information obtained in group discussion tends to be of a
rather general nature, so it is important to obtain more specific
information about individual flocks, their performance and
management. A surprising amount can be learned from one visit
to a family and their goats. Through a simple field technique it is
possible to find out the flock size,flockstructure, the reproductive
performance of breeding females, and the fate of their offspring.
The owner and the owner's family can be interviewed to find out
their individual management practices and the problems they face
in keeping goats.
Flock size
Knowing the sizes of theflocksin an area helps one to understand
• the relative economic importance of goats (if the importance of
other farm enterprises is known);
• the labour required to look after the goats.
When a flock's age and sex composition (known as the flock
structure) is determined, it can provide a picture ofthe flock at one
point in time. This is the most basic information about the flock.
But flocks are dynamic: goats are born, sold, given away,
consumed, bought, borrowed, and lent. So any flock structure
represents a snapshot of the flock — the past events — as well as
the future intentions of the owner. It represents:
Figure 3.3 Low milk
production: a causal
chain
31

• the past events in the flock (the birth and death rates, as well as
levels of off-take);
• the owner's objectives in keeping the flock (whether the
purpose is meat or milk or both).
It is very easy to combine a rapid study offlockstructures with
collecting information on the reproductive performance of
breeding females and the fate of their offspring.
Sample size and selection
It is usually impossible to visit every goat keeper in the village or
district. A smaller group or sample of households has to be
selected, representing as closely as possible the characteristics of
the population of interest. The use of statistical sampling pro-
cedures will indicate, for a measurement, the size of sample that
will accurately represent the whole population from which it is
selected. These procedures cannot be applied unless the size of
the population is known, together with the degree of variability
within the selected village or district. In practice, of course, in
developing countries, very little information of this nature exists.
In some countries where censuses are carried out, a list of
households in the village may be available and can be used to
select a sample. But in order to use statistical sampling
procedures, the amount of variability and the precision of
information required should also be known; this, however, is
rarely possible.
In reality, practical considerations become more important
than considerations ofstatistics. Common questions to answer are
listed below:
• How much money is available to collect the data?
• How many people can be employed or released from other
work to carry out the assessment?
• How much time is available?
• Are there vehicles available?
• Is there enough stationery?
Once these questions have been answered, the next question
is: with the resources available, how many goats/households/
villages/districts can be covered in the time available? The basic
rule is that the more households the better: the bigger the
sample, the more precise will be the results.
When you have decided how big a sample you can afford with
the resources you have available, you need to think what sorts of
goat keeper should be in the sample. Do you want to get a
representative picture of the total population, or do you want to
focus only on particular types of goat farmer, such as the poorer
ones, or only those with larger flocks, or only goat farmers who
house their goats?
32

If the sample is supposed to give a picture of all goat farmers in
the area, it is important to try to avoid many of the biases that can
creep in and distort the picture. If you are new to the village, the
first people you will meet will probably be the village leaders, who
will want you to meet the best, most progressive goat farmers in the
community — who are probably some of the wealthiest. You may
then have to make a special effort to meet the poorer farmers.
Perhaps you can go to the communal watering point and chat to
people there and observe the goats as they come to water. If you
are in a hurry, beware the temptation to visit only the most
accessible farms, close to the road. This is especially likely in the
wet season, when the roads may be bad or even impassable. A
number of small biases, when combined, can give a very distorted
picture of reality. Unless you make a special effort, you will find
yourself dealing primarily with men rather than women, and
confident people rather than shy ones. This is why the group
discussion is particularly useful in providing cross-checks within
the community, to give a clearer, more balanced picture.
Field method
1 Prepare a data-collection form which is easy to fill in quickly.
Test the form while collecting information on a few flocks. An
example is found in Figure 3.4. You may like to adapt it for use
in your own area. Prepare enough forms for the anticipated
number of goats and flocks. It is irritating to run out of forms
when you are in a remote area.
At least two people are required for thejob, one to handle the
goats, the other to record the information on the form. In larger
flocks it is more efficient to have more than one person
handling the goats, as the recorder can note down information
from at least two goat handlers and possibly more. The quicker
the data are collected the better, so the owner is less
inconvenienced.
2 The owner of the flock should be politely approached and the
objectives of looking at the flock should be clearly explained.
Most owners are happy to allow their animals to be handled,
provided they are handled gently, and the owner is not
inconvenienced too much in the process. However, in some
areas taxes on livestock are collected, which may make the
owner reluctant to allow theflockto be visited and counted, and
may also lead the owner to give misleading information
concerning progeny histories. Clearly explain the purpose for
collecting the information and give assurances that it will be
kept confidential.
3 Agree a time and place that is convenient for the owner and the
owner's family. If the flock goes out grazing all day, you may
33

