Depression

1. Treatment of
Depression in Children
& Adolescents
Saundra Stock, M.D.
USF Department of Psychiatry & Neurosciences
Program Director, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Residency

2. Learning Objectives
 Be able to recognize various symptoms of a
major depressive episode
 Know the typical course of depression
 Know common interventions for depression
based on symptom severity
 Learn 5 supportive strategies for primary care
providers to implement in the office
 Know the top 4 medications choices used to treat
depression in youth
 Understand the risk of suicide with medication
treatment for depression

3. Depression
 Affect 2.6 million youth ages 6-17 annually
 2.5% children (M:F 1:1)
 8.3% adolescents (M:F 1:2)
 40-80% experience suicidal thoughts
 35% of depressed youth will attempt
suicide
 Affects every facet of life - peers, family,
school and general health

4. How depressive symptoms manifest?
 Mood
– Depressed or irritable mood
– Mood labiality
 Behavior
– Kids may not verbalize sadness but show low
frustration tolerance, social withdrawal or somatic
complaints
–  interests (stop sports activities etc.) c/o boredom
 Vegetative symptoms
– Fatigue or  energy
– Sleep disturbance (often hypersomnia)
– Wt change, appetite change
– PMA or PMR
–  concentration or indecisiveness
 Cognition
– Feelings of worthless/hopeless or inappropriate guilt
– Thoughts of death or suicide

5. Criteria for Major Depressive Episode:
depressed mood or anhedonia + 4 others
 S -
 I -
 G -
 E -
 C -
 A -
 P -
 S -

6. Criteria for Major Depressive Episode:
depressed mood or anhedonia + 4 others
 S - sleep, insomnia or hypersomnia
 I - interests
 G - guilt, feeling worthless or hopeless
 E - energy
 C - concentration
 A - appetite
 P - psychomotor retardation or agitation
 S - suicidal thoughts or recurrent thoughts of
death

7. Symptom variation based on age
 At all ages – depressed mood, “I don’t
care”, bored, concentration, insomnia
&  SI
 Children: > somatic complaints,
separation anxiety, +PMA, phobias, sad
affect, auditory hallucinations
 Teens: > anhedonia, hopelessness,
drug abuse/self destructive behavior or
atypical depression pattern:
sleep,appetite, leaden paralysis (+PMR)
& interpersonal rejection sensitivity

8. When do we see depression?
 Depression more common with  age but
described even in infants
 Bowlby - depression in institutionalized infants
had sleep disturbance, feeding, listless,
withdrawn
– protest, anxiety, despair, detachment
 Is depression in children & adolescents the same
illness as in adults?
– Recent studies show it is continuous with the adult
disease with high relapse rates for those 1st episode in
childhood

9. Gathering History
 Best to interview both parent and youth
 Parents better at reporting behavioral
disturbances & time course of symptoms
 Youth better at reporting on mood/anxiety/sleep
 Youth often have depressed mood or SI that
parent is unaware of
 Youth depression inventory-self admin scales
– Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI)
– CES-DC (public domain)
– BDI-II
– PHQ-9 (GLAD-PC toolkit, public domain; 73%
sensitivity & 98% specificity)

10. Gathering History – youth self report
 PHQ-2 questions scored on 3 point scale
– “0” not at all and “3” nearly every day
 Comparable to PHQ-9
 In the past 2 weeks have you experienced:
– Have you been feeling sad or depressed for
the past 2 weeks?
– Do you have a lack of pleasure in usual
activities in past 2 weeks?
 Score >3 sensitivity 74% and specificity 75%

11. Gathering history
 R/O neglect, abuse physical or sexual
 Recent stressors
 Anxiety symptoms
 Unusual thoughts or psychotic symptoms
prodrome to schizophrenia
 Symptoms of mania now or past
 need for sleep, hypersexuality or grandiosity
 FHx of suicides or bipolar disorder

