Marine fisheries

MARINE FISHERIES KARTIK
Unit 1 - Fishery Zones and Fishery resources
1.1. Introduction
Almost all natural bodies of water bear fish life, the exceptions being very hot thermal ponds
and extremely salt-alkaline lakes such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The fishes belong to
the most numerous and diversified group among vertebrates. They dominate the water bodies
of the world through a variety of morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations. They
have been in existence for more than 450 million years. A total of 24618 species of fishes
belonging to 482 families and 4258 genera have so far been described. About 58% of the fish
species are marine while 41% are freshwater inhabitants and 1% migrants. In our Indian region
alone, there are 2,500 species of which 930 are inhabitants of freshwater and the rest live in the
seas. In other words, India harbours 11.5% of the fish fauna so far known in the world. There
are over 800 living species of sharks and rays, 30 species of chimaeras and ratfishes, 6 species of
lung fishes, 1 species of coelacanths, 36 species of long ray finned bichirs, sturgeons and
paddlefishes. The Neopterygii are the rest of the known species of modem fishes. All these
fishes inhabit various niches in the aquatic environment. The diversified habitats of fishes
include open oceans, deep oceanic trenches, nearshore waters, saline coastal embayments,
brackishwaters, estuaries, intermittent streams, tiny desert springs, vernal pools, cold mountain
streams, lakes, ponds, etc.
1.2. Structure of the Earth in the marine environment
While about 70% of the surface of the earth is covered by salt water, freshwater covers only
about 1% of the earth's surface. By volume, 97% of all water is in the oceans. The bottom
topography of the marine environment includes continental shelf, continental slope,
continental rise and abyssal plains among other features.
Intertidal zone
The intertidal zone (also known as the foreshore) is the area that is exposed to the air at low
tide and submerged at high tide, for example, the area between tide marks. This area can
include many different types of habitats, including steep rocky cliffs, sandy beaches and vast
mudflats.
Littoral zone
It refers to the coast of an ocean or sea, or to the banks of a river, lake or estuary. It extends
from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently
submerged. It includes the intertidal and sublittoral zones. The littoral zone is bordered by the
supralittoral zone, also known as the "spray zone", and the sublittoral zone, which runs to the
edge of the continental shelf.
Supra littoral zone (Spray zone)
It is the area above the spring tide line that is regularly splashed, but not submerged by ocean
water.
Sublittoral zone
It is the part of the Earth's surface immediately below the intertidal zone and thus permanently
covered with seawater. The sublittoral zone is the part of the ocean extending from the low tide
mark to the edge of the continental shelf, with a relatively shallow depth extending to about
200 meters.
Continental shelf
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and. associated coastal plain.
The shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope (called the shelf break). The continental
shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin. The shelf area is commonly subdivided
into the inner continental shelf, mid continental shelf, and outer continental shelf, each with

their specific geomorphology and marine biology.
1.3. Continental slope
the sea floor below the break is the continental slope. The continental slope is much steeper
than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°. The slope is
often cut with submarine canyons.
Continental rise
It is below the slope and fmally merges into the deep ocean floor, the abyssal plain, but
landward of the abyssal plains. Its gradient is intermediate between the slope and the shelf, on
the order of 0.5 - 1°. Extending as far as 500 km from the slope, it consists of thick sediments
deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope. Sediment cascades down the slope
and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope, called the continental rise.
Abyssal plain
Abyssal plains are flat or very gently sloping areas of the deep ocean basin floor. They are
among the Earth's flattest and smoothest regions and the least explored. Abyssal plains cover
approximately 40% of the ocean floor and reach depdts between 2,200 and 5,500 m (7,200 and
18,000 ft). They generally lie between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-oceanic ridge.
The marine environment can be divided into three zones such as
 Pelagic zone
 Benthic zone
 Demersal zone.
Pelagic zone:
The Pelagic zone is the ecological region above the benthic, including the water-column up to the
surface. Any water.in the sea that is not close to the bottom is in the pelagic zone. The word pelagic
comes from the Greek pelagos, which means open sea. Fish that live in the pelagic zone are called
pelagic fish. Pelagic life decreases with increasing depth. In deep water, the pelagic zone is
sometimes called the open-ocean zone and can be contrasted with water that is near the coast or on
the continental shelf. However in other contexts, coastal water that is not near the bottom is still
said to be in the pelagic zone. Profundal zone is a deep zone of a body of water, such as an ocean or
a lake, located below the range of effective light penetration. This is typically below the Thermocline.
It is a part of the aphotic zone.
Benthic zone:
The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a
lake, including the sediment surface and some sub- surface layers. Marine organisms living in this
zone, such as clams and crabs, are called benthos.
Demersal zone:
The demersal zone is just above the bendthic zone. It is the part of the sea or ocean (or deep lake)
comprising the water column that is near to (and is significantly affected by) the seabed and the
benthos. The demersal zone is just above the benthic zone and forms a layer of the larger profundal
zone. Fish that live in the demersal zone are called demersal fish.
1.4. Divisions of Pelagic Zones
Depending on how deep the sea is, there can be up to five vertical layers in the ocean. From the
top down, they are:
1.Epipelagic
It is a pelagic zone from the surface (MSL) down to around 200 m (656 ft). It is the illuminated

surface zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis. Due to this, plants and animals are
largely concentrated in this zone. Nearly all primary food production in the ocean occurs here.
2.Mesopelagic
It is a pelagic zone from 200 m down to around 1,000 m (3,280 ft). Although some light
penetrates this deep, it is insufficient for photosynthesis. The name stems from Greek, meso
meaning middle.
3.Bathypelagic
It is a pelagic zone from 1,000 m down to around 4,000 m (13,123 ft). By this depth the ocean is
almost entirely dark (with only the occasional thennoluminescent organism, such as
lantemfish). The name stems from Greek, baths meaning deep.
4.Abyssopelagic
It is a pelagic zone from 4,000 m down to above the ocean floor. No light whatsoever
penetrates to this depth. The name is derived from the Greek, abyss, meaning bottomless.
5.Hadopelagic
It is the deep water in ocean trenches. The name is derived from the Greek, Hades, meaning
underworld. Some define the hadopelagic as waters below 6,000 m (19,685 ft), whether in a
trench or not.
The bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadopelagic zones are very similar in character. and some
marine biologists elide them into a single zone or consider the latter two to be the same. The
marine environment is made into several zones as below for the administrative purposes with a
view to utilize and manage the resources in a proper way.
1.4. Exclusive Economic Zone
This concept of allotting nations EEZs to give better control of maritime affairs outside territorial
limits gained acceptance in the late 20th century and was given binding international recognition by
the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. Under the law of the sea, an
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a seazone over which a state has special rights over the exploration
and use of marine resources. EEZ is the area adjacent to a coastal state which encompasses all
waters between:
 The seaward boundary of that state
 A line on which each point is 200 nautical miles (370.40 km) from the baseline from which
the territorial sea of the coastal state is measured (except. when other international
boundaries need to be accommodated) and
 The maritime boundaries agreed between that state and the neighboring states. Thus, the
EEZ overlaps both the contiguous zone and territorial waters. States also have rights to the
seabed of the continental shelf up to 350 nautical miles from the coast, where this extends
beyond the EEZ, and does not form part of their EEZ. The total area of Indian EEZ is
estimated to be 2,305,143 km2 that include the mainland area of 1,641,514 km2 and
Andaman Islands, 663,629 km2. Fish stock that migrates between EEZ of two different
countries (neighboring countries) or between an EEZ and High Sea, is called Straddling stock.
Eg.Tuna. It is also referred to as shared stock. Shared stock is one which is available for
capture in EEZ of two or more nations during its life history.

