This document discusses Eric Anderson's theory of inclusive masculinity in relation to contemporary sports. It analyzes how certain sports are more open to displaying elements of inclusive masculinity, such as rugby and rowing, due to having a more upper-class culture and liberal attitudes. Sports like soccer are argued to strongly reinforce hegemonic masculinity and be less accepting of diversity due to originating from working-class culture. While some teams in the inclusive cheerleading association demonstrate inclusive traits, the orthodox association actively bans effeminate and homosexual characteristics. The essay concludes that discussing inclusive masculinity is more relevant to cultural studies than gender, as the underlying cultural mentality of a sport's participants impacts how inclusive it can be more than its rules
This document discusses violence in sports and proposes solutions to combat unnecessary violence while preserving competition. It addresses two forms of unnecessary violence: hazing and brawling. Hazing is portrayed as a misguided attempt to foster team bonding, but competition naturally creates bonds without harm. Brawling also serves no purpose and can result from imbalances in psychological states. The author argues these forms of violence should not be tolerated and suggests alternatives like sportsmanship training to promote positive behavior. Failing to address sports violence undermines benefits to health, relationships, and personal growth that competition provides.
This document discusses gender in sports and sports media. It covers several topics:
1) The social construction of gender versus biological differences between men and women. Gender is influenced by both nature and nurture.
2) How sports have traditionally reinforced masculine ideals and hegemonic masculinity. Sports have emphasized traits like aggression that are often associated with masculinity.
3) The representation of female athletes in sports media, which often focuses more on their physical appearance and sexuality rather than their athletic accomplishments. Female athletes also receive less coverage than their male counterparts.
4) Examples of women disrupting traditional gender norms in sports, such as Shannon Szabados playing professional men's hockey, as well as
The document discusses issues of homophobia and inequality faced by gay athletes. It notes that gay athletes often face hostility, verbal and social abuse, and feel pressure to conceal their sexuality. This is due to stereotypical views of masculinity and femininity in sports. The case of former NFL player Esera Tuaolo is examined, who endured abuse after coming out. Resolving homophobia requires education, embracing diversity, and raising awareness of the experiences of gay athletes through advocacy events.
This PowerPoint presentation by Ph.D. Sports discusses reducing violence in youth sports through incorporating principles of health, physical education, and recreation. It presents quotes from coaches emphasizing hard work, discipline, and developing character in youth. It also outlines the organization's framework and long term goals of building healthy communities and developing social and character traits in youth through sports.
The document discusses representations of masculinity in media. It notes that masculinity is typically portrayed through strength, power, attractiveness, physique, and independence. Additionally, media representations of masculinity have become more focused on men's physiques in recent decades. This increased focus has made it difficult for men to live up to unrealistic ideals portrayed in media, just as it has long been difficult for women. As a result, men are encouraged to aspire to look like media role models, but some grow concerned about an inability to achieve such standards, while others worry about perceived anti-male bias.
Sexism females in sport and media coveragewoodsfam
Australian media gives much less coverage to women's sports compared to men's sports, with only 9% of sports coverage dedicated to female athletes. This lack of exposure means that young girls receive fewer role models and are less likely to participate in sports. Additionally, the media sometimes objectifies and sexualizes female athletes rather than focusing on their athletic abilities. Increased fair and unbiased coverage of women's sports could help improve female participation rates and promote positive body images.
Cultivating Black Male Success: Turning the Plight of Perpetual Possibility i...Marques Dexter
Presentation at the 2018 UGA Global Conference on Sport for Social Change
The media has become a primary source for Black males to locate sources of self-representation outside their familial networks. Entertainers, collegiate, and professional athletes often become their role models. As a myriad of research informs, a result has been the misfortune of young Black males continuously becoming socialized to value athletics over academic endeavors (Beamon & Bell, 2006; Benson, 2000; Bimper & Harrison, 2011; Edwards, 2000; Fuller, Harrison, & Bukstein, 2016). With numerous problematic symbols of Black success, coupled with false narratives of deficiency, our young Black kings are at risk of embarking upon a destructive route to (assumed) prosperity and (perceived) upward mobility. Ultimately, they may fall victim to what I characterize as the plight of perpetual possibility. Utilizing previous research and personal experience this presentation seeks to unpack elements of the plight, concluding with recommendations for those who have a vested interest in Black male success to cultivate a more holistic scholar-athlete identity.
Black Males in the Media: Last Chance U and the Plight of Perpetual PossibilityMarques Dexter
M. Dexter's presentation at the 2017 North American Society for the Sociology of Sport (NASSS) Conference:
Black males in media discourse are considered deviant, unintelligent, who seek fame and material possession, and who come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. The media discourse instills negative and ambiguous self-representations of Black males' masculinity. The salient images of the black heterosexual body as seen in rappers, athletes, entertainment and film stars disseminates adverse depictions of black masculinity as incapable, hostile and oversexed. Such media representations coax black families to steer their adolescents away from diverse educational opportunities that would permit socioeconomic advancement in society, with the place of choice being athletics. The source of data for this study are derived from the Netflix docuseries 'Last Chance U.' Utilizing Dr. Harry Edwards' notion of the triple tragedy, this presentation seeks to critique ways in which the media and sport institutions both propagate and institutionalize heteronormative ideologies of Black male athletes. The authors intend to stimulate conversations on how the media replicates injurious tropes of perseverance in athletics, hindering young Blacks' from actualizing their future outside of athletics, and validate fragile conceptions of Black masculinity. Furthermore, this session also seeks to illuminate opportunities for both the media and sport institutions to provide constructive narratives of Black athletic success, ultimately steering young Blacks from the plight of perpetual possibility.
This document discusses violence in sports and proposes solutions to combat unnecessary violence while preserving competition. It addresses two forms of unnecessary violence: hazing and brawling. Hazing is portrayed as a misguided attempt to foster team bonding, but competition naturally creates bonds without harm. Brawling also serves no purpose and can result from imbalances in psychological states. The author argues these forms of violence should not be tolerated and suggests alternatives like sportsmanship training to promote positive behavior. Failing to address sports violence undermines benefits to health, relationships, and personal growth that competition provides.
This document discusses gender in sports and sports media. It covers several topics:
1) The social construction of gender versus biological differences between men and women. Gender is influenced by both nature and nurture.
2) How sports have traditionally reinforced masculine ideals and hegemonic masculinity. Sports have emphasized traits like aggression that are often associated with masculinity.
3) The representation of female athletes in sports media, which often focuses more on their physical appearance and sexuality rather than their athletic accomplishments. Female athletes also receive less coverage than their male counterparts.
4) Examples of women disrupting traditional gender norms in sports, such as Shannon Szabados playing professional men's hockey, as well as
The document discusses issues of homophobia and inequality faced by gay athletes. It notes that gay athletes often face hostility, verbal and social abuse, and feel pressure to conceal their sexuality. This is due to stereotypical views of masculinity and femininity in sports. The case of former NFL player Esera Tuaolo is examined, who endured abuse after coming out. Resolving homophobia requires education, embracing diversity, and raising awareness of the experiences of gay athletes through advocacy events.
This PowerPoint presentation by Ph.D. Sports discusses reducing violence in youth sports through incorporating principles of health, physical education, and recreation. It presents quotes from coaches emphasizing hard work, discipline, and developing character in youth. It also outlines the organization's framework and long term goals of building healthy communities and developing social and character traits in youth through sports.
The document discusses representations of masculinity in media. It notes that masculinity is typically portrayed through strength, power, attractiveness, physique, and independence. Additionally, media representations of masculinity have become more focused on men's physiques in recent decades. This increased focus has made it difficult for men to live up to unrealistic ideals portrayed in media, just as it has long been difficult for women. As a result, men are encouraged to aspire to look like media role models, but some grow concerned about an inability to achieve such standards, while others worry about perceived anti-male bias.