12. Genetics
 Depression runs in families
 Monozygotic twin 76% concordance, raised
separately 67% concordance
 Children with one depressed parent are 3x
more likely to have MDD than children of
non-depressed parents
 Need to ask about family history of bipolar
disorder

13. Effects of depressed parents
 Depressed children tend to have poor relationships
(family and friends) & often have depressed parents.
 Depression in parents associated with child depression
(mothers fathers).
 Depressed parents may over-report concerns (focus on
negative aspects) or under-report (too depressed to
attend to or observe child accurately)
 Study by Hammen et al - children exposed to substantial
stress, those with mothers with depression did worse than
those with just the stress
 STAR*D study children sx’s improved with Mom’s esp if
Mom remitted within 3 months of tx

14. Differential
Infectious
 Mononucleosis
 Influenza
 TB
 Hepatitis
 Syphilis
 HIV
 Subacute
endocarditis
Neurologic
 Epilepsy
 CVA
 Multiple sclerosis
 Postconcussive
states
 Subarachnoid
hemorrhage
 Huntington’s
disease
 Wilson’s disease

15. Differential (cont’d.)
Endocrine
 Diabetes
 Cushing’s disease
 Addison’s disease
 orthyroid
 parthyroid
  pituitary function
Others
 Lupus
 Porphyria
 sodium
 potassium
 Anemia
 Etoh or drug abuse
 Meds-
steroids,OCP,cimetidine
, BDZ, antiHTN,
aminophylline

16. Co-morbid psychiatric disease
and differential
 40-90% co-morbid conditions – dysthymia,
anxiety disorder, disruptive behavioral
disorders, ADHD or substance abuse
 Prediction of bipolar disorder - early onset,
 PMR, psychotic features, FHx  bipolar,
FHx psychotic depression, drug induced
hypomania

17. Work-up
 History
 Physical exam
 CBC, electrolytes, LFT’s, TSH, UA and
B12, vitamin D
 Consider UDS
 Consider other labs/tests as indicated:
folate, RPR, ESR, HIV, creatinine
clearance, EEG

18. Course of Major Depression
 Median duration of an episode 8 months in
clinically referred youth, community
samples 1-2 months
 70% of pts have a recurrent MDE within 5
years.
 20-40% will develop bipolar disorder

19. Course of Major Depression
 Prediction of relapse
– early age onset
– # previous episodes
– severity
– psychosis
– lack of compliance
 Poor prognosis
 symptom severity
– Chronicity or  #
relapses
– Residual symptoms
– Negative cognitive
style or hopelessness
– Psychiatric comorbidity
– Low SES
– Family problems
– Ongoing negative life
events

20. Sequelae
 Depression untreated affects social, emotional,
cognitive and interpersonal skills
 Any episode 7-9 months is a long time in
adolescent’s life
 High risk for nicotine & substance dependence,
early teen pregnancy, physical illness
 As adults, higher suicide rates, more medical &
psychiatric hospitalization, more impairment in
work, family and social life

21. Treatment
 Psychoeducation
– Parents
– School
 Individual psychotherapy
– Supportive
– Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
– Interpersonal Psychotherapy
 Family therapy
 Medication

22. Treatment Goals
 Response – significant reduction in
symptoms or no symptoms for 2 weeks
 Remission – period of > 2 weeks and < 2
months with few symptoms
 Recovery** – absence of sx’s for > 2
months
**Recovery is the goal

23. Treatment recommendations: initial steps
Positive screening for MDE and subsequent diagnosis
Psychoeducation and treatment planning
Mild depressive to
moderate sx’s:
Active support and
monitoring for 6-8
weeks
Moderate to severe
depressive sx’s:
Begin evidence based
therapy or medication
or both for 6-8 weeks
Severe
depressive sx’s:
Start medication
and referral
AACAP practice parameters 2007 and GLAD-PC 2007