1.5. Territorial waters
Territorial waters, or a territorial sea, as defined by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, is a belt of coastal waters that extends up to 12 nautical miles (22 km) from its
baseline (usually the mean low-water mark) of a coastal state e. If this would overlap with
another state's territorial sea, the border is taken as the median point between the states'
baselines, unless the states in question agree otherwise. A state can also choose to claim a
smaller territorial sea. The territorial sea is regarded as the sovereign territory of the state,
although foreign ships (both military and civilian) are allowed innocent passage through it; this
sovereignty also extends to the airspace over and seabed below. The term "territorial waters" is
also sometimes used informally to describe any area of water over which a state has
jurisdiction, including also internal waters, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone
and potentially the continental shelf.
1.6. Contiguous zone
It is a band of water extending from the outer edge of the territorial sea to up to 24 nautical
miles (44 km) from the baseline, within which a state can exert limited control for the purpose
of preventing or punishing "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and
regulations within its territory or territorial sea". This will typically be 12 nautical miles (22 km)
wide, but could be more (if a state has chosen to claim a territorial sea of less than 12 nautical
miles), or less, if it would otherwise overlap another state's contiguous zone. However, unlike
the territorial sea there is no standard rule for resolving such conflicts, and the states in
question must negotiate their own compromise.
1.7. International waters
The terms international waters or trans-boundary waters apply where any of the following
types of bodies of water (or their drainage basins) transcend international boundaries: oceans,
large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi- enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes,
groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands. Oceans, seas, and waters outside of national
jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas.

Unit 2 - Marine Fishery resources of the world
2.1. Overview of Marine Fishery resources
According to FAO, both Atlantic and Pacific oceans are considered fully fished and sees some
prospects for increasing Indian Ocean fisheries as India has one of the longest coastlines in the
world. They examined long term trend of 200 major fish resources representing 77% of the marine
fish landings of the world and concluded that about 47 to 50% of the stocks are fully exploited. An
estimate of 25 to 27% are under exploited or moderately exploited. Another 15 to 18% are over
exploited and have no potential for further increase. The remaining 9 to 10% stocks have been
depleted. Major fluctuations have been recorded for some individual species. High landings are
dependent on one or two productive stocks such as Alaska Pollock and Japanese Anchovy in the
North West Pacific, Atlantic herring in d1e North East Atlantic and skipjack and yellow fin tuna in the
Western Central pacific. The over all trend depends on major tuna stocks and older categories of
marine fish. If the factors influencing capture fisheries such as over fishing, by catch discard and
other management measures are not resolved, pressure on capture fisheries will continue and
decline in production is certain.
In general, the major fisheries of the world occur in two main areas, the areas of wide continental
shelf and upwelling areas. The areas of upwelling include Peru, South Africa, North West Africa,
California and south west coast of India.
The total world fish production from both capture and culture fisheries which was just 4 million
tonnes in 1900, increased to about 60 mt in the late sixties, crossed 100 mt in the late eighties and
increased to 116.7 mt in 1995 and reached 145.1 million tonnes in 2009. China remains by far the
largest producer with a fisheries production of 49.5 mt in 2005. Of this, 107.2 mt of fish was used for
food, providing a per capita supply of 16.6 kg, remaining 34.4 mt was destined for non-food uses, in
particular the manufacture of fish meal and oil and direct feed for aquaculture.

2.2. World marine capture fisheries production
World marine capture fisheries production which was 85 mt in 1995 decreased to 79.5 mt in 1998
and then increased to 84.2 mt in 2005. During the same period, world aquaculture production
steadily increased from 24.4 mt in 1995 to 47.8 mt in 2005, showing that the overall increase in
world fish production was mainly contributed by aquaculture sector. During the past decade, the
reported landings of marine capture fisheries fluctuated between 80 mt and 87 mt (avg 1993 -2003,
84 mt), a slight increase over the preceeding decade (avg., 77 mt). It should be noted that between
the two periods, the quantity of marine fish caught and discarded has fallen by several million
tonnes. The reasons attributed for this is improved gear selectivity and fishing practices, fisheries
management that decreases access to some stocks, no discard policies in some countries and
growing demand for fish combined with improved technologies and opportunities for utilizing by
catch recently, significant changes have taken place in the offshore fisheries of the world. Large
number of nations in the late seventies declared Exclusive economic zones (EEZ) up to 200 nautical
miles (372 km) from their shores, claiming exclusive rights to exploit and manage the living and non-
living resources in these zones. About 90% of the presently exploited fishery resources fall under EEZ
of coastal states. This has reduced the area of operation of distant water vessels of major fishing
nations and hence they are forced to operate under licensing system of chartering or joint
agreement with the owner of these fisheries resources mainly the developing maritime states.
Hence, with the declaration of EEZ, the catches from developing countries will improve in the
coming years. The following table shows the contribution made by the marine capture fisheries
sector to the total world capture fisheries production (in tonnes) during 1997 -
2005.
World marine Fishing areas
FAO divided the marine fishing areas of the world into 15 major marine fishing areas for statistical
purposes. Of these 15 marine fishing areas, North West Pacific (25.S2%) continued to be the most

productive in 2005. This was followed by South East Pacific (17.4%) and Western Central Pacific
(12.89%) during the same period. South West Pacific used to be the second most productive area.
2.3. Atlantic Ocean
North West Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 21)
This area located south of 350 N is divided into 3 main regions.
1) Canada 2) United States 3) Green Land
Main features of the hydrography are year to year fluctuations in the cold and warm water current
systems. (Gulf Stream warm water and East Greenland Cold water). The general situation of the
coastal fisheries and demersal stocks are discouraging. Due to heavy fishing, several stocks have
been collapsed (Cod, haddock and herring). The main fisheries in the area have been the demersal
by trawl and line. In the southern area, two biggest fisheries are for menhaden (Fish meal and oil)
and oysters. Dogfish continued to dominate the demersal biomass in the southern area. In the
northern area, the catch rate for shrimp show a declining trend. Red fishes have shown a trend
parallel to that of gadolds.

Major species
I. Cod (Gadus morhua)
2. Haddock (Melanogrammus aeoglefinusj
3. Red fish (Sebastes spp.)
4. Silver hake (Merluccinus billinearis)
5. Flounders (include several species of flat fishes)
6. Herring (Clupea herengus) inshore fishery
7. Other fishes (include a variety of sharks, sword fish, tuna and hakes)
8. Molluscs & Crustaceans
Cod and dogfish continue to dominate the demersal bio-mass. Prospect for improving haddock and
flat fish are there. Quite recently, molluscan catches have expanded dramatically. The fisheries of
United States have long tradition of lobster fisheries.
North East Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 21)
The area treated here is north east of the latitude 36°N in the South. The region is conveniently
marked into 3 major areas.
1) Baltic 2) North Sea 3) Iceland
The North Sea was the cradle of modem trawling. Trawling with heavy gears has made major impact
on the sea bottom. Almost all the traditional fishery resources are fully exploited. The collapse of
North Sea herring stock received much attention. Cod and haddock are the demersal stocks
considered to be heavily fished and still Atlantic cod had made the largest contribution to the total
landings. The situation in Baltic and Iceland area are one and the same with over fishing. However,
the Iceland herring stock is currently at high level and the Blue whiting from the Barren Sea is
relatively constant. Other demersal species in the area are flat fish and several stocks of shrimps.
Western Central Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 31)
This area centered on the Caribbean and Central American state (50 N to 420 N East ward) has
recorded 147 species. Major pelagic groups are herring, sardine, anchovies and menhaden. A
substantial increase in landing of tuna, bonito, billfishes, yellow fin and Spanish mackerel are seen.
The fisheries for crustaceans are dominated by Caribbean lobster and penaeid shrimps. Several
mollusc species also support valuable fisheries in the area. Many groupers and spiny lobsters in the
area are over exploited. The most important commercial fisheries are hook and line and trap for
snappers and groupers.
Eastern Central Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 34)
The west coast of Africa and Gibraltar strait encompasses temperate, tropical and equatorial waters,
lagoons as well as major currents, upwelling and equatorial convergence. About 190 species are
caught in the area. Fisheries in the region are characterised by small pelagic species especially
sardine and other clupeids (herring and anchovies) account for nearly 50% of the catch. Horse
mackerel, jacks, mullets and sauries, tuna, bonito, billfishes, skipjack and yellowfin are other
varieties. Shrimps, squids, cuttlefishes and octopus represent 7% of the total catch.
Mediterranean and Black Sea (FAO Fishing Area 37)
This area is almost land locked water mass connected to the east Black sea. Between the Black Sea