Sexism females in sport and media coveragewoodsfam
Australian media gives much less coverage to women's sports compared to men's sports, with only 9% of sports coverage dedicated to female athletes. This lack of exposure means that young girls receive fewer role models and are less likely to participate in sports. Additionally, the media sometimes objectifies and sexualizes female athletes rather than focusing on their athletic abilities. Increased fair and unbiased coverage of women's sports could help improve female participation rates and promote positive body images.
Cultivating Black Male Success: Turning the Plight of Perpetual Possibility i...Marques Dexter
Presentation at the 2018 UGA Global Conference on Sport for Social Change
The media has become a primary source for Black males to locate sources of self-representation outside their familial networks. Entertainers, collegiate, and professional athletes often become their role models. As a myriad of research informs, a result has been the misfortune of young Black males continuously becoming socialized to value athletics over academic endeavors (Beamon & Bell, 2006; Benson, 2000; Bimper & Harrison, 2011; Edwards, 2000; Fuller, Harrison, & Bukstein, 2016). With numerous problematic symbols of Black success, coupled with false narratives of deficiency, our young Black kings are at risk of embarking upon a destructive route to (assumed) prosperity and (perceived) upward mobility. Ultimately, they may fall victim to what I characterize as the plight of perpetual possibility. Utilizing previous research and personal experience this presentation seeks to unpack elements of the plight, concluding with recommendations for those who have a vested interest in Black male success to cultivate a more holistic scholar-athlete identity.
Black Males in the Media: Last Chance U and the Plight of Perpetual PossibilityMarques Dexter
M. Dexter's presentation at the 2017 North American Society for the Sociology of Sport (NASSS) Conference:
Black males in media discourse are considered deviant, unintelligent, who seek fame and material possession, and who come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. The media discourse instills negative and ambiguous self-representations of Black males' masculinity. The salient images of the black heterosexual body as seen in rappers, athletes, entertainment and film stars disseminates adverse depictions of black masculinity as incapable, hostile and oversexed. Such media representations coax black families to steer their adolescents away from diverse educational opportunities that would permit socioeconomic advancement in society, with the place of choice being athletics. The source of data for this study are derived from the Netflix docuseries 'Last Chance U.' Utilizing Dr. Harry Edwards' notion of the triple tragedy, this presentation seeks to critique ways in which the media and sport institutions both propagate and institutionalize heteronormative ideologies of Black male athletes. The authors intend to stimulate conversations on how the media replicates injurious tropes of perseverance in athletics, hindering young Blacks' from actualizing their future outside of athletics, and validate fragile conceptions of Black masculinity. Furthermore, this session also seeks to illuminate opportunities for both the media and sport institutions to provide constructive narratives of Black athletic success, ultimately steering young Blacks from the plight of perpetual possibility.
1) Traditionally, sports have been viewed as a hyper-masculine environment that reinforces traditional gender roles and heterosexuality. However, lesbian and gay athletes now participate openly in sports.
2) Lesbian athletes generally face more acceptance than gay athletes due to cultural perceptions of masculinity. However, both groups face stigma, discrimination, and lack role models in professional sports.
3) Psychological interventions for lesbian and gay athletes include addressing prejudice, promoting community, assisting with identity development, and empowering athletes to challenge heteronormative culture. Consideration of cultural identities is also important.
This document analyzes research on the commonality of domestic abuse among athletes. It discusses how aggression is both necessary but also reinforced in many contact sports. This cultivated aggression can then potentially lead to issues off the field if the drive to enact violence is not adequately released. The document specifically examines statistics showing high rates of domestic abuse arrests for NFL players compared to other major sports leagues in the US. It explores psychological factors like frustration-aggression theory that could help explain why some athletes may be more likely to commit domestic abuse.
Sportsmanship involves competing at the highest level while respecting rules and opponents. Owners and coaches must display good conduct, though Tom Coughlin leads gracefully and Mike Tomlin was fined for interfering. Athletes' actions off-field also matter, as Victor Cruz helps communities while Ray Rice was infamous for domestic violence. Fans should cheer positively and avoid throwing objects or fighting. Improving youth education on values can enhance sportsmanship's future.
Quinn Heydt: Steroids And Issues Of Inequality And Moralitymerlyna
The document discusses how steroid use in professional sports creates inequality and raises issues of morality. It provides examples from articles of athletes who feel they have to use steroids to compete or perform given the pressure to succeed. Long-term health effects from steroid use can also create inequality when athletes are no longer able to compete professionally due to deteriorating health. Unless steroid use is better regulated, inequality between users and non-users and questions of ethics will persist in professional sports.
Our major goal is to help you achieve your academic goals. We are commited to helping you get top grades in your academic papers.We desire to help you come up with great essays that meet your lecturer's expectations.Contact us now at http://www.premiumessays.net/
This document discusses whether Olympians should face harsher penalties for anabolic steroid use than other professional athletes given their role as national heroes and representatives. It notes that many professional athletes regularly break laws with little consequence, undermining their role as role models, while the Olympics unite nations and cultures in a unique way. As such, the author argues that Olympians who use steroids should face lifetime bans to preserve the integrity of the games and deter cheating, whereas other sports could consider regulating steroid use instead of an outright ban.
Condensed presentation in slides about my thesis on Marketing to Female Sports Fans which I wrote for my USC Masters in Communication Management on marketing to female sports fans through the lens of ethnography and marketing surveys. Uses the 2014 FIFA World Cup as the case study, including observed comparisons of female sports fans in the United States and Brazil. Explores who female sports fans are, the commercial opportunities behind them from a marketing perspective, and how.
Thesis: Marketing to Female Sports Fans Bessie Chu
Thesis I wrote for my USC Masters in Communication Management on marketing to female sports fans through the lens of ethnography and marketing surveys. Uses the 2014 FIFA World Cup as the case study, including observed comparisons of female sports fans in the United States and Brazil. Explores who female sports fans are, the commercial opportunities behind them from a marketing perspective, and how.
In this keynote delivered at the National Council of Teachers of English, Katherin Garland represents Katie Dredger, Crystal Beach, and Cathy Leogrande in exploring how media represent those who are marginalized in sports and sports media. A transcript follows.
This document provides a literature review on the history and representations of female athletes in sports media. It discusses how women have historically faced barriers to participating in sports due to gender stereotypes. While participation has increased over time, media often focuses on female athletes' looks rather than their athletic skills. The document also reviews the impact of Title IX in increasing opportunities for women in sports. However, representations of female athletes in media still tend to sexualize them and emphasize their gender over their athleticism.
Women face significant barriers and discrimination in sports. They receive far less media coverage and lower pay than male athletes in comparable sports. Sexism and sexual harassment are also prevalent issues, with women athletes and reporters facing inappropriate comments and unwanted advances. However, some progress is being made as advocates push for greater gender equality and representation in the traditionally male-dominated world of professional sports.
This document discusses the portrayal and treatment of female athletes. It argues that women are often sexualized and objectified in sports media coverage, which focuses more on beauty and femininity than athletic skills. Female athletes also face pressure to conform to expectations of femininity and are stereotyped based on gender and race. While opportunities for women in sports have increased due to laws like Title IX, unequal and sexualized media coverage of women's sports remains an ongoing issue.
Conor Geraghty's paper discusses sexual objectification of women in social and media contexts. It explores how objectification reduces women to their physical appearance and body parts for the sole purpose of male pleasure and satisfaction. Early arguments from philosophers like Kant viewed those who are objects of sexual desire as mere means to an end. Studies also show that focusing on women's physicality can decrease perceptions of their competence and agency. Music videos frequently portray women in sexually submissive roles and outfits that emphasize their sexuality, while portraying men as dominant. Exposure to such objectifying media influences casual attitudes about gender and sex, especially amongst adolescents.