24. Psychoeducation
 All patients should receive
– Information about symptoms and typical
course with discussion (depression is a illness;
not a sign of weakness; no one’s fault etc.)
– Discussion of treatment options
– Placing pt in sick role temporarily may be
helpful and temporary school accommodations
 No controlled trials with just psychoeducation,
however, many pts improve with only education
and supportive care

25. Supportive Treatment
 All patients should receive and may be all that is
required for mild depressive sx’s
– Meeting frequently to monitor progress
– Active listening and reflection
– Restoration of hope
– Problem solving
– Improving coping skills
– Strategies for adherence
 If not improving in 4 weeks, more to a more
specific treatment

26. Treatment Options
If has moderate to severe depression, start with
more specific treatment OR if mild to moderate
depression not improving after 4 weeks of
supportive care (watchful waiting):
 Individual psychotherapy
– Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
– Interpersonal Psychotherapy
 Family therapy
 Medication
Severe depression – start meds and other referrals

27. Medication Treatment Options
 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
 Selective NE Reuptake Inhibitors
 Other antidepressants
 Tricyclic Antidepressants
 Typical duration of medication treatment
– 6 to 12 months after response present.
Relapse high if stop within 4 months of
symptom improvement.

28. Medication-SSRIs
 *Fluoxetine (Prozac) - age 8
 Sertraline (Zoloft)
 Paroxetine (Paxil)
 Citalopram (Celexa)
 *Escitalopram (Lexapro) - age 12
 Fluvoxamine (Luvox)
*FDA approved for the treatment of MDD under age
18

29. Medication - SSRIs
 Early studies - struggled with high placebo response
rates, had to redesign to screen and have a waiting period
to find subjects that did not respond to psychoeducation
and supportive care
 Emslie (1997) – 1st study showing SSRI efficacy
for adol depression (fluoxetine)
– 58% fluoxetine response rate vs 32% placebo
 Emslie (2002) – 2nd study N=219 pts RCT
received 20mg fluoxetine vs placebo for 8 weeks
– 41% remission fluoxetine vs. 20% placebo

30. Medication – SSRIs
Treatment of Adolescents with Depression
(TADS) -JAMA 2004
 439 adolescents with mod to severe depression treated
with meds/CBT/PLC or med+CBT 12 wks
– 71% Fluox+CBT response
– 61% Fluoxetine alone
– 43% CBT
– 35% placebo
 29% had suicidal thoughts at baseline
 By week 12, suicidal thoughts down to 10% of pts

31. Medication - SSRIs
 Emeslie (2009) escitalopram vs. plc 12 weeks
– Response rates 64.3% versus 52.9%,
– Remission rates 41.6% for escitalopram and 35.7% for
placebo
 TORDIA (2008) N=334 pts 12-18 who had not
responded to 12 wks of an SSRI switched to
another SSRI, venlafaxine or added CBT along
with medication change
– Adding CBT gave better response rate (54.8%) as
compared to either medication change alone
– No difference between change to a different SSRI or
venlafaxine

32. SSRIs - dosing
Medication Starting dose Dose
Increments
Typical target
dose
Usual max
dose
Fluoxetine 5-10mg 10-20mg 10-20mg kids
20-40 mg teens
60mg
Sertraline
Absorption
increased by food
12.5 -25mg 25-50mg 50-100mg 200mg
Paroxetine
Rare use in kids
5-10mg 10mg 10-20mg 40mg
Citalopram 5-10mg 10-20mg 20-40mg 60mg
Escitalopram 5-10mg 5-10mg 10-20mg 40mg

33. SSRIs - dosing
 Typically once a day dosing in adults/teens
– Morning for fluoxetine & sertraline
– Evening for paroxetine, citalopram &
escitalopram
 Pre-pubertal children metabolize more
quickly - may need twice daily dosing
 Ensure an adequate trial before changing
meds, maximum tolerated dose for at least
4-6 weeks