and Mediterranean, there is a surface current carrying low salinity water into the Mediterranean and
an under current of high salinity water in the Black Sea. Freshwater discharge is important in the
Black Sea and Mediterranean, the major discharge has been from the Nile. The Mediterranean Sea is
one of the marine areas of the world's ocean showing a steady increase in production for all major
source categories; but of comparatively low quantities. Pilchard, anchovy, mackerel and bonito are
of commercial importance. Large pelagic species such as blue fm and bonito also show an increase in
catch. Growing share of molluscs, shrimps and other crustaceans are seen here. But there are also
serious declines in the landings of valuable red coral and spiny lobsters and some important
elasmobranch. Similar increase in landing applies to certain demersal species such as hake, angler
fish, whiting, conger eel etc.
South West Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 37)
This area covers the eastern South American coast (70 W to 200 W). The ~ type of fisheries and
variety of abundance are determined by the topography and environmental conditions i.e. tropical
in the north to sub Atlantic in the south. Major areas include Brazil, Urguay and Argentina. Total fish
production comes from demersals and more recently squids, cod, hake, red fish, bassess and
congers followed by small pelagics (sardine, herring and anchovies). Shrimps, lobsters and other
crustaceans are regulated by closed seasons.
South East Atlantic (FAO Fishing Area 47)
This area extends from 6˚ S to 30˚ E (Cape of Good Hope, South of Durban). An important fishing
ground is Agulhas Bank. Angola, Namibia and South Africa are the major fish producing countries.
Here the Benguela current brings the nutrient rich upwelling system along the west coast of South
Africa. Three major fisheries are distinguished in the area. They include shoaling pelagic fishery
(Pilchard and anchovies), trawl fishery (Cod, haddock and hakes with jacks, mullets and sauries) and
rock lobster and mussel fishery. The pelagic fisheries in the region are affected by decline in sardine
abundance in the north and anchovies in the south, while trawl fishery is affected by decline in hake
abundance. Other major contributors of the landing are spiny lobster and molluscs. In addition to
this, a number of minor fisheries are also reported.
2.4. Pacific Ocean
North West Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 57)
This includes high productive areas of South China Sea, east China Sea, the Yellow Sea, the Sea of
Japan and Sea Okhotsk that are characterized by pronounced seasonal changes and zones of
enrichment with ocean currents. The total catches of North West Pacific increased steadily from
1950 to 1980 by the expansion of two species mainly Alaskan Pollock and Japanese Pilchard.
However, they collapsed in 1990's due to the strong rise in landings of other species like Japanese
anchovy, large head hairtail, Japanese flying squid and salmon. The rise in landings of chub mackerel
and jack mackerel are also reported. Significant contributions are made by the Pacific herring, Pink
salmon and various crustacean species. In the year 1994, Japanese Anchovy has taken over as the
largest catch in the yellow sea. Currently, the largest fish catch in the area continued to be of
Alaskan Pollock. The Pacific cod also appears to have increased in Bering Sea. The stock of Japanese
flying squid is fluctuating in recent years due to the highest fishing efforts.

North East Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 57)
This area extends from Northern California (420 N) to the Gulf of Alaska and eastern part of Berring
Sea. The most abundant species in landing is Alaskan Pollock and sock eye salmon. Large reduction
in catch occurred for Pacific halibut, Pacific Ocean perch, snow crab and shrimps. Many of the most
important ground fish stock also followed same pattern of rapid increase initially, then a decline. The
shoaling pelagic fishes like pilchard and anchovies and trawl fishery for cod, jack, mullets, sauries and
hakes and rock lobster are also fully exploited.
Western Central Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 71)
This area extends from the seas of South East Asian countries down to North East Australia and
further to East Pacific. The area is dominated by large continental shelf, which lies in the EEZ of
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. The shelf-area is rich in Penaeid shrimp and
oceanic waters with rich tuna resources (skipjack and yellow fin tuna). The development of fisheries
has been influenced by the global market. But the level of knowledge of the status of the resource is
inadequate. Shrimps are the major coastal fisheries with banana prawn as the most valuable species.
There could be potential for development of cephalopods in Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam
waters. The total catches in the area have increased and there are indications of overfishing. Even
though various management measures have been introduced like closed season, mesh size
regulation etc., the fishing pressure is kept on increasing.
Eastern Central Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 77)
The area covers northern California (42˚ N), USA to Southern Panama. The region is under the
influence of two major surface current systems, the California current in the north and Equitorial
current in the south. Interaction between the current systems generates upwelling and these
characteristics strongly influence the distribution and abundance of fishery resources and fishing
activities. Fishing for small and large pelagics is important around the major upwelling areas.
Shrimps and demersal sustain in the tropical areas of Mexico, Central America and Panama. The
biggest fishery in the region has been Californian sardine of USA (Sardinops sagax caeruleas). There
is blooms and collapse followed by the rise in the anchovy (Engraulis mordax). The catches of Pac ific
anchoveta and thread herring are also highly variable in Panama.
Other main pelagic species is the jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). Tunas and other large
pelagics are also important in Mexico and USA, Venezuela, Japan, Republic of Korea and other Asian
countries. The main species are yellow fm tuna (Thunnus albacores), big eye (Thunnus obesus),
skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) and albacore (Thunnus alalunga). Shrimps and prawns sustain
valuable fisheries throughout the area. Currently, the jumbo flying squid (Doscidius gigas) is
identified as good resource in the area. Tuna and squids are exploited by different nations. There is
no on going directed fishery for deep water demersals. Several bilateral programmes and
management issues are still operated in USA, Mexico, California and Baja California area. Very few
efforts have been devoted to studying the deep water demersals that are unexploited in the area.
California sardine and anchovy are currently downto fairly low level with heavy exploitation. Similar
is the case with Pacific anchoveta and thread herring. Other pelagics are moderately exploited, while
most of the tunas are fully exploited. Some deep water shrimps and squids are virtually unexploited
or underexploited in some areas.