This dissertation defense summarizes a qualitative study exploring the experiences of gay and lesbian college student-athletes. The purpose and research question are provided. An extensive literature review covers frameworks and prior research on gender and sexual identity development as well as methodologies used. The study utilized narrative analysis and interviews with 10 participants from NAIA and NCAA schools. Key themes that emerged from the data included self-stereotyping, living undercover due to family or team policies, parental denial, views on homophobia in athletics depending on division and gender, varying levels of campus and athletic support, and implications for higher education and athletics. Recommendations are made for future research.
This study examined muscle dysmorphia in male university athletes across different sports. It administered a modified Drive for Muscularity Scale questionnaire to 83 athletes from 6 sports: swimming, distance running, tennis, American football, rugby, and soccer. It was hypothesized that sports requiring more muscle mass like American football and rugby would score highest, while distance running would score lowest. It also predicted that team sports would score higher than individual sports. The results showed that team sports had a higher drive for muscularity and sports requiring more mass scored higher than others, suggesting muscle dysmorphia is present in some male university athletes.
This document summarizes a research paper about the experiences of African American baseball players and how their experiences compare to white players. It discusses how baseball was historically an important part of the African American community but participation has declined. The document outlines the methods used in the research paper, which included interviewing 10 current and former college baseball players about their experiences and motivations. It provides background on theories for the decline in African American baseball participation and discusses challenges African American players may face.
Presentation on social stratifiaction, mobility & sportsVishal Verma
This document discusses social stratification and its relationship to sports participation. It defines social stratification as the arrangement of society into hierarchical social classes, where individuals experience unequal opportunities based on their class. The upper classes typically engage in individual sports, while the working class and poor are more likely to participate in sports requiring little equipment. For example, in a sports organization, owners control team resources while players earn salaries but not control, and sponsors and fans also contribute to the stratified structure. The document also discusses the difference between mobility, referring to the ability to move through a full range of motion without pain, and flexibility, referring to a muscle's ability to lengthen. It notes some common myths about sports providing upward mobility and opportunities.
This document discusses cultural influences on sport, including gender differences, ethnicity, age, and socio-economic groups. It provides examples of how each of these factors can influence participation and access to sport. Barriers for women, ethnic minorities, older adults, and those from lower socio-economic backgrounds are outlined, along with some initiatives to increase inclusion and representation in sport.
Este documento presenta varios diseños tecnológicos creados por estudiantes. Incluye diseños como un creador de ideas, un auto que maneja solo, zapatos masajeadores, una escoba que barre sola, un pingüicornio que fabrica helados, un libro que se lee solo, un celular que se transforma, una radio 2.0, un estuche que encuentra cosas perdidas, un plato con ventilador para enfriar comida, zapatos paraguas y lentes limpiadores. Los estudiantes concluyen que se pued
ICEGOV2009 - Invited Talk - e-Gov and Public Sector Reform: What role for Gov...ICEGOV
The document discusses the role of government in e-government and public sector reform. It argues that while e-government initially aimed to improve efficiency, the focus shifted too much to services and away from the original goals of reform. The document outlines three layers of e-government - infrastructure, middleware and services - and asserts that government's role is primarily regulatory in nature to ensure accessibility, interoperability and security. However, for government to remain relevant and legitimate, it must go beyond e-government and empower citizens to collaboratively solve problems using technology.
1) Traditionally, sports have been viewed as a hyper-masculine environment that reinforces traditional gender roles and heterosexuality. However, lesbian and gay athletes now participate openly in sports.
2) Lesbian athletes generally face more acceptance than gay athletes due to cultural perceptions of masculinity. However, both groups face stigma, discrimination, and lack role models in professional sports.
3) Psychological interventions for lesbian and gay athletes include addressing prejudice, promoting community, assisting with identity development, and empowering athletes to challenge heteronormative culture. Consideration of cultural identities is also important.
This document analyzes research on the commonality of domestic abuse among athletes. It discusses how aggression is both necessary but also reinforced in many contact sports. This cultivated aggression can then potentially lead to issues off the field if the drive to enact violence is not adequately released. The document specifically examines statistics showing high rates of domestic abuse arrests for NFL players compared to other major sports leagues in the US. It explores psychological factors like frustration-aggression theory that could help explain why some athletes may be more likely to commit domestic abuse.
Sportsmanship involves competing at the highest level while respecting rules and opponents. Owners and coaches must display good conduct, though Tom Coughlin leads gracefully and Mike Tomlin was fined for interfering. Athletes' actions off-field also matter, as Victor Cruz helps communities while Ray Rice was infamous for domestic violence. Fans should cheer positively and avoid throwing objects or fighting. Improving youth education on values can enhance sportsmanship's future.
Quinn Heydt: Steroids And Issues Of Inequality And Moralitymerlyna
The document discusses how steroid use in professional sports creates inequality and raises issues of morality. It provides examples from articles of athletes who feel they have to use steroids to compete or perform given the pressure to succeed. Long-term health effects from steroid use can also create inequality when athletes are no longer able to compete professionally due to deteriorating health. Unless steroid use is better regulated, inequality between users and non-users and questions of ethics will persist in professional sports.
Our major goal is to help you achieve your academic goals. We are commited to helping you get top grades in your academic papers.We desire to help you come up with great essays that meet your lecturer's expectations.Contact us now at http://www.premiumessays.net/
This document discusses whether Olympians should face harsher penalties for anabolic steroid use than other professional athletes given their role as national heroes and representatives. It notes that many professional athletes regularly break laws with little consequence, undermining their role as role models, while the Olympics unite nations and cultures in a unique way. As such, the author argues that Olympians who use steroids should face lifetime bans to preserve the integrity of the games and deter cheating, whereas other sports could consider regulating steroid use instead of an outright ban.
Condensed presentation in slides about my thesis on Marketing to Female Sports Fans which I wrote for my USC Masters in Communication Management on marketing to female sports fans through the lens of ethnography and marketing surveys. Uses the 2014 FIFA World Cup as the case study, including observed comparisons of female sports fans in the United States and Brazil. Explores who female sports fans are, the commercial opportunities behind them from a marketing perspective, and how.
Thesis: Marketing to Female Sports Fans Bessie Chu
Thesis I wrote for my USC Masters in Communication Management on marketing to female sports fans through the lens of ethnography and marketing surveys. Uses the 2014 FIFA World Cup as the case study, including observed comparisons of female sports fans in the United States and Brazil. Explores who female sports fans are, the commercial opportunities behind them from a marketing perspective, and how.
In this keynote delivered at the National Council of Teachers of English, Katherin Garland represents Katie Dredger, Crystal Beach, and Cathy Leogrande in exploring how media represent those who are marginalized in sports and sports media. A transcript follows.
This document provides a literature review on the history and representations of female athletes in sports media. It discusses how women have historically faced barriers to participating in sports due to gender stereotypes. While participation has increased over time, media often focuses on female athletes' looks rather than their athletic skills. The document also reviews the impact of Title IX in increasing opportunities for women in sports. However, representations of female athletes in media still tend to sexualize them and emphasize their gender over their athleticism.
Women face significant barriers and discrimination in sports. They receive far less media coverage and lower pay than male athletes in comparable sports. Sexism and sexual harassment are also prevalent issues, with women athletes and reporters facing inappropriate comments and unwanted advances. However, some progress is being made as advocates push for greater gender equality and representation in the traditionally male-dominated world of professional sports.
This document discusses the portrayal and treatment of female athletes. It argues that women are often sexualized and objectified in sports media coverage, which focuses more on beauty and femininity than athletic skills. Female athletes also face pressure to conform to expectations of femininity and are stereotyped based on gender and race. While opportunities for women in sports have increased due to laws like Title IX, unequal and sexualized media coverage of women's sports remains an ongoing issue.