34. SSRIs – Common Side Effects
 Nausea and diarrhea – 5HT receptors numerous
in gut, need to titration slowly, this side effect
remits with exposure
 Headache – usually remits with time
 Agitation, impulsivity or activation – 3-8% pts
 Insomnia
 Fatigue or sedation (more common w/paroxetine,
citalopram or escitalopram)
 Sexual side effects – low libido or anorgasmia

35. SSRIs – Side Effects of concern
 Increased bleeding time
 Serotonin syndrome – flushing, diarrhea,
autonomic instability, muscle tremors or spasms &
confusion
– do not use with St. John’s Wort, linezolid (Zyvox) or
MOAIs. Caution with triptan migraine meds, ketorolac
(Toradol) or propoxyphene (Darvon)
 Drug-drug interactions –
– SSRIs inhibit P450 system in the liver slowing
metabolism of other meds. Inhibit conversion of Tylenol
3 to morphine (P450 2D6)
 Suicidal thoughts - 4% of pts

36. SSRIs - predicting remission
 50-60% of patients get response with 1st
SSRI
 30% of patients get into remission with 1st
medication trial
 Predictors of remission include
– + FHx of depression
– Early symptom response (within 4 weeks)

37. Treatment of Adolescents with Depression
(TADS)
 Follow up 5 years later N=196 pts (44.6%
of original cohort)
 By 2 years, 96.4% had achieved recovery
– Predicted by early response to meds
 By 5 years, 46.6% a recurrence

38. Medication-other
Few studies in newer antidepressants
 Bupropion (Wellbutrin) no RCTs in youth
 Mirtazapine (Remeron) 2 negative RCTs
 Venlafaxine (Effexor) 3 negative RCTs
 Dualoxetine (Cymbalta) no RCTs in youth
 Trazadone (Desyrel)
 TCAs 11 DB-PC studies with TCA’s in adolescents 
none more effective than placebo. Risk of cardiovascular
adverse effect HR, AV block, QTc

39. Medication Summary
 Most evidence for SSRIs
 Meds considered first line
– Fluoxetine (Prozac)
– Sertraline (Zoloft)
– Citalopram (Celexa)
– Escitalorpam (Lexapro)
 Treat for 6-9 months once symptoms have
improved
 Goal to treat to remission (no sx’s for > 2
months)

40. Suicide
 CDC - 17% of adolescents
think about suicide each
year
 Thoughts of death part of
MDE
 3rd leading cause of death
in adolescents about 2,000
deaths per year
 25% decline in suicide rate
in 10-19 year range in past
decade
 Suicide attempts often
impulsive in nature

41. FDA warning about +SI and
antidepressant meds
 FDA reviewed 23 studies with 9 different meds -
> 4,300 youth
 NO SUICIDES in these studies
 Adverse events reporting - SI or potentially
dangerous behavior reported by 4% of pts on
meds vs. 2% on placebo
 17 of 23 studies asked about SI - no new SI or
worsening of SI, actually decreased during
treatment

42. Meta Analysis of 27 RCTs with SSRIs
 Studies were for MDD, OCD and non-OCD
anxiety
 For MDD
– NNT = 10
– NNH = 112
 More effective and less SEs when treating
OCD or non-OCD anxiety
JAMA 2007

43. Suicide and SSRIs
 FDA black box warning for risk of suicide for all
ages with ALL antidepressants
 Need to advise families about this risk and give
crisis info
 2004 FDA recommended
– Weekly contact the first 4 weeks
– Every other week through week 12
– As indicated after week 12

44. Suicide and SSRIs
 FDA changed black box warning from specific
monitoring to more general one
All patients being treated with antidepressants for any
indication should be monitored appropriately and
observed closely for clinical worsening, suicidality, and
unusual changes in behavior, especially during the
initial few months of a course of drug therapy, or at
times of dose changes, either increases or decreases.