South West Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 81)
This area extends between 10˚ S to 60˚ S enclosing Tasman Sea and Pacific ocean to 105˚ East
Meridian. The type of habitats exploited in this area most varied from coastal continental fisheries to
deep-water sea mount fisheries. NewZeland has been a pioneer in deep-water (> 600 m) trawl
fisheries. The fishery consists of coastal species of Australian states, pelagic resources of South
Western Pacific and deep waters species of NewZeland. Most important single species fisheries are
crustaceans (Red rock lobster of NewZeland) and prawns of Australia. Other species like cod, hakes,
haddock, blue whiting and blue grenadier are varied in the landings. The species showing greatest
variation in the landing is of green back horse mackerel. Being a country with state federal structure,
Australia has two levels of fisheries management viz. state controlled territorial waters (up to 3 miles
offshore) and the common wealth government controlled resources in the offshore up to 200 miles.
South East Pacific (FAO Fishing Area 87)
This area covers the area along the western coast of South America from Northern Columbia to
Southern Chile. Best and most productive trawling areas are in the Northern Peru and Southern
Chile. The distribution and abundance of fishery resources are strongly influenced by the prevailing
environmental condition. By far the major fishery in the area is for anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) the
biggest single species fishery in the world. The recorded catch may vary from 10 to 12 million tonnes
per year. Further more in the area, the anchoveta are mixed with sardine, hakes, shrimps,
cephalopods, shellfish, sea birds and marine mammals. The adverse effect of El Nino on the
abundance of Peruvian anchoveta is popular. The area is well known for large changes in resource
abundance and species composition.
Recent resource changes of particular relevance to the area is the depletion of South American
sardine (Sardinops sagax sagax), the second most contributor to the total production. The Chilean
jack mackerel and jumbo flying squid (Dosidicus gigas) are the major contributors of over all increase
in landings. Highly migrated tunas (skipjack and yellow fin tuna, eastern pacific bonito) support
coastal pelagic fisheries in the area. Squid catch also increased in this region. This area is the major
contributor of the world fish production (22%) and most of the marine fisheries in the area are
under some kind of national fisheries management scheme like closed season, area and limited
annual catch quota and size of the mesh etc. for certain regulatory measures.
South Pacific Island (FAO Fishing Area 71 and 77)
This region includes Micronesia, Polynesia and Melanesia. The island countries of Papua New Guinea
rely heavily on this area. There are three main types of fisheries like industrial fisheries mainly for
tuna, coastal small scale fisheries for export and coastal fisheries for domestic consumption. Fishing
is carried out mainly by the distant water fishing nations like China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea,
Philippines, Taiwan and USA on payment basis to gain access to the EEZ. Tunas are the target for
industrial fisheries. Besides tuna, there is small scale trawl fishery for shrimps. Tuna fisheries in the
South Pacific could probably sustain an increase over the current total, provided fishing effort is well
managed.
Southern Oceans (FAO Fishing Area 48, 58 and 88)
The southern ocean system is dominated by krill (Euphausia superba). The greatest importance of
southern ocean is for whale fishing upto 1960. There after the fishery shifted to whale's food i.e.
krill. Krill landing increased rapidly from 1977 to 1983. It reached a peak in 1986 and collapsed since

then due to poor profitability and demand. Patagonian tooth fish is also an important component in
the commercial catch.
In nutshell, it can be said that in most of the fishing areas, catches have reached their maximum
potential. The catches are expected to improve from the Eastern 'and Western Indian Ocean and
Western Central Pacific.
2.5. Ocean-wise marine capture production
Ocean-wise analysis of the marine capture fisheries production shows that fish production was the
highest in the Pacific Ocean, contributing about 63% in 2005.
Marine Capture Fisheries Production by Groups of Species
Elasmobranch production during 1998 - 2005

Catches of sharks, rays and chimaeras group have been stable since 1998 at about 0.8 million tonnes
with a production of 0.81 mmt in 2004 forming a share of % to the total marine capture fisheries
production.
Production of marine molluscs during 1998 -2005
Globally cephalopods are an important fishery resource and many species are taken in targeted and
by catch fisheries around the world. Cephalopods contribute only a small proportion nearly 3% of
the world capture fisheries landings. However, there has been substantial increase during the last
three decades.
Among molluscs, bivalves form an important component contributing 1,967, 800 mt (28% of total
molluscs). The major group contributing mollusk fishery is the abalone, winkles, conchs, ark shell
squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses. Fresh water oysters, mussels, scallops pictens and clams cockles and
ark shells are the bivalves contributing to the fishery and the share is only 1,967,800 mt (28% of the
total mollusks production through capture) which is only 16% of the total bivalve production.

2.6.Top ten principal producers
Country wise analysis of marine capture fisheries production reveals that the great bulk of the world
catch is still concentrated among a relatively small number of countries. The top ten countries
accounted for more than half of the total fish production (59.81%) in 2005. While analyzing the last
four decades catch data, it is known that top ten countries remained almost the same.
Top ten principal fish species
Though there are thousands of aquatic species forming fishery, importance of which varying from
region to region, some fish species contribute significantly, to the total each. The major groups of
fishes include clupeids, cod like fishes, carangids, mullets, cat fishes, sciaenids mackerels and ribbon
fishes; Catch of Peruvian anchoveta exerts a pronounced influence in the total fish production. Its
catch fluctuates widely based on the prevailing environmental conditions like EI Nino. In the late

sixties, Peruvian anchoveta which was the largest fishery, yielded 12 mt collapsed in early seventees.
Though its catch was the highest forever, its production decreased from 1,12,76,357 mt in 2000 to
1,02,15,072 mt in 2005 with a low production of 7,23,077 mt in 2001, 9702614 mt in 2002 and
62,03,751 mt in 2003. The following top ten species contributed more than ¼ th (29.76%) of the
total capture fisheries production in 2005.
There are 73 species, each contributimg more than 0.15 million tonnes in 2004. These 71 species
including the above mentioned top ten species, contributed 4,92,77,969 mt forming more than half
(52.84%) of the total capture fisheries production in 2005.
Unit 3 - Indian Ocean capture fisheries
3.1. Introduction
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceans, covering about 20% of the water on the
Earth's surface. It is bound on the north by Asia (including the Indian subcontinent, after which it is
named); on the west by Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the
south by the Southern Ocean (or, traditionally, by Antarctica). One component of the all-
encompassing World Ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 200 east
meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific by the 1470 east meridian. The
northern most extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 300 North latitude in the Persian Gulf
and, thus, has asymmetric ocean circulation. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the
southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km2 (32.1 mi), including the Red Sea and
the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 km3 (70,086,000 mi3). Small
islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar, the world's fourth
largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. Indonesia borders it on the
east. The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world.
Geography
The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (125 miles) in width. An
exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 kilometres
(600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 metres (12,760 ft). Major choke points include Bab

el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok
Strait. Seas include Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden,
Gulf of Oman, Laccadive Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and
other tributary water bodies.
3.2. Fisheries potential
The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps phytoplankton production low, except along the northern
fringe and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. Fishing is confined to
subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for
domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also
exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Endangered marine species include the
dugong, seals, turtles, and whales. Oil and ship pollution threatens the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf,
and Red Sea.
A number of estimates of the potential yield of the Indian Ocean based on primary productivity,
exploratory fishing, surface area or shelf area and so forth have been made. A convenient estimate
to use is that of Shomura, who estimated the potential yield to be about fourteen million metric
tonnes, plus several hundred of thousands of tonnes of squids. From the stand point of the resource
base growth rates of both 5 and feasible for both demersal and sholaling pelagic fishes. It is felt that
the present yield can be increased substantially with existing technology.
Fish production
Indian Ocean has been divided into Eastern Indian Ocean (No. 57) and Western Indian Ocean (No.
51) by FAO for statistical purposes. The landing from Indian Ocean fisheries was just 1.8 mt in 1964
and increased to 2.6 million mt in 1970, 3.6 mt in 1978, 5.6 mt in 1988 and reached a production of
9.47 million tonnes, contributing 11.32 % to the total world marine capture fisheries production in
2005. Its production varied between 84, 87,579 mt in 1998 and 94,73,411 mt 2005. Eastern Indian
Ocean production is always more than the Western Indian Ocean.
Principal fish producers in Indian Ocean
Indonesia is the leading country in marine capture fisheries production in the Indian Ocean region.
This is followed by India. The major catch of the countries bordering the Indian Ocean is primarily
coastal and restricted to relatively shallow areas. Many of the resources are under exploited and still
in the stage of virgin stock. Hence, intensive exploitation should be carried out to boost the
production of fisheries resources in this oceanic province. However, in major maritime states of India
such as Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Karachi in Pakistan and the west coast of Thailand,
some of the resources have reached the MSY and hence at most care is to be taken to sustain the
resources.