Figure 3.4 Form for
recording goat flock
structures and progeny
histories
DateRecorderDistrictVillageOwner'sname
Remarks
(milked,sick,etc.)
AbortedLostExchangeGiftLentSoldDeadStillin
flock
No.of
kids
No.of
parturi-
tions
Toothage:
MTsuckling
MTweaned
1pair
2pairs
3pairs
4pairs
Worn
Sex:
male
female
castrate
4-J
h
34

have to visit very early in the morning or in the evening, when
the animals return from grazing. If the flock has to walk a long
way to grazing, they may leave and return in the dark, in which
case torches will be needed. Alternatively, it may be more
convenient to handle the flock at a water point or dip, where
they may be in one place for several hours.
4 Each goat in the flock should be physically handled and a
record made of its sex (male, female, castrate, hermaphrodite)
and age by dentition (suckling, milk teeth, one pair, two pairs,
three pairs, four pairs, worn) recorded. The owner is then
asked its age and origin (born in flock, bought, borrowed,
given). In some societies goats may be owned by different
members of the family, who might have different rights of use
over their goats. This may be important to record. If the goat is
kept under some sort of sharing arrangement with another
family, the arrangements should be understood. For females of
breeding age, you should record the number of times they have
given birth, and what has happened to each animal born:
still in flock
sold
dead (cause)
lent
given away
aborted
exchanged
lost
It is also useful to ask the owner the cause of death, and even
the season in which the goat died. This can be very helpful in
building up a picture of the seasonality of the causes of
mortality, which can be very important; but collecting this extra
information will slow down the procedure.
As goats are often tended by women or children, you will
often get more accurate information if you ask them the
questions, particularly about deaths and abortions. However, in
some cultures male extension workers may not be allowed to
talk directly to women. You need to exercise sensitivity in such
a case.
The goat should then be marked in some way, such as with a
special waxed marker crayon or simply a water-based paint, to
ensure that it is not handled again. Or it should be removed
from the pen and kept with the goats that have already been
handled.
How to age goats by their dentition
Goats are born with small milk teeth, which they will keep until
they are 14-19 months old, when one pair of permanent incisors
will replace the central pair of milk teeth. Thereafter further pairs
of these permanent teeth appear either side of the previous new
teeth, roughly every six months, until they have a full set of four
permanent pairs of incisors (Table 3.3 and Figure 3.5). Teeth do
35

Figure 3.5 Sets of teeth at
different ages
(a) Milk teeth
CHRISTIE PEACOCK
(b) One pair of permanent
incisors
CHRISTIE PEACOCK
(c) Two pairs of permanent
incisors
JENNY MA'ITHEWS/OXFAM
not appear at fixed intervals. There will always be a range of ages
at which particular teeth appear, because the speed of teeth-
growth will vary according to the health and nutrition of the goat.
If a goat is well fed and healthy, teeth will erupt earlier than in
poorly fed, unhealthy goats. Likewise, teeth age and become
worn at different rates in different systems. In extensive pastoral
systems where the forage may be very fibrous for long periods,
teeth will wear faster than in the humid tropics, where feed is
lower in fibre.
Although it is not possible to identify the exact age of a goat
from its teeth, it is a useful guide which can be used, to some
extent, to evaluate the performance of goats. If, for example, you
want to know how well a female goat is breeding, you can check its
age from its teeth and if you see, say, three pairs of permanent
teeth, you know that the goat is roughly two and a half years old.
You can then ask the farmer how many kids it has had in its
lifetime. If it has had two kids, then you know that it is fertile and
a good breeder. If it has had one or none, then you should be
aware that there is a reproductive problem which probably
should be investigated.
Table 3.3 The age of goats as shown by dentition
Age (months) Type of teeth
0 - 14 Milk teeth
fl4- 19 One pair of permanent incisors
19-24 Two pairs of permanent incisors
I 24 - 30 Three pairs of permanent incisors
30 + Four pairs of permanent incisors
How to interpret the data
The data can be analysed using a pencil and paper. A simple
pocket calculator is helpful, but not essential. Do some analyses
while still in the field, so that any queries can be checked
immediately.
1 First calculate the average size of goat flocks in the area
investigated, and the range in sizes. It is sometimes helpful to
make a bar chart of this information, so that the degree of
variability in the size of the flock is very clear (Figure 3.6).
2 Next, using all the data collected, make a table of the flock
structure for all goats sampled. The table might be presented
in the form of Table 3.4. What can be learned from such a
36

Low-cost methods ofassessinggoat-productionproblems
Figure 3.6 Flock size distribution by household
%
households
25-1
20 _
15-
(d) Three pairs of permanent
incisors
JENNY MATPHEWS/OXFAM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 » y lu 11 12 13 14
1 0 -
table? If there are a lot of very young suckling kids with their
lactating mothers, it may be that there is a seasonality to the
breeding of the goats. Reckoning backwards, it is possible to
calculate the peak season of conception. This seasonality in
breeding may be controlled by the owner, or it may occur
naturally because a flush of good feed initiates oestrus and
conception. Find out which applies by asking the owner.
If there are a lot of goats being milked but few kids suckling,
then it looks as though significant numbers of kids have died
recently, and it would be worth trying to find out why. This is
usually fairly obvious while the flock is being recorded, so the
owner can immediately be asked what happened to the kids.
The ratio of breeding females to males can be calculated to
make sure that there are enough breeding males. If certain
males are castrated (this varies from culture to culture), it would
be worth finding out the age at which they are castrated and the
reasons for castrating those particular males. Is it because they
were fast-growing and needed for sale, or because they were
slow-growing and the owner did not want them to mate with the
females?
(e) Four pairs of permanent
incisors
JENNY MATTHEWS/OXFAM
37