Conor Geraghty's paper discusses sexual objectification of women in social and media contexts. It explores how objectification reduces women to their physical appearance and body parts for the sole purpose of male pleasure and satisfaction. Early arguments from philosophers like Kant viewed those who are objects of sexual desire as mere means to an end. Studies also show that focusing on women's physicality can decrease perceptions of their competence and agency. Music videos frequently portray women in sexually submissive roles and outfits that emphasize their sexuality, while portraying men as dominant. Exposure to such objectifying media influences casual attitudes about gender and sex, especially amongst adolescents.
This dissertation defense summarizes a qualitative study exploring the experiences of gay and lesbian college student-athletes. The purpose and research question are provided. An extensive literature review covers frameworks and prior research on gender and sexual identity development as well as methodologies used. The study utilized narrative analysis and interviews with 10 participants from NAIA and NCAA schools. Key themes that emerged from the data included self-stereotyping, living undercover due to family or team policies, parental denial, views on homophobia in athletics depending on division and gender, varying levels of campus and athletic support, and implications for higher education and athletics. Recommendations are made for future research.
This study examined muscle dysmorphia in male university athletes across different sports. It administered a modified Drive for Muscularity Scale questionnaire to 83 athletes from 6 sports: swimming, distance running, tennis, American football, rugby, and soccer. It was hypothesized that sports requiring more muscle mass like American football and rugby would score highest, while distance running would score lowest. It also predicted that team sports would score higher than individual sports. The results showed that team sports had a higher drive for muscularity and sports requiring more mass scored higher than others, suggesting muscle dysmorphia is present in some male university athletes.
This document summarizes a research paper about the experiences of African American baseball players and how their experiences compare to white players. It discusses how baseball was historically an important part of the African American community but participation has declined. The document outlines the methods used in the research paper, which included interviewing 10 current and former college baseball players about their experiences and motivations. It provides background on theories for the decline in African American baseball participation and discusses challenges African American players may face.
Presentation on social stratifiaction, mobility & sportsVishal Verma
This document discusses social stratification and its relationship to sports participation. It defines social stratification as the arrangement of society into hierarchical social classes, where individuals experience unequal opportunities based on their class. The upper classes typically engage in individual sports, while the working class and poor are more likely to participate in sports requiring little equipment. For example, in a sports organization, owners control team resources while players earn salaries but not control, and sponsors and fans also contribute to the stratified structure. The document also discusses the difference between mobility, referring to the ability to move through a full range of motion without pain, and flexibility, referring to a muscle's ability to lengthen. It notes some common myths about sports providing upward mobility and opportunities.
This document discusses cultural influences on sport, including gender differences, ethnicity, age, and socio-economic groups. It provides examples of how each of these factors can influence participation and access to sport. Barriers for women, ethnic minorities, older adults, and those from lower socio-economic backgrounds are outlined, along with some initiatives to increase inclusion and representation in sport.
Este documento presenta varios diseños tecnológicos creados por estudiantes. Incluye diseños como un creador de ideas, un auto que maneja solo, zapatos masajeadores, una escoba que barre sola, un pingüicornio que fabrica helados, un libro que se lee solo, un celular que se transforma, una radio 2.0, un estuche que encuentra cosas perdidas, un plato con ventilador para enfriar comida, zapatos paraguas y lentes limpiadores. Los estudiantes concluyen que se pued
ICEGOV2009 - Invited Talk - e-Gov and Public Sector Reform: What role for Gov...ICEGOV
The document discusses the role of government in e-government and public sector reform. It argues that while e-government initially aimed to improve efficiency, the focus shifted too much to services and away from the original goals of reform. The document outlines three layers of e-government - infrastructure, middleware and services - and asserts that government's role is primarily regulatory in nature to ensure accessibility, interoperability and security. However, for government to remain relevant and legitimate, it must go beyond e-government and empower citizens to collaboratively solve problems using technology.
Gemma L. Espiritu Santo - De Guzman has over 20 years of experience in healthcare management. She is currently the Manager of the Medical Referral Office at NetCare Life and Health Insurance, where she oversees medical referral functions and activities. Previously, she held manager and supervisor roles at various healthcare companies where she was responsible for claims processing, utilization review, and customer service. She has a Bachelor's degree in Nursing from Far Eastern University and is a certified medical billing specialist.
This document is Appendix 3 of the Nisqually River Water Trail Concept Plan and Recommendations. It outlines potential funding sources for the water trail. The full draft document is available on the NRC website (www.nisquallyriver.org).
2) What Was The Soul Construct And Why Didmaitemzm
The Soul Construct was a system designed to keep souls in a continuous loop of reincarnation and striving for enlightenment or salvation. It involved implanting souls with a pre-programmed fear of God and belief that transcendence could only be achieved through following religious doctrines. However, any progress made could be undone, as one's memory or consciousness could be altered upon reaching the afterlife. This ensured souls remained enslaved to the system. The Soul Construct no longer exists, as beings in other dimensions have overcome separation and programming to stand as their true, equal selves.
A SWOT analysis of Ferrero Rocher identifies its strengths as offering a quality, luxury product with high brand awareness due to the popular Ferrero brand. It has captured a huge market share in boxed chocolates. However, its weaknesses include being highly priced and not widely advertised. Opportunities exist in introducing new flavors to gain market share and increasing awareness of chocolate's health benefits. Threats come from potential imitation, economic downturns, high competition, and replacing trends like nutri-bars.
Welcome to SAMRIOGLU (www.samrioglu.com)
HAZELNUTS, DRIED FRUITS & CHESTNUTS EXPORT TO THE WHOLE WORLD
Company founded by Sadettin SAMRIOGLU in 1940, is one of old manufacturer and trader companies that specializes in the Hazelnuts. SAMRIOGLU Family has been manufacturing and exporting Akcakoca quality Natural Hazelnuts for three generation.
SAMRIOGLU Co is very active in foreign trade, supply customers all around the world also with Organic Hazelnuts, Dried Fruits and Chestnuts. Those are the other products we are very specialized in. Our innovative approach to business, working with serious manufacturer business partners in their field and presenting unbeatable advantages to Global Buyers has enabled SAMRIOGLU to become highly respected supplier name in Hazelnuts and Dried Fruits sector. We are quality-oriented company, apply the rules of HACCP and ISO 9001:2000 for the best quality products in accordance with the International Food Standards. Not only guaranteed top product quality, we offer you also multi-level reliability, friendly business relations, accurate service and timely delivery.
Key Export Products:
Natural Hazelnuts
Organic Hazelnuts
Roasted & Blanched Hazelnuts
Sultanas
Dried Apricots
Dried Figs
Fresh Chestnuts
Frozen Peeled Chestnuts
Sweet Apricot Kernels
Pine Nuts
Chickpeas
Poppy Seeds
Other Nuts (Industrial, Conventional and Organic)
How race and ethnicity are defined. Race refers to a persons phys.docxadampcarr67227
How race and ethnicity are defined. Race refers to a person's physical appearance, such as skin color, eye color or even hair color. Ethnicity, on the other hand, relates to cultural factors such as nationality, culture, ancestry, language and beliefs.
How sport is both a positive and negative force for promoting racial and ethnic equality in society.Sports can help promote ethnic and racial equality in the society. This is because during these activities, people from different ethnic groups and races get to participate. In doing so, people get to see that they have the same potentials despite their differences. However, sports can also be negative forces for promotion of ethnic and racial equality. Emotions clearly run high in fast-paced competitive sport, such as football, but there needs to be an acknowledgement that using a person’s race, ethnicity or culture as a form of abuse is wrong. Racist behavior does not happen in isolation; it is a result of prejudices and/or lack of awareness
.Discuss the history of women's participation in sport before the 1850's. What were the barriers?In the 1800’s, participation of women in sports was discouraged or banned. In the cities, their passive involvement was always encouraged through attendance at horse races, regattas, cricket matches and other spectator sports. Women back then were seen as an inferior group. Sexism back then took control of all activities and this was all about the unfair treatment of women.