3.3. Status of Fisheries in Indian Ocean
Western Indian Ocean (FAO Fishing Area 51)
It has a surface area of 30 million km2 and encompasses regions with greatly differing fishery
resources. The monsoon induced upwelling brings high nutrients and support traditional fisheries
and create unique situation in the North West Arabian Sea. The Gulf of Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Persian
Gulf of Aden and Somali coast are also benefited by high productivity. The Seychelles and Mauritius
have their own characteristic fisheries. Further to South Africa, the fisheries are of temperate and
Antarctic nature.
The enormous number of small fishing vessels in the area makes monitoring of the stock status
difficult in the Eastern Arabian Sea (Pakistan, India and Srilanka). The Persian Gulf of Oman fisheries
concentrate mainly on pelagic species like tunas. Most of the stocks of the region are fully exploited.
The key sources of concern in the area are those of Spanish mackerel, penaeid and metapenaeid
shrimps and various percoid fishes. Red sea, Gulf of Aden, Saudi Arabia had regionally important
shrimp fisheries and species associated with coral reefs and pelagic fisheries.
Coastal east Africa (Somalia to Mozambique)
East coast Africa represents wide range of marine ecosystem in the world. The coastal upwelling
induced by the Somali current influences the total landings. Here the oceanic species like tuna
constitutes 90% of the total landings. The distant water fishing fleets of Europe and East Africa
harvest the oceanic species. However, the resources exploited by the regional countries are mainly
the coastal species that are fully exploited.
Eastern Indian Ocean (FAO Fishing Area 57)
The area includes Bay of Bengal in the north to Andaman sea, Malacca strait in the east and waters
around south of Australia. The fisheries of Eastern Indian Ocean are characterised by increased
fishing pressure in the inshore area. The species like red fishes, herring, jacks, mackerel, tuna and
shrimps account for major share in the total landings. Catches from the coastal fisheries like tuna
(skipjack and yellowfin tuna) and shrimp are the main export commodities. Over exploitation has
reduced the amount of export from capture fisheries. Only Thailand produces relatively high catches
of squid.
Southern Area
The main fishery in the Eastern Indian Ocean is the lobster fishery of Australia. Australia has also
promoted the management of southern bluefin tuna. The trends in landing of herring, miscellaneous
fishes and scallop indicate dwindling. There is no clear explanation as to increase in fishing pressure
or environmental changes or both.
3.4. High Sea fisheries of Indian Ocean
The high sea of the Indian Ocean support in the long line fisheries carried out for albacore, big eye,
blue fin and yellow fin tunas with incidental catches of bill fishes, sharks and so on.
Sashimi grade tunas cost very high in Japanese market and it is costlier than shrimp, the popular
export commodity in India and elsewhere. Annual tuna production from Indian Ocean varied around
0.707 to 0.917 million tonnes and India's contribution was 45,000 t which is 5.9% of the total tuna
production from Indian Ocean. Thus production in the world continued to increase from an average;

annual catch 1.81 million tonnes in 1970s to a peak of 4 million tonnes during early 2000. The
contribution towards total tuna production by the Indian Ocean was 21 % which is next to the Pacific
Ocean (65%). The production from the Indian Ocean increased from 0.22 mmt to 0.83 mmt during
1970s and 2000 respectively. Though as many as 134 countries produce tuna in the world, only 18
countries contribute more than 1.0% towards the total catch. Among the top twelve tuna producing
countries during 1990s five countries such as Philippines (9.7%) Ubdibesua (8.7%) China, Taiwan
(6.6%) Thai1and (3.4%) and Maldives (2.0%) contributed about 30% of the total tuna catch.
Tunas are exploited by different types of gears like gillnets, hooks and lines, purse scine, long line,
trawl and ring scine. Though many species support the global tuna fishery, only seven species such
as Thunnus albacares, T. obesus, T. alalunga, T. thynnus, T. maccoyi, Auxis thazard and Katsuwonus
pelamis are universal in occurrence. Among the other species E. affins, T. tonggol, T. atlanticus and
Sarda orientalis are found in the Indian Ocean. There is scope for further increase in the production
of yellow fin, skipjack and small tunas from the Indian ocean, as the landings of these species
continued to increase with minor fluctuations, whereas, Southern bluefin landing started to decline
from the early 1980's onward Albacore, bigeye and yellowfin are fully exploited in the Indian ocean
and Southern bluefin is on the verge of depletion. Only skipjack is either under or moderately
exploited.
3.5. Tuna Potential in Indian Ocean
The resource potential of different speices groups of tuna in the Indian Ocean are estimated to be,
yellowfin 1,00,000-1,50,000 t, big-eye 30,000 - 60,000 t, skipjack 2,00,000 - 300000 t and bill fishes
10,000 t.
Tuna fishing is carried out entirely by non-Indian Ocean counties specifically Japan, Republic of China
and Republic of Taiwan. Use of long lines by these countries has substantially reduced the stock of
these species. In some cases, the fishery is already over-capitalized in terms of number of boats. The
Indian Ocean fishery is almost per-occupied by the governments with shrimp and tuna fisheries due
to their ability to earn foreign currency. Since the shrimp resources are largely in territorial waters,
the shrimp fisheries are carried out domestically or by joint ventures with Finns from non Indian
Ocean countries.
Lack of infrastructure, capital, technology, managerial skills, institutional barriers, communications
and cultural characteristics in varying degree depending upon the locality are the standard inhibitors
of Indian Ocean fishery developments. Some of the needs may sometimes be met by joint venture
operations in which the Indian Ocean country could supply proximity to the resource and access to
labor supplies, while a technologically developed country outside the Indian Ocean could supply the
capital, technology and managerial skills.
Unit 4 - Indian marine capture fisheries
4.1. Indian marine capture fisheries
India has a coastal length of 8118 km (some authors mention as 8129 km) spread over nine Coastal
States and four Union Territories. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India extending up to 200
Nautical Miles (372 km) has an extent of 2.02 million km2, of which 0.86 million km2 are on the west
coast, 0.56 million km2 on the east coast and 0.60 million km2 around the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. The continental shelf of India has a spread of approximately 0.53 million km2. Marine
capture fisheries production has been around 2.5 million tonnes annually. The rate of expansion of
marine fisheries in India has been slow due to continued adherence to traditional fishing methods
and delay in extending fishing activities to deep waters. India contributes more than one fourth of
the landings of the Indian Ocean and more than half of the landings of the Western Indian Ocean.
Coastal Length, Continental Shelf Area, Number of Landing Centres & Fishing Villages
The following table shows the details of coastal length, continental shelf, number of landing centres
and number of fishing villages of maritime states and union territories of India.
The total coastline of the country which is 8118 km is predominantly spread over the states of
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The
continental shelf areas of the country which is approximately 0.53 million km2 is largely
concentrated off the coasts of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The number of fishing villages in the country is 3827, the bulk of which is spread over the states of
Gujarat, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Orissa, Kerala and Karnataka, in
that order. The number of fish landing centres is 1914 and predominantly distributed over the coasts
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Kerala and Maharashtra.
4.2. Potential yield of Indian EEZ
India declared its EEZ in 1977 with a view to judiciously exploit the marine fisheries resources
available. The expert committee appointed in the year 2000 for revalidation of the stock has
indicated that the potential yield from the Indian EEZ could be 39,34,417 tonnes, of which 20,17,072
tonnes are demersal fish, 16,73,545 tonnes pelagic and 2,43,800 tonnes oceanic resources. Based on
the observation of the working group, bulk of the additional harvestable yield is expected from the
demersal resources from the shelf area such as large species of perches, deep sea and oceanic
squids, tuna and allied species from the EEZ. The following table shows the depth-wise potential
yield of marine fishery resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India.