45. General advice for families regarding SI
 No firearms in home
 Limit access to medication including over the
counter meds
 Remove access to parent’s medications
 Remove razors from bathroom or other sharps
 Increase supervision (e.g. keep doors open, limit peer
contact to with adults present)
 Importance of seeking help if suicidal thoughts
develop or worsen
 Crisis numbers (234-1234), emergency room
resources and 911

46. What to do in the office during
active monitoring period?
 Rating scales (e.g. Child Depression Inventory,
CES-DC or PHQ-9) to get baseline symptoms
and track at follow up
 Mood diary
 Cognition/thought charts - negative thoughts
in one column and a neutral thought in other
column
 Prescribe pleasant activities and exercise
 Relaxation strategies

47. Emotions Thermometer
 10___________
 9 ___________
 8 ___________
 7 ___________
 6 ___________
 5 ___________
 4 ___________
 3 ___________
 2 ___________
 1 ___________

48. Mood Monitoring Chart – list at least 1 activity each time frame
and rate mood during then using the emotions thermometer
with10 best you ever felt and 0 the worst
Day Morning Afternoon Evening
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

49. Common Cognitive Distortions
 Overgeneralizing - mountains from molehills
“I’ll never amount to anything”
 Catastrophizing – “this is the worst thing could
ever happen” or “I’ll never feel better”
 Personalizing – “when the teacher yelled at the
class to be quiet, it was all my fault”
 Selective abstraction - focusing only on
negative events “I did not get 100% on the test,
only 98%”
 Kitchen sinking – gets overwhelmed as adds
more issues to current problem

50. Thought chart
Initial negative thought Emotion
rating 0-
10
Neutral more realistic
thought
Emotion
rating 0-
10
I can’t do anything right
and I’ll never amount to
anything
8 I am not the best at
organizing
5
Our team didn't win all
because of me
7 I did not play my best
tonight nor did others
4
The entire day was
pointless because I got a
bad grade on the Math
test
9 I’m disappointed in my
math grade, but I did get
all my homework done
today
5

51. Scheduling Pleasurable Activities
Day Morning Afternoon Evening
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

52. Things I can do to relax when upset
(identify ones that work for the youth)
 Running
 Weight lifting
 Going for a walk
 Playing a sport
 Listening to music
 Dancing
 Read
 Do a puzzle
 Crafts
 Call a friend
 Talk to someone
 Take a hot shower
 Imagine a relaxing
place in my mind
 Deep slow breathing

53. Relaxation Strategies
 Deep breathing
– Inhale for count of 5 & hold briefly
– Exhale for count of 5
– Repeat 5 times
 Progressive muscle relaxation
– Begin with feet, contract muscles for count of 5
and slowly release.
– Move up the body through all muscle groups
 Meditation – many CDs and Apps available

54. What to do in the office
 Use a rating scale to monitor sx’s
 Mood diaries
 Cognition charts - negative thoughts in one
column and a neutral thought in other
column
 Prescribe pleasant activities and exercise
 Relaxation strategies

55. Other patterns of depression
 Dysthymia
 Depressive disorder NOS
 Adjustment disorder with depression
 Few studies for any of these

56. Dysthymia
 Depressed mood more days than not with:
– Poor appetite or overeating
– Insomnia or hypersomnia
– Low energy or fatigue
– Low self-esteem
– Poor concentration or difficulty w/ decisions
– Feelings of hopelessness
1 year, not 2 for children (no MDE during that
time)
Typically start treatment with psychotherapy due
to chronicity

57. Depressive Disorder NOS
 A pattern of depressive sx’s that does not
meet criteria for MDE or dysthymia
 Treatment highly individualized based on
FHx, stressors, sx presentation etc.
 Examples:
– Mood episodes that do not meet enough criteria for
MDE (limited sx’s)
– Mood episodes that are do not last 2 weeks, but recur
regularly
– Depressed mood nearly every day but not yet 1 year

58. Adjustment Disorder
 Symptom emerge in the context of a clear
stressor
– acute or chronic stressor
 Usually treated with talk therapy
 May use meds if stressor chronic and
unlikely to remit or not improving with
therapy and stressor chronic