How Title IX affected women's sport participation. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, requires equal access for women in all facets of education, most notably athletics. It prohibits discrimination against girls and women in federally-funded education.
How increased sport participation by females has affected contemporary society.Participation of women in sports has brought about issues like gender equality. Whatever facilities women get should be as good as those men are using. This is unlike the past society where there was no such thing as equality, women were the minority group while men the dominant one. How does social class affect access or present barriers to participation in sport? Most sociologists define social class as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. Social class plays a vital role in sports. It dictates who can participate in what sports and to what level of participation. The limiting factor associated with social class is money. Money is the means which to obtain the equipment and facilities necessary to partake in the sport, without money, one cannot perform organized sports.
Identify the different social classes in the U.S. and typical characteristics of each class. Discuss the opportunities for social mobility through sport.
In the United States, there are three main levels of classes that include the upper class, middle class and lower class. The upper-upper class includes those aristocratic and “.
This dissertation analyzes two texts written by Robbie Rogers, the first openly gay male athlete to compete in a top North American professional sports league, to explore the intersections of homonationalism critique and issues of sexuality in sport. The dissertation situates itself at the intersection of academic literature on the sexual politics of international sporting events through the lens of homonationalism theory, and scholarship on gender, sexuality, and sport related to gay athletes. It aims to critically engage with and question the theoretical applicability and translatability of homonationalism to the context of sport by paying attention to the nuanced experiences of elite LGBT athletes.
This paper explores how sports have replaced religion as the modern "opiate of the masses" as theorized by Karl Marx. It discusses how Marx viewed religion as providing people with a false sense of well-being and social bonds. As religion has declined, sports now fulfill this role by shaping social norms and structures in ways similar to how religion once did. The paper also examines how sports impact politics and provide people with a distorted sense of national pride. Finally, it shares the author's personal experience of how sports have served as their own "opiate" and outlet to deal with problems.
This document discusses stereotypes, stereotyping, and their effects. It begins by defining stereotyping as making overgeneralized assumptions about people based on their group membership. It then discusses how stereotyping can negatively impact people through "stereotype threats," where people fear confirming negative stereotypes about their group, as well as by creating social divisions and racism. The document argues that while people may not intend harm with stereotypes, they still have serious negative consequences. It provides examples of research showing stereotypes can lower people's test performance by inducing stereotype threats based on their gender or ethnicity. In conclusion, the document asserts that people should stop stereotyping in order to avoid these negative impacts.
13Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sportTAnastaciaShadelb
13
Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sport
Tommy Bush
March 16 2022
Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sport
A. Introduction
Based on the wide research that has informed this topic, it is a critical thing to examine the female experiences of either overt and subtle sexism in sport industry, particularly in athletics and together with the impact of the very experiences on their careers and future lives. While looking at the various instances and literature regarding their male counterparts working in professional sports league, some of the critical findings point to the fact that the culture of sports organization is significantly one of the factors which perpetuates sexism (Schrödter et al., 2021). According to the recent survey, it has been reported that almost 78 percent of the female athletes are self-conscious with regards to their body image, and it is supposedly one of the factors that can be based upon considering the sexist trolling they endure both in the organizations and on social media. For instance, upon being known as the first British swimmer to win two Olympic godl medals from 1908 at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Rebecca Adlington ought to have arrived home to a hero’s welcome (Schrödter et al., 2021). While testifying to her stylist, she recounted on how the people she thought as her fans ended up focusing only on trolling her and proclaiming heneous sexists sentiments regarding her body. It was no longer her performance in in the pool, or her swimming abilities, it was all about her body, the figure she had to have a model to be a perfectly accepted swimmer. Many people even commented personifying her to whale or dolphin just becauses they are first swimmers, even the renown comedian took it to mainstream on Mock The Week, saying that she “looks like someone who’s looking at themselves in the back of a spoon.” In fact, this joke by Frankie Boyle increased the trolling this lady had to endure for a long time. It is upon such instances that this paper chose to focus on sexism as it is experienced by female athletes in sports all over the world and see on ways of how to manage it. It is therefore, critical to teach about the current female athletes who made history on and off the court or fields through intense lessons involving both gender even in classrooms.
B. Paper purpose
The purpose is fundamentally to teach the young female athletes about their legendary predecessors who made history on and off the court and field. It is a fact that in sports and all its entire diversity, women are still the minority. Elite sport is progressively setting men far apart from women. For instance, the men’s decathlon is a game that is always being contested in the Olympics since in the early 1912. Despite that there is some place at championships for women’s events, men are taking part in almost five sets at Tennis Grand Slams, but women can only compete over three sets.
There are also equally ...
13Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sportTChantellPantoja184
13
Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sport
Tommy Bush
March 16 2022
Managing sexism experienced by female athletes in sport
A. Introduction
Based on the wide research that has informed this topic, it is a critical thing to examine the female experiences of either overt and subtle sexism in sport industry, particularly in athletics and together with the impact of the very experiences on their careers and future lives. While looking at the various instances and literature regarding their male counterparts working in professional sports league, some of the critical findings point to the fact that the culture of sports organization is significantly one of the factors which perpetuates sexism (Schrödter et al., 2021). According to the recent survey, it has been reported that almost 78 percent of the female athletes are self-conscious with regards to their body image, and it is supposedly one of the factors that can be based upon considering the sexist trolling they endure both in the organizations and on social media. For instance, upon being known as the first British swimmer to win two Olympic godl medals from 1908 at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Rebecca Adlington ought to have arrived home to a hero’s welcome (Schrödter et al., 2021). While testifying to her stylist, she recounted on how the people she thought as her fans ended up focusing only on trolling her and proclaiming heneous sexists sentiments regarding her body. It was no longer her performance in in the pool, or her swimming abilities, it was all about her body, the figure she had to have a model to be a perfectly accepted swimmer. Many people even commented personifying her to whale or dolphin just becauses they are first swimmers, even the renown comedian took it to mainstream on Mock The Week, saying that she “looks like someone who’s looking at themselves in the back of a spoon.” In fact, this joke by Frankie Boyle increased the trolling this lady had to endure for a long time. It is upon such instances that this paper chose to focus on sexism as it is experienced by female athletes in sports all over the world and see on ways of how to manage it. It is therefore, critical to teach about the current female athletes who made history on and off the court or fields through intense lessons involving both gender even in classrooms.
B. Paper purpose
The purpose is fundamentally to teach the young female athletes about their legendary predecessors who made history on and off the court and field. It is a fact that in sports and all its entire diversity, women are still the minority. Elite sport is progressively setting men far apart from women. For instance, the men’s decathlon is a game that is always being contested in the Olympics since in the early 1912. Despite that there is some place at championships for women’s events, men are taking part in almost five sets at Tennis Grand Slams, but women can only compete over three sets.
There are also equally ...
Cultural anthropologists study sports as they are an aspect of culture that is ubiquitous yet varies across cultures. Sports are defined and organized differently in different societies. Anthropological study of sports can provide insight into gender roles as sports have traditionally reinforced masculine ideals and excluded women. While women's participation in sports has increased, gender inequalities persist with women facing social and institutional barriers in many sports. Examining gender in sports through an anthropological lens can help challenge discriminatory gender relations.
This document is a thesis that examines the effects of different dance styles and dancer identity on body image. It provides background on dance as an art form and sport, and discusses concepts like aesthetics, body image, and body image issues in society and sport. The thesis aims to examine how different dance styles impact dancers' body images and whether identifying more strongly as a dancer affects body image. It describes the methodology used, which was a questionnaire given to 171 female and 7 male dancers aged 18 and over across different dance styles in the UK. The results found that skill-based dance styles had higher body appreciation scores while gestural styles had lower scores. Dance style was the only significant difference found, while dancer identity showed no relationship to body
Athletic Injury and Culture - Leppke - FINALMitch Leppke
This document is a thesis submitted by Mitchell Leppke to Quincy University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master's degree in Communication. The thesis examines the culture among athletes to play through pain and injury and how this decision is influenced by teammates, coaches, families, and the understanding of specific injuries like concussions. It provides background on athletic culture and the variables that shape an athlete's willingness to play hurt. It also gives details on concussion symptoms and risks to help understand what athletes are willing to endure. Through surveys and interviews, the thesis aims to determine why athletes are willing to sacrifice long-term health and if they feel most influenced by themselves or others regarding injury decisions.