It is evident from the above table that about 58% of the resources are distributed in the 0 -50 m
depth zone, 53% in the 50 -200 m depth zone, and 7% in the areas beyond 200 m.
The coast-wise distribution of these resources is given in the following table.
he above table shows that about 60% of the fisheries resources are distributed along the west coast,
about 28% along the east coast and rest in Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. The potential yield of
demersal and oceanic- pelagic resources is almost equal.
It is clear from the above table that oil sardine, mackerel, ribbonfish, anchovies, Bombay Duck, other
sardines etc., constitute the major pelagic fishery resources of the EEZ of India.

It is apparent from the above table that shrimps, croakers, bivalves, mantis shrimp, perches,
cephalopods, elasmobranches, catfishes, silverbellies, pomfrets, flatfishes, etc., constitute the major
demersal fishery resources of the EEZ of India.

4.3. Marine fish production
The total marine fish production in the country increased from 0.534 million tonnes in 1950-51 to
2.809 million tonnes in 2005-06 with a peak production of 2.950 million tonnes in 1997-98. However,
the growth rate since 1981 has been on the decline. The production from the pelagic fish resources
in the country had a three fold increase since 1961, reaching 1.36 mt in 2000 with a peak of 1.40 mt
in 1997. However, its relative contribution to the total landings decreased from about 71 % in 1965
to 50% in 2000. Similarly, the landings of demersal resources increased from 0.23 mt, forming 34%
of the total in 1961 to 1.32 mt, forming 50% of the total in 2000. The following table shows the
marine fish production in India for the period 1950-51 to 2005 -06.

States and Union Territory -wise marine fish production
Of the nine maritime states and four union territories, Gujarat ranks first in marine capture
production, followed by Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamilnadu
Sector-wise fish production
Northwest coast contributed 34% to the total marine fish production, followed by the southwest
coast (33%), southeast coast (23%) and the rest (10%) by the northeast coast during the same
period.
4.4. Fishing crafts and gears
The mechanized sector accounted for 67.9%, motorised sector 25% and artisanal sector 7.1% of the
total marine fish production during 2003. Motorisation of traditional crafts commenced during
1970's with plank built boats in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu followed by dug-out canoes
and catamarans fixed with out board motors in Kerala. The following table shows the details of the
state-wise fishing crafts.

The principal traditional fishing gears operated is cast net, beach seine (shore seine), bag net, boat
seine, gill net, trap, hook and line and other gears to suit the local conditions. Modern fishing gears
operated are shrimp trawl, bottom trawl, large gill net, purse seine and mid-water trawl. In addition
to this, unconventional methods such as electrofishing, light fishing, fish finders, echo-sounders are
also used. Besides, a number of other methods such as spearing, harpooning, roping etc. are used to
capture fish in certain areas. Perch traps used in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay area are made with
bamboo material and are used for trapping perches. Of the different gears, drift and set gill nets and
bag nets of varied mesh size are widely used along the east and west coasts while ring seines, purse
seines and mechanized gill nets are confined whereby to the southwest coast.
4.5. Seafood export trade
In India, seafood export contributes sizably to the national income. Seafood export earnings
increased from Rs. 2.46 crores in 1951 to Rs. 7245.30 crores in 2005- 2006. About 85% of the catch is
used for internal consumption i.e., for domestic market and the rest is utilized for exports. The
following table shows the details of the seafood exported during 1950 -2006.
The over all export of marine products has reached an ever time record of 1.6 billion US$ during the
year 2005 -2006. The total exports aggregated to 5, 121, 64 tonnes valued at Rs.7245.30 crores and
US$ 1644.21 million. European Union continued to be largest market for Indian marine products
during 2005-06. Its share was 26.72% in quantity, 29.46% in value and 29.44% in US$ realization.
USA, the second largest market had a share of 10.90%, 22.63%, 22.66% in quantity, value and US$

respectively. Japan is the third largest market in terms of value. Frozen shrimp continued to be the
largest item exported in terms of value with 59.02% and Frozen fish continued to be the major item
in terms of quantity with 35.60% during 2005 -2006. USA continued to be the major market for
Indian frozen shrimp with 31.90% followed by European Union with 27.98%, Japan with 20.25%,
South East Asia with 4.64% etc. During he year 2005-06, frozen shrimp was exported to 62 countries.
China is the main market for our frozen fish. 57.45% accounted to China, 13.65% to South East Asia,
7.31% to Middle East etc. Frozen fish was exported to 63 countries during the year 2000-2006. Our
main market for frozen cuttlefish was European Union with 73.50%, China with 14.45% etc.
European Union continued to be the main market for Indian frozen squid export with 69. 15%
followed by USA with 16.45%, Japan with 5.21%. Dried items were exported to 36 countries and the
major players were Hong Kong (38.98%), China (17.65%), Sri Lanka (14.35%) and Singapore (8.56%).
Live items were exported to 27 countries. Singapore was the main market for Indian live fish
(52.68%) followed by Hong Kong (26.52%), Thailand (14.37%) etc. Chilled fish were exported to 30
countries during 2005-06. Major markets for chilled fish were Singapore (23.26%), UAE (22.72%),
Thailand (15.22%) etc.
4.6. Fisheries sector in national income
The contribution of fisheries sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), rose from Rs. 245 crores in
1970-71 to Rs. 27,026 crores during 2003-04. The contribution of fisheries sector to the total GDP
ranged from 0.62% in 1970-71 to 1.07% in 2003 -04 with a peak, 1.41 % in 1997 -1998. Similarly, its
contribution to the GDP from agriculture varied from 1.46% in 1970-71 to 4.69% in 2003-04 with a
peak, 5.89% in 2002-03. The following table shows the contribution of fisheries sector to GDP.
Fish availability and consumption
In India, the per capita fish availability is about 9 kg, whereas the per capita requirement is about 12
kg. Unlike Indians, who consume relatively less fish, many Asian neighbors make good use of fish as
an important food source. Within India, the Bengalis and Keralites eat much more fish than the

national average of 3 kg/person/annum. (The average annual per capita fish consumption in India
was 4.5 kg during 1999 -2001).
Unit 5 - Major groups of Fisheries in India
5.1.1. Indian oil sardine
The Indian oil sardine, Sardinella longiceps belongs to the family, Clupeidae. This pelagic fish forms
schools in coastal waters and is strongly migratory. Of the fifty species of clupeoid fishes inhabiting
Indian seas, at least 25 species are found to be commercially important. These clupeoid fishes are of
great economic importance as a source of food and oil. Among the several clupeoid fishes, oil
sardine is the most abundant and important one. It contributes to nearly 15% of the total marine fish
production of India. This fishery is characterized by remarkably wide fluctuations on a seasonal,
annual and decadal scale. The success or failure of oil sardine fishery shows a remarkable influence
on the socio-economic status of fishermen to a large extent.
Distribution
Global
It is distributed in the northern and western parts of Indian Ocean only. It occurs along the coast of
Somalia, Kenya, Seychelles, Middle East, Pakistan, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and
Vietnam. Very large shoals of oil sardines occur along1he Somalia coast.
India
It is distributed from Gujarat to Kerala on the west coast and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
coasts on the east coast. Enormous schools, supporting the fisheris strike the Kerala and Karnataka
coasts. Though it is available up to 50 m depth, the maximum abundance is found to be within 30 m.
The optimum temperature and salinity ranges for distribution and abundance of oil sardine are 27 -
28°C and 22.8 -33.5 ppt respectively. Occasionally, they enter the estuaries along the southwest
coast.
Production trend
The maximum landing of 3.01 lakh tonnes which formed 33% of the total marine catch was in 1968
and the minimum of 7,412 tonnes which formed 1 % of the total marine catch was in 1956. About
95% of the total oil sardine landings were reported only from the southwest coastal states of Kerala
and Karnataka until 1980's. Catch was high in 1989 (2.89 Lakh t) and gradually declined thereafter till
1994 (47,000 t). However, since 1995, it started increasing. Since 1986, while oil sardine fishery
declining along the southwest coast, there has been a phenomenal rise in the landings along the
southeast coastal states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh while in the northeastern states of West
Bengal and Orissa, a new fishery has emerged from a position of almost no landings. It is a highly
fluctuating fishery, contributing 10 to 20 % of the total marine fish landings of the country with an
average of about 200 thousand tonnes.
Recent production
Pelagic fishes formed about 55 % of the total marine fish landings in general. Among the pelagic
fishes, oil sardine alone contributed 22.54% to 28.32% to the total pelagic fish landings and 11.51%
to 15.46% to the total marine landings during 2001 -2006.