59. Child Psychiatry Access Program
 If you have questions about a patient you
are treating, call the Child Psychiatry
Access Program (866) 487-9507 to get a
free consultation with a child psychiatrist

60. Summary
 Major depression occurs in 8% of adolescents
 Fast, easy screening scales available for primary
care
 Treatment begins with psychoeducation
 Mild depression can respond to support
 Moderate depression tx starts with talk therapy or
meds. Reassess the plan at 8 wk intervals
 Severe depression treatment likely to use meds
or combination meds + therapy as first step

61. Summary
 Things that can help while waiting for referral or in
supportive period include:
– Mood monitoring charts
– Scheduling pleasant activities
– Monitoring cognitions and feelings
– Relaxation training
 SSRIs are effective medications for MDD
– Common SEs include GI upset, headache, agitation and sleep
disturbance
– Be careful of combining with other serotinergic medications
 Monitor for suicidality

62. References
 Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and
Adolescents With Depressive Disorders. Birmaher B and Brent D. J. Am.
Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2007; 46(11):1503-1526
 Treatment and Ongoing Management Guidelines for Adolescent Depression
in Primary Care (GLAD-PC): II. GLAD-PC Steering Group & Laraque RE
Pediatrics 2007;120;e1313-e1326
 GLAD-PC Toolkit http://www.thereachinstitute.org/guidelines-for-adolescent-
depression-primary-care.html
 CESDC
http://www.brightfutures.org/mentalhealth/pdf/professionals/bridges/ces_dc.p
df
 Evaluation of the PHQ-2 as a Brief Screen for Detecting Major Depression
Among Adolescents Richardson LP. Pediatrics Vol. 125 No. 5 May 2010
 A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in children
and adolescents with depression. Emslie GJ, Rush AJ, Weinberg WA, et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:1031–1037

63. References
 Fluoxetine for acute treatment of depression in children and adolescents: a
placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Emslie GJ, Heiligenstein
JH,Wagner KD, et al: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002;41:1205–
1215
 Fluoxetine, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, and Their Combination for
Adolescents With Depression: Treatment for Adolescents With Depression
Study (TADS) Randomized Controlled Trial March J. JAMA. 2004;292:807-
820
 Switching to Another SSRI or to Venlafaxine With or Without Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy for Adolescents With SSRI Resistant Depression: The
TORDIA Randomized Controlled Trial. Brent D et al. JAMA. 2008 February
27; 299(8): 901–913.
 Escitalopram in the Treatment of Adolescent Depression: A Randomized
Placebo-Controlled Multisite Trial. Emslie GJ et al. J. Am. Acad. Child
Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2009;48(7):721-729.
 Change in Child Psychopathology With Improvement in Parental Depression:
A Systematic Review Gunlicks ML and Weissman MM J. Am. Acad. Child
Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2008;47(4):379-389.

64. References
 Children of Depressed Mothers 1 Year After the Initiation of Maternal
Treatment: Findings From the STAR*D-Child Study. Pilowsky DJ, et al. Am J
Psychiatry 2008; 165:1136–1147)
 Early Prediction of Acute Antidepressant Treatment Response and
Remission in Pediatric Major Depressive DisorderTao RA. J. Am. Acad. Child
Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2009;48(1):71-78.
 Clinical Response and Risk for Reported Suicidal Ideation and Suicide
Attempts in Pediatric Antidepressant Treatment A Meta-analysis of
Randomized Controlled Trials Bridge JA, JAMA. 2007;297:1683-1696
 The Treatment of Adolescent Suicide Attempters Study (TASA): Predictors of
Suicidal Events in an Open Treatment Trial Brent DA, J. Am. Acad. Child
Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2009;48(10):987-996
 Pharmacotherapy for Pediatric Major Depression. Rongrong T, Emslie G and
Mayes T, Psychiatric Annuals, 2010; 40(4) 192-202.