6170 Ethics and Diversity - Wainwright.assignment_M1David Wainwright
This document discusses the concepts of gamesmanship and sportsmanship in sports. It provides examples of gamesmanship, such as feigning injury to waste time or deceiving referees. However, it notes gamesmanship should not compromise athlete safety or clearly break rules. The document also discusses definitions of sportsmanship involving ethics, fairness and treating others as you wish to be treated. It provides an example of great sportsmanship in helping an injured opponent. The author reflects on learning about their own coaching practices and perceptions through the ethics course.
This document presents a study on perceptions of masculine and feminine sports. It provides definitions of masculinity and femininity in sports, examples of each, and discusses related research showing stereotypes. A survey was conducted that found more women play masculine sports than men play feminine sports. While culture influences perceptions, stereotypes still exist with masculine sports seen as more physical and aggressive and feminine sports as less harmful. The hypothesis that it is less frowned upon for women to play masculine sports than men to play feminine sports was accepted.
--0 THE DUALITY OF SPORT ffo11w11 beings seek ekstasSilvaGraf83
--
0
THE DUALITY OF SPORT
ffo11w11 beings seek ekstasis, a "stepping 011t~ide" of th eir 1w111wl,
111111ulr111e experience. If they 110 lunger find ecstasy in a synagogue,
clwrc/1, or 111osq11e, they look for it i11 dm1cc , lllll5ic, sport, sex, or
drugs.
- Karen Armstrong, historian of religions
Spol1 is a u;i11do11; 011 a clw11gi11g soqety.
- Dmicl Halber~tam , author
For sol/le people, baseball i\· like a religion . It has all the ele111e11ts:
a creation story, falls from grace, redemption, prophets, heretic5,
icons, lituals, te111JJ!es, u:ors/1ip, sacrifice, miracles, sar,iors a11d si11-
11ers-lots of si111wrn.
- John Longhurst, Wi1111ipeg ( Manitoba ) Free Press
Soccer is like a 90-111ir111te anxiety dream--<Jnc of those fnistrating
dreams u:hen you 're trying to get somewhere but something is a/u;ays
in the iuay. This is yet another icay soccer is like life.
- Simon Critchle>·, English professor of philosophy
CHAPTER I
l
Sports are not just physical contests, yott know,_tl~ ey are also sociol
ogy. They are a reflection of the people and soczetzes that play th em.
-Mike Seccombe, Australian journalist
The thrill ofcicton; and the agony of defeat-the human drama of
athletic competition .
-Jim McKay for ABC's Wide \Vorld of Sport
The subject of this volume is sport in US society. To guide this inquiry,
I ham organized the book around two themes: that sport has positive
and negative consequences, that is, sport is both fair and foul; and
that sport is a microcosm of society. Each of these themes brings into
sharper focus the paradox that, on the one hand, we love sport and are
fascinated by its magical qualities, yet sport has troublesome qualities
as well. This leads to confusion, as sportswriter Gary Smith has written:
All this confusion does it signal a society lost in the wilderness . . . or one
finally mature enough to look at questions it has always shut its eyes to?
m~ mine.I gnaws at the bone, at every last bit gristle. Beneath it all , he
can !> ense \\'hat's going on , the vague feeling that people are beginning
to ham that their love of sports-the sense of escape and belonging that
the:' prmide- is doubling back on them like some hidden undertow,
pulling the m out to sea. 1
THEME I: SPORT IS FAIR; SPORT IS FOUL
Sociologist Jay Coakley observes that Americans believe in what he calls
the "Great American Sports Myth," which is "the widespread belief that
all sp01ts are essentially pure and good, and that their purity and good
ness are transferred to those who participate."2 This is the message given
at a typical high school sports banquet honoring the school's athletes .
The guest speaker, with examples, humor, and sincerity, extols the many
\i1tues of sports participation. The implications of the "Great American
Sports M)th " are, foremost, that sports participation builds ch_aracter.
Second, if there are problems, they are because of a few "bad apples,"
3 TH ...
--
0
THE DUALITY OF SPORT
ffo11w11 beings seek ekstasis, a "stepping 011t~ide" of th eir 1w111wl,
111111ulr111e experience. If they 110 lunger find ecstasy in a synagogue,
clwrc/1, or 111osq11e, they look for it i11 dm1cc , lllll5ic, sport, sex, or
drugs.
- Karen Armstrong, historian of religions
Spol1 is a u;i11do11; 011 a clw11gi11g soqety.
- Dmicl Halber~tam , author
For sol/le people, baseball i\· like a religion . It has all the ele111e11ts:
a creation story, falls from grace, redemption, prophets, heretic5,
icons, lituals, te111JJ!es, u:ors/1ip, sacrifice, miracles, sar,iors a11d si11-
11ers-lots of si111wrn.
- John Longhurst, Wi1111ipeg ( Manitoba ) Free Press
Soccer is like a 90-111ir111te anxiety dream--<Jnc of those fnistrating
dreams u:hen you 're trying to get somewhere but something is a/u;ays
in the iuay. This is yet another icay soccer is like life.
- Simon Critchle>·, English professor of philosophy
CHAPTER I
l
Sports are not just physical contests, yott know,_tl~ ey are also sociol
ogy. They are a reflection of the people and soczetzes that play th em.
-Mike Seccombe, Australian journalist
The thrill ofcicton; and the agony of defeat-the human drama of
athletic competition .
-Jim McKay for ABC's Wide \Vorld of Sport
The subject of this volume is sport in US society. To guide this inquiry,
I ham organized the book around two themes: that sport has positive
and negative consequences, that is, sport is both fair and foul; and
that sport is a microcosm of society. Each of these themes brings into
sharper focus the paradox that, on the one hand, we love sport and are
fascinated by its magical qualities, yet sport has troublesome qualities
as well. This leads to confusion, as sportswriter Gary Smith has written:
All this confusion does it signal a society lost in the wilderness . . . or one
finally mature enough to look at questions it has always shut its eyes to?
m~ mine.I gnaws at the bone, at every last bit gristle. Beneath it all , he
can !> ense \\'hat's going on , the vague feeling that people are beginning
to ham that their love of sports-the sense of escape and belonging that
the:' prmide- is doubling back on them like some hidden undertow,
pulling the m out to sea. 1
THEME I: SPORT IS FAIR; SPORT IS FOUL
Sociologist Jay Coakley observes that Americans believe in what he calls
the "Great American Sports Myth," which is "the widespread belief that
all sp01ts are essentially pure and good, and that their purity and good
ness are transferred to those who participate."2 This is the message given
at a typical high school sports banquet honoring the school's athletes .
The guest speaker, with examples, humor, and sincerity, extols the many
\i1tues of sports participation. The implications of the "Great American
Sports M)th " are, foremost, that sports participation builds ch_aracter.
Second, if there are problems, they are because of a few "bad apples,"
3 TH ...
Constructing theDigitalized SportingBody Black and White.docxdonnajames55
Constructing the
Digitalized Sporting
Body: Black and White
Masculinity in NBA/
NHL Internet Memes
Nikolas Dickerson1
Abstract
In this article, I examine the ways sport fans construct and circulate discourses of
race and masculinity in cyberspace. I do this through an examination of a set of
Internet memes that juxtapose the bodies of National Hockey League players with
National Basketball Association players in one single image. I argue these memes
celebrate White masculinity, while at the same time constructing African American
athletes as individualistic, selfish, and unwilling to sacrifice their bodies for the
greater good of the team. More so, I argue that these memes construct a form of
racial ideology that is representative of White backlash politics.