Table 3.4 Sex and age structure of Maasai goats in Kenya (expressed as a percentage of the
total)
Age (months) Entire
males
Castrated
males
Total
males
Females Total
0- 6
6-14
14-19
19-24
24-30
30-60
>60
4.5
2.9
1.0
0.1
0.05
0.4
0.0
2.3
7.4
1.5
4.3
9.3 ~
4.5
5.2
8.4
1.6
4.3
977
7.2
5.2
9.4
4.5
6.7
~32.9
0.4
11.7
10.4
17.8
6.1
11.0
42.6
0.4
Total
n =
8.9
122
24.8
335
33.7
457
66.3
899
100
1356
Figure 3.7 Age pyramid of a goat flock
age
(mon hs)
males
>50
30-50
24-30
19-24
14-10
6-14
0-6
20
l
10
females
10 20
% of total flock
40
38

If there is a missing kid crop, i.e. a very low or non-existent
number of goats between the ages of for example 14 and 24
months, then it might indicate a drought or disease that
affected the young kids between one and two years ago. The
effects can still be seen in the flock. What caused this?
3 A simple age pyramid (Figure 3.7) may also be revealing. It may
show any missing kid crops, the age at which most males are
sold, etc.
4 From the information on progeny histories, it is possible to
calculate the number of births per breeding female, and the
approximate age at first parturition. Set out the table headings
shown in Table 3.5. Place each breeding female in the correct
age group and write down the number of times she has given
birth, as reported by the owner. Add up the totals for each age
group category as in Table 3.5, and a total for each birth
number category. Finally convert these totals to percentages, as
in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 Parturition histories
Age group
offemale
Number of births reported by owner No. of
females
(months)
10-14
14-19
19-24
24-30
>30
Total
%
0
36
109
37
45
35
262
36
1
5
14
38
87
144
20
2
7
6
135
148
21
3
73
73
10
4
52
52
7
5
17
17
2
6
12
12
0.8
7
6
6
0.3
8
2
2
36
114
58
89
420
717 J
100
From this table it is clear that there are reproductive problems
in the goat flocks in this area. Having 36 per cent of the potential
breeding females non-productive is a tremendous waste. If they
have not given birth by 24 months ofage, either they are infertile
or there is a major mating/nutrition problem, which should be
investigated. Age at first parturition also seems to be rather
delayed, which reduces the total productive life of the goat.
5 It is also possible to make a rough estimate of an annual
reproductive rate. This can be done by assuming that the ratio of
39

Table 3.6
Off-take methods
males to females is 1 : 1. Then multiply by 4 the number of
females in the age class 0-6 months, to arrive at the total number
of births in a year, excluding deaths. Apply a reasonable
mortality rate by deducting 10-20 per cent from this figure.
Now divide the result by the number of potential breeding
females (those that have reached 12 months). From Table 3.4
the annual reproductive rate is 66.6 per cent, which is very low.
Approximate annual reproductive rate =
4 x Total 0-6 mths x 100 - Mortality (%)
Total potential breeding females
Method
Remain in flock
Dead
Sold
Abortion
Gift
Lost
Slaughtered
Exchanged
%
51
36
7
4
2
0
0
0
6 Finally a table showing the methods of off-take from the flock
can be prepared, such as Table 3.6.
3.2.9 Individual interviews
If the owner has the time, and is willing, a good moment for an
interview is after you have examined theflockfor the structure and
progeny-history data, and it is obvious that you have a genuine
interest in the goats. This can form a bond between you. Otherwise
make another appointment at the owner's convenience.
Unless it is just a casual visit to a family for a chat about their
goats, it is best to have at least a checklist ofquestions you would like
to ask them. If you lack confidence in talking to farmers, or need
more quantitative survey data, then use a questionnaire. You can
train recorders to administer the questionnaire on your behalf, so
enabling you to question many more farmers than you can by
yourself. If you do use inexperienced recorders to do a survey,
keep the questions simple, so that accuracy is maintained. You
cannot expect these recorders to ask probing follow-up questions.
Keep the questionnaire simple and short. Long questionnaires are
boring for all involved. Avoid sensitive matters, such as direct
questions about income. The accuracy of the information will not
be very high if the farmer is bored, embarrassed, or suspicious
about the questions.
For more information on survey and questionnaire design, see
Social Survey Methods and Choosing Research Methods, both
published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland).
3.2.10 Key informant interviews
There are often farmers in a community who are recognised
experts in keeping goats or in some particular aspect of goat
40

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