Fishing season
Fishing season for oil sardine varies from one place to another place. It starts soon after the
outbreak of monsoon in June and continues till March - April along southwest coast. Fishing is
usually done throughout year except during Mar - May in Kerala, Sep/Oct - Jan in Karnataka and Goa
and July - Oct in Andhra Pradesh. Usually juveniles appear during July-August period along the coast
and they form a large proportion of the catch during Sep - Dec. However, 1 year and above age
groups appear during Jan - Feb.
Mode of exploitation
Oil sardine fishery has been exploited by the indigenous craft and gear from very early times. This
fishery was exploited by employing Artisanal fishing gears mainly boat seines, beach seines, cast nets
and small meshed gill nets were employed for catching oil sardines along the southwest coast till
1970's. This fishery was confined to a narrow coastal belt of 8 to 12 km within the 25 fathom line till
1975. Fishmen started employing larger fishing gears like purse seines in the late 70's and ring seines
in late 80's. In south Kerala, oil sardines are mainly caught by the one-boat boat seine ‘Thangu Vala’
and gill net 'Ayila Vala' and some purse seines. In North Kerala, boat-seine 'Pattan Kolli' is the major
gear, followed by the gill net 'Mathichala vala' and the cast net. The chief crafts employed in Kerala
are dugout canoes, the bigger 'odam' and the smaller 'vanchi'. Out rigger boats are common crafts in
Karnataka coast. In Tamil Nadu, pair trawlers are also operated at 12 -16 m depths in Pamban -
Rameshwaram area while ring seines being used in the Palk bay. At present, purse seine fleet
operates at 30 - 40 m depth almost throughout the year. Motorized ring seines target small pelagics
like oil sardine and mackerel fish in inshore waters during the monsoon season also. Purse seine is
the most important gear at present. However, shore seine (Rampani and Vendi) and cast net are the
gears commonly used for catching oil sardine.
Factors affecting fishery
I. Periodical migration into offshore waters
2. Heavy natural mortality
3.Availability of the diatoms (Fragillaria oceanica, Coscinodiscus and Pleurosigma)
4. Overfishing
5. El Nino
6. Water temperature
7. Rainfall
8. Ocean current.
Size composition
Commercial fishery comprises mainly of '0' year and '1' year old fishes. Small sized oil sardines of 0 -
year class, measuring 70 to 100 mm in length dominate the commercial catches-from August to
November. The bigger sized fishes of 100 to 200 mm dominate the catches in the later months
during the peak season which generally extends up to January.
Food and Feeding
It is predominantly a phytoplankton feeder, feeding mostly on diatoms like Fragillaria oceanica,
Coscinodiscus, Thallassiothrix and Pleurosigma. However, F. oceanica is the most favourite food
item. In addition to diatoms, they may also feed on copepods, dinoflagellates, ostracods, larval
prawn, larval bivalves, fish eggs and some bluegreen algae. The presence of diatoms, Fragillaria
oceanica in large numbers indicates the abundance of oil sardine in coastal waters.
Age at first maturity
It attains maturity at about the end of the first year at 150 mm size. Maturation is controlled by

climatic factors like temperature and intensity of rainfall experienced by the pre-spawners.
Spawning season
It grows rapidly during the first few months and matures early within its life span of about two and
half years. Just prior to spawning, the oil sardine leaves, the inshore waters. It spawns only once a
year and breeding season is rather short. Spawning season is prolonged with varying duration. On
the west coast, peak spawning occurs during June - Aug, while on the east coast, intense spawning
activity is observed during December to February. Juveniles are seen abundantly in the near shore
waters during July-September.
Fecundity
It is a prolific breeder and liberates about 38,000 -80,000 ova at a time depending upon the age, size
and condition of the fish.
Market
This fish is in good demand in local and distant markets and the fishery is fully exploited along the
southwest coast. On the east coast, demand for local consumption is low and most of the catch is
marketed in Kerala. During glut season, they are sun-dried and used for production of poultry feed.
Frozen sardine is exported to countries like Japan, USA, Austria, Belgium, Spain, UK, China, Bahrain,
Jordan, Kuwait, UAE, Australia, Kenya, New Zealand and Srilanka.
Utilization
A major bulk of the catch is disposed off in fresh condition. It also serves as a source for valuable by-
products like sardine oil used in several industries and fishmeal for cattle and poultry feed
production and as guano.
Conservation and management
There is an inverse relationship between the occurrence of oil sardine and Indian mackerel,
Rastrelliger kanagurta. Destructive fishing practices like using small meshed seines should be
effectively controlled by enforcing mesh size regulation (minimum 18 mm), closed season and
restricted fishing (June - Sep) besides strict licensing and optimum deployment of fishing units
especially ring seines and purse seines. Present coastal fishery scenario demands responsible fishing
by all sectors to sustain the fishery as well as ensure the socio-economic well being of the fishermen.
Necessary steps should be taken to exploit the offshore grounds to have better catch.
5.1.2. Lesser sardines
The lesser sardines belong to the families Clupeidae and Dussmieridae. Though lesser sardines rank
much lower than the oil sardines, they are of considerable importance. They are shoaling fishes, the
longer shoals striking the coastal waters seasonally resulting in quite good catches. They occur
commonly in the inshore waters along both the east and west coasts of India. The lesser sardines
comprising several species of Sardinella other than S. longiceps show wide distribution in the tropics
and are one of the major pelagic fishery resources of our country. They occur in the landings of all
the maritime states. However, they particularly contribute to a lucrative fishery along the southeast
and southwest coasts. Of the 15 species of lesser sardines in the Indo-Pacific region, 12 species occur
in the Indian waters. They are Sardinella jussieu (Tembang), S. gibbosa, S. fimbriata (Fringe-scale
sardine), S. albello (Short-bodied sardine), Amblygaster sirm (Spotted sardine / Trenched sardine), S.
dayi, S. clupeoides, (Bleeker smooth belly sardine) S. melanura (Black-tipped sardine), S. sindensis,
Kowala covala, Escualosa thoracata (White sardine), Dussumieria acuta (common sprat / rainbow