Keywords
race, Internet memes, masculinity, communication, hockey
On March 10, 2014, Dallas Stars forward Rich Peverley collapsed on the bench
during a game from a heart complication. In the aftermath, both the Dallas Stars and
Columbus Blue Jackets agreed to postpone the hockey game based on the emotional
stress of watching a player collapse on the bench. In the following days, reports cir-
culated that Peverley asked to reenter the game after he regained consciousness (see
Arthur, 2014; O’Brien, 2014). This purported act led to a series of memes that pitted
1 University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Nikolas Dickerson, University of Iowa, 114 Wright St. Apt 1, Iowa City, IA 52240, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Communication & Sport
1-28
ª The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/2167479515584045
com.sagepub.com
at TEMPLE UNIV on June 30, 2015com.sagepub.comDownloaded from
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
http://com.sagepub.com
http://com.sagepub.com/
the toughness of Richard Peverley against other professional athletes most notably,
Lebron James (see Figures 1 and 2).
Two days after Peverley collapsed, Barry Petchesky, a writer for the website
Deadspin, wrote an article responding to these memes. Petchesky (2014) uses these
memes and others like them to make the argument that the marginalization of
hockey among the major sports in the United States has perpetuated a sense of inse-
curity within hockey fans. Petchesky argues these images are meant to address the
insecurity of hockey fans by attempting to legitimize their sport as superior to bas-
ketball, football, and baseball via notions of hypermasculinity.
While I agree with Petchesky’s (2014) reading, I want to take this argument fur-
ther and discuss the ways these images construct more specific forms of White mas-
culinity and Black masculinity in 2014. In this article, I interrogate the previously
mentioned Peverley Internet memes and a series of memes that Photoshop a player
from the National Hockey League (NHL) and the National Basketball Association
(NBA) into one image. I argue these memes celebrate White masc.
Constructing theDigitalized SportingBody Black and White.docx
Men in Contemporary Society essay
1. 2. Critically discuss the relevance and validity of Eric Anderson’s theory of
inclusive masculinity in relation to contemporary sports.
It is widely regarded that contemporary sports often solidify the concept of hegemonic
masculinity, portraying sporting athletes as the ideal male form. Eric Anderson argues
however that decreasing levels of homohysteria have reduced the need for men to
cement a hypermasculine image. He believes that it has now become customary for
men to partake in predominantly feminine activities without having to worry about
suspicions of homosexuality. This essay explores the basis of this ideology and
examines whether an ethos of inclusive masculinity is evident within contemporary
sport. The main argument in this essay is that elements of inclusive masculinity are
more likely to be found in sports where the wider sporting culture and mentality of
players and fans are more acceptable of diversity. In its opening section this essay will
be focusing on Anderson’s theory of inclusive masculinity along with analysing the
intimacy and emotional issues that often make it difficult for men to be tolerable of
homosexuality. The essay then goes on to explore specific sports that have
demonstrated elements of inclusive masculinity before contrasting this approach in
review of certain sports where levels of disgust and antagonism towards
homosexuality is palpable.
Kimmel (2003: 57) outlines hegemonic masculinity as the definitions of
manhood we have developed in our culture that ‘maintain the power that some men
have over other men and that men have over women.’ In living a hegemonic lifestyle
men continually seek to assert their patriarchal dominance over the envisaged
marginalised groups. One of the ways in which they sustain this masculine image
involves distancing themselves from individuals that demonstrate homosexual and
feminine tendencies. Anderson’s theory of inclusive masculinity predominantly
opposes this concept of hegemony. Having identified the importance of homophobia
in regulating gender norms and mentalities ‘inclusive masculinity is thought to be
predicated in the social inclusion of those traditionally marginalized by hegemonic
masculinity.’ (Anderson, 2007: 606) In his study of ‘Inclusive Masculinity in a
Fraternal Setting’ Anderson outlines how an institutionalised culture of inclusivity
among college fraternities allows members to deviate from conventional masculinities
and be relatively indifferent to other peoples perceptions about their sexuality. It is the
1
2. embedded organisational culture of these college fraternities that facilitates their
members to portray inclusive characteristics. Herein lays the main difficulty in
establishing an inclusive mentality in contemporary sports. It is within the sporting
arena that the hegemonic masculine form is continually replicated and where male
sports stars are symbolic of quintessential masculinity. In contrast to the fraternal
setting mentioned previously, sporting culture has largely ostracized homosexuality
where the ‘extent of homophobia in the sports world is staggering.’ (Messner, 1992:
34) In recognising the economic power held by sports-media institutions we can
understand how in many ways sports are an expression of a given cultural mentality.
With this in mind we can see a psychological consistency concerning gender within
sporting cultures. Sport is often identified as a material possession held by men to
assert a dominant hypermasculine image. Sporting cultures in this sense are extremely
influential in constructing masculine ideals for men. Sexuality has been translated
among primarily male dominated groups in the culture of sport as well as in the
sporting practices themselves where a hypermasculine mindset has unanimously
emerged across a large selection of sports. The male athletic body has become
adopted to portray a definitively sexualised identity. Men actively encounter problems
of intimacy and trust in trying to live up to this gallant masculine identity. In many
ways, to be a man one must render themselves unemotional and detached from
sentiments associated with femininity. Often, displays of intimacy and acquaintance
are intrinsically avoided because of this. In an inclusive environment, just like the
fraternal setting mapped out by Anderson, male members share intimate problems of
sexuality and are shown ‘to bond over the expression of intimacy, something
traditionally attributed to the manor in which women bond.’ (Anderson, 2007: 615) In
the context of the sporting world it is rather difficult to envisage such feminine
tendencies being expressed by optimal male athletes. In many ways, men are rather
apprehensive as well as anxious about the unpredictable nature of intimate
interactions. Whitehead (2002: 174) describes how ‘In seeking to control the
uncertainty that might be generated by emotional intimacy, many men – consciously
or otherwise – reach for conventional practices and behaviours of stereotypical
masculinity.’ In doing so their relationships often become much more submissive
rather than developing affection with other men to the extent that they are able to
confide sexual complexities.
2
3. The case is often made that team sports are more inclined to portray a
powerful hegemonic image of male athletes whereas subordinated masculinity is more
common among individual sport. We can certainly see how this is true in an
international context where sports teams are often portrayed as an army of soldiers in
battle, fighting for their country against rival nations. In many ways the camaraderie
experienced among sports men and their team mates in an ultra competitive and
masculine environment provides an adequate level of intimacy for men, that as human
beings we crave. The sporting world is rife with masculinity. In his study of male
college athletes Anderson provides us with an interesting perspective on inclusive and
orthodox masculinity within the exceptionally feminized world of cheerleading. Using
in-depth interviews with male cheerleaders Anderson notes how these men essentially
became cheerleaders as a last resort having failed to make their university football
team. Whilst generally preferring to be playing football they believed that it was
better to be part of the cheerleading squad as opposed to being absent from the game
altogether. The manner in which they accentuate their masculinity by emphasising the
physicality involved in cheerleading suggests that the degree of femininity associated
with the sport concerns them. However the masculine mindset of competitiveness
involved in playing football is not inconspicuous with cheerleading. Within the
orthodox world of cheerleading we can see how females are seen as inferior to their
male team mates. As well as that homosexuality is undermined as gay men are
instructed to live up to a hegemonic masculine identity. Even within the
predominantly feminised world of cheerleading it is quite remarkable to see such
marginalisation of effeminate and homosexual characteristics. One of the most
intriguing aspects of the world of cheerleading is that there is a major split between
two rival cheerleading associations. Along with the orthodox cheerleading association
there is an inclusive cheerleading association, as Anderson has classified, that
advocates profusely opposite perspectives on gender. It is within the inclusive
cheerleading squads that you’ll find both heterosexual and homosexual members.
These cheerleaders express openness towards femininity and are relatively
unconcerned about enticing homosexual suspicion. Anderson reveals how inclusive
male cheerleaders portrayed a willingness and were ‘often eager, to participate in
role-reversal activities otherwise stigmatized by men in the orthodox group.’
(Anderson, 2005) Anderson’s theory of inclusive masculinity does find moderate
relevance among the contemporary sport of cheerleading in so far as an
3
4. institutionalised culture of inclusivity is embedded among teams within the inclusive
association. However at the opposite side of the spectrum we find an orthodox
cheerleading association where overtly homophobic and masculine characteristics
have been instilled among members to the extent that they ban ‘any collegiate team
that participates in an Inclusive Cheerleading Association event.’ (Anderson, 2005)
Although many consider cheerleading to be a sport that is largely contested by female
athletes we can see how a masculine ethos of competitiveness along with the
subordination of femininity has been instilled with the establishment of the orthodox
cheerleading association. Moreover Anderson points out how ‘not all teams that
belonged to the Inclusive Cheerleading Association reflected an inclusive form of
masculinity’ (Anderson, 2005: 350) by including orthodox exercises in their routines.
Perhaps, the very nature of the sport that commends a uniqueness and diversity in
cheerleading performances is the fundamental reason why there has been a push for
inclusivity to be institutionalised. The sport of cheerleading is a rather unusual one.
What we have are two contrasting associations each of which has psychologically
ingrained a contradictory perspective of gender among members.
In marked contrast to contemporary sports such as cheerleading, the world of
soccer expresses relatively little appreciation for diversification with little or no
presence of inclusive masculinity. As one of the most popular sports in the world, the
cultural attitudes of football fans is particularly significant in so far as they help us to
further understand the typical attitudes of sports fans in general. Football has
predominantly been identified as a working class game after having its roots firmly
ingrained within the industrial revolution. This was a time in which subcultural and
rebellious attitudes surfaced at a rate that hadn’t been experienced before. In the UK
this led to the emergence of an infamous lad culture along with the construction of
ostensibly fractious identities such as punks or skinheads. Sentiments of the working
class people and the culture that emerged at the time are reflected within their hobbies
and past times. Burstyn (1999: 195) describes how feelings of poverty as well as
governmental neglect sparked a culture of hostility surrounding British soccer where
‘violence had traditionally been incited by local, regional, class and racial
identifications that echoed England’s history of colonialism.’ Football hooliganism
had been born where rival football fans would clash. The intense violent rioting these
men engaged in helped release them from the despondency within their lives, and
among a squad of fellow rioters they were able to assert a hypermasculine image of
4
5. dominance. Competing on a continental scale incited levels of racism and
sectarianism as gangs of hooligans embodied the social and national identity of which
they were defending. The belligerent mentality embraced by football fans like these
permeates the game as any kind of fallibility is chastised without any respect for the
opposition. Because of the hypermasculine identity exemplified by professional
footballers, feminine characteristics also become victimised. It is for this reason that
there is an absence of an openly homosexual athlete within the higher echelons of
professional football and why Anderson’s theory of inclusive masculinity is rather
irrelevant in soccer.
In certain types of sports varying levels of homophobic and misogynistic
discourse serve as a tool that marginalises gay men and women. These mindsets are
endorsed throughout the given sport from the supporters in the stands to the players
on the pitch. Within the world of soccer we can see how a culture lacking in respect is
maintained by footballers themselves who regularly feign injuries, intimidate the
officials and cheat in order to succeed. It is rare to find such behaviour being carried
out by athletes of more upper class sports. Rugby has essentially always been a sport
that is played by members of the upper to newly-rich classes where an
institutionalised culture of self-respect is shared. Taking a sample of twenty-four
university rugby players Anderson (2010: 257) found that alternative constructions of
inclusive masculinity that are ‘not predicated in opposition to femininity or
homosexuality’ are welcomed within the sport. This was certainly true for
professional Welsh rugby international Gareth Thomas who, towards the end of his
career, announced publicly that he is gay. As a highly established rugby international
that exemplified a hegemonic masculine image the case could be made that Thomas’
coming out was aided by the masculine capital he had attained throughout his career.
However, from within the world of rowing we can see how social perspectives are a
key determining factor in an athlete’s experiences of coming out. Anderson outlines
the example of Ryan who after revealing his sexuality to his fellow rowing team-
mates experienced no negative treatment. As a modest coxswain Ryan’s demeanour
and social capital is distinctively opposite than that of Gareth Thomas. However the
‘liberal attitudes of his coach and school,’ (Anderson, 2002: 866) along with the
social perspectives held by many within the sport of rowing are more concerned about
his sporting capabilities and incorporate an inclusive ethos. In order to understand the
social elements that are in place helping to construct cultural mindsets within sport we
5
6. take a common example of Balinese cockfighting. Combining ‘deep elements of
masculinity and profane animality with a telling dramatization of Balinese status
concerns’ (Gruneau, 1999: 44) the cockfight provides us with a resolute expression of
what it is to be Balinese. The cocks involved in the fighting represent their owners
and with the level of gambling involved in the game we see how competition is
managed through the accumulation of prestige. Merging together the network of
social relationships that govern their life, cockfighting is a reflection of the Balinese
themselves. The rivalrous nature of Balinese culture is emulated within the game of
cockfighting that is used to stratify social status in Balinese society. Despite the
illegality of cockfighting, the principal nature of fans of the game are evident within
the past times they enjoy in much the same manner as rugby and football.
As I have shown throughout this essay, the underlying masculine culture
associated with sport in general acts as a barrier to inclusivity. Combined with
intrinsic problems of intimacy among men we have seen how even within the
feminine sport of cheerleading, homophobia continues to be institutionalised. Taking
the examples of rugby and rowing I have shown Anderson’s theory of Inclusive
Masculinity is more relevant in upper class sports. In sports such as soccer where
homophobia is common it is also likely to find evidence of racism and sexism.
Despite evidence suggesting that ‘cultural homophobia is on rapid decline in Western
countries’ (Anderson, 2012: 151) members of the working class emanate a specific
form of masculinity that largely excludes femininity. For men, this is evident in their
work life and is reflected in the past times they enjoy. Therefore it can be said that the
cultural mentality of the people relevant to the sport is a more important determining
factor. Because of this reason I believe that discussing the relevance of inclusive
masculinity in sport is more a matter for cultural studies as opposed to gender.
References:
Anderson, E. (2007) ‘Inclusive Masculinity in a Fraternal Setting’, Men and
Masculinities, 10 (5), pp. 604-620.
Anderson, E. (2012) ‘Inclusive Masculinity in a Physical Education Setting’, Journal
of Boyhood Studies, 6 (2), pp. 151—166.
6
7. Anderson, E. (2010) ‘Inclusive Masculinity Theory and the Gendered Politics of
Men's Rugby’, Journal of Gender Studies, 19 (3), pp. 249-261.
Anderson, E. (2002) ‘Openly Gay Athletes, Competing Masculinity in a Homophobic
Environment’, Gender and Society, 16 (6), pp. 860-877.
Anderson, E. (2005) ‘Orthodox and Inclusive Masculinity: Competing Masculinities
among Hetersosexual Men in a Feminized Terrain’, Sociological Perspectives, 48 (3),
pp. 337-355.
Burstyn, V. (1999) The Rites of Men: Manhood, Politics, and the Culture of Sport.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Gruneau, R. (1999) Class, Sports, and Social Development. Human Kinetics.
Kimmel, M.S., Hearn, J. & Connell, R.W. (Eds.) (2005) Handbook of studies on men
and masculinities. London: Sage.
Messner, M. (1992) Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity. Boston:
Beacon.
Whitehead, S. (2002) Men and Masculinities. London: Polity.
7