sardine) and D. hasseltii.
Distribution
Global
It is widely distributed along the east coast of Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar, Arabia,
India, Malay Archipelago, Australia, Polynesia, Micronesia, Phillipines, China, Taiwan, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka. Some of the lesser sardine species may not be represented in these countries.
India
They occur along both the east and west coasts. However, catches are abundant in North of Cape
comorin along the entire east coast.
Production trend
The catch of lesser sardines varied from 19,551 tonnes in 1962 (3.03% of total) to 1,112,117 tonnes
in 1975 (7.88% of total) during 1958 -1979. They contributed 2.9 -7.3% to the total annual marine
fish production of the country during 1986-2000; 4.8% during 1996-2000. The east coast contributed
65% during 1986-2000 (average: 67,172 t); West coast -35% (35,449 t). Tamil Nadu stood first in
lesser sardine production (average: 42,263 t, 43%) followed by Kerala (22%); Andhra Pradesh (17%)
and Karnataka (6%) in 2004.
Species composition
More than one species contribute to the lesser sardine fishery, forming a fishery throughout the
year. In the Goa-Karnataka coast, Sardinella gibbosa, S. dayi, S. fimbriata and S. albello are
abundant. Along the Kerala coast, S. gibbosa, S. sindensis and Amblygaster sirm dominate while S.
clupeoides, S. fimbriata, S. melanura and S. jonesi occur occasionally. S. albello and S. gibbosa are
dominant in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar regions while S. sirm is common between
Vizhinjam and Tuticorin. Along the central east coast, S. gibbosa, S. albella, S. dayi, S. sirm, S.
clupeoides, S. fimbriata and S. gibbosa are abundant.
Recent production
Size composition
The lesser sardines do not grow to a big size. 0 and 1-year classes mainly sustain the lesser sardine
fishery. Total length of the different species forming the fishery ranges from 4 to 20 cm. Fishing
season
Lesser sardines form a year round fishery in different regions of the country, but the fishing season,
species composition and catch rates vary between and within regions. On the east coast i.e., along
West Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh coast it extends from November to April-May and on the
southeast coast of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, it is done throughout the year. On the west coast, it
is from August to January/February in Kerala; Karnataka -September - November; Goa -September -
February; Maharashtra -December and April.
Traditional, motorised and mechanised boats are used for catching lesser sardines. Canoes and plank
built boats with outboard engines are also operated. Seines (shore seines, boat seines, ring seines
and purse seines), gillnets, bag nets and trawl nets are the gears commonly used for catching lesser

sardines.
Food and feeding habits
Lesser sardines feed on a variety of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplanktonic organisms
include Biddulphia, Coscinodiscus, Thallasiothrix, Fragilaria, Nitschia, Pleurosigma and zooplanktonic
organisms include Dinophysis, Peridinium, Caratium, copepods, mysis, Lucifer, larvae of prawns and
crabs, fish eggs, Acetes, fish larvae, crustacean larvae and molluscan larvae.
Spawning season
The lesser sardine species occurring along the two coasts show considerable variation in their
spawning seasons. The, spawning period for individual fish is of short duration, but the species as a
whole breed over a prolonged period.
Growth, maturity and spawning
The lesser sardines exhibit fast growth, short life span (2-3 years) and high natural mortality. Most of
the species attain 70% of their maximum length in the first year itself.
Fecundity
Fecundity of Sardinella albello is 10,000 - 13,000 in fish of 14.6 to 15.5 cm in length; Kowala coval -
about 15,000 eggs.
Marketing
They are consumed in the fresh/frozen/dried/salted-dried form. Smaller sized fishes are used for
making fish meal for preparation of poultry and fish feed.

Exploitation of this small pelagic fish from the coastal waters is sustainable and they are easily
vulnerable to the traditional sector. As no single species is harvested continuously, there is no excess
fishing pressure at present on the lesser sardines.
5.1.3. Anchovy
Anchovies belong to the family, Engraulidae. They are the small pelagic fishes and constitute one of
the most important pelagic resources in the world. In India, anchovies form the artisanal fisheries
and a major source of income for the traditional fishers.
Distribution
Global
Anchovies are distributed in the South Pacific Ocean, Northwest Pacific ocean, Mediterranean and
Black sea, Western Central Pacific-Indian Ocean.
India
It is widely distributed along both east coast and west coasts of India.
Production trend
Anchovy resource contributed an average catch of about 133,000 t during 1991-2000. The species,
which constitute the important fisheries, are Coilia dussumieri, Stolephorus spp, Thryssa spp.,
Thryssinna spp. and Setipinna spp. On the west coast of India, Kerala (Avg.: 20000 t; -1998-200 I) is
the leading state, followed by Gujarat (Avg: 24000 t; 1998-2001), Maharashtra (17,338 t; 1998 -200
I) and Karnataka (8,340 t; 1998-2001). On the east coast, Tamil Nadu is the leading state with an
average of 20,596 t (1997-1999) followed by Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal. The anchovy
production is the least in Orissa (Avg.: 3000 t 1999-2001).
Recent production
Species-wise catch
In Gujarat, C. dussumieri and Thryssa spp. constitute the fishery forming on an average 68% and 33%
respectively. In Maharashtra, C. dussumieri contributes on an average of 79.4%, Thryssa spp. 19.6%
Stolephorus spp. 1%. In Karnataka, Stolephorus spp. formed 64% and Thryssa spp. contributed 36%
to the fishery. The fishery in Kerala too is supported mainly by Stolephorus spp., (83%) and Thryssa
spp. (17%). On the southeast coast Stolephorus spp. (60%), Thryssa spp. (35%) and C. dussumieri (4%)
constituted the fishery in Tamil Nadu, whereas in Andhra Pradesh Stolephorus spp. (56%), Thryssa
spp. (41%) and C. dussumieri (3%) form the fishery. On the northeast coast Stolephorus spp.,
Setipinna spp., Thryssa spp and Coilia spp. contributed 35, 34, 21 and 10% respectively in Orissa. In
West Bengal Coilia spp. (51 %), Setipinna spp. (29%), Thryssa spp. (18%) and Stolephorus spp. (2%)
constitute the anchovy fishery. More number of species of Coilia constituted the fishery in West
Bengal and the notable among them are C. ramacarti, C. neglecta and C. reynaldi.
Plank built Satpati boat (Maharashtra & Gujarat); Catamarans, small country crafts with or without
outboard engines (Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu, Kerala), plank built boat with outboard engines

(Kerala and Karanataka) are the crafts commonly employed for exploitation of anchovies. Dol net
with mesh size, 5 -25 mm (Maharashtra, Gujarat); Bag net (Orissa and West Bengal), Boat seine,
Shore seine and Gillnet (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala), Purse seine (Maharashtra, Goa,
Kamataka, Kerala) and the Ring seine (Kerala, Karnataka) are the common gears used for the capture
of anchovies.
Characteristics of some of the important species of Anchovies
Peruvian anchovy, Engraulis ringens
It is a filter feeder entirely dependent on the phyto and zooplankton. Diatoms alone constitute as
much as 98%.
Japanese anchovy, Engraulis japonicus
It feeds on phytoplankton, viz. diatoms and dinoflagellates and zooplankton viz. copepods,
ostracods, cladocerans, amphipods and euphausiids. The crustacean plankton accounts for about
60%.
Golden anchovy, Coilia dussumeiri
It is a pelagic and largely marine, but enters estuaries and rivers also. It feeds on copepods,
ostracods, amphipods, fish and prawn larvae but prefers to feed on ostracods and Acetes spp.
Spawning season is from January to May. The individual spawns only once in a year. It grows to 22
cm and has short life span of less than two years. Earlier, it was exploited mainly as bycatch in dol
net. This species is consumed fresh and sun dried. Dry fish is bartered for rice in equal weight in
Gujarat.
Devis' anchovy, Encrasicholina devisi
The species is widely distributed in Indo-Pacific tropical water 30˚ N - 24°S. It is the most abundant
species among engraulids in India, and constitutes a fishery in Andhra pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala. The food of E. devisi comprised of copepods and other zooplankton. E. devisi
breed throughout the year with peak during October -November. The species grows at a faster rate
and attains the first year growth of about 110 mm. It is an important link in the food chain. It is
consumed both fresh as well as sundried. Value added products like anchovy powder, sauce, etc. are
prepared. It is also used as bait for hook and line fishery.
Stolephorus waitei
It constitutes a minor fishery in Andra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
The overall Maximum Sustainable Yield of all the commercially important species of genera Coilia,
Encrasicholina and Stolephorus constituting fisheries in India, other than Orissa and West Bengal is
estimated at 2,30,000 t whereas the present yield is about 1, 22, 000 t. During the last decade, the
resources became vulnerable to the trawlers also. The impact of changing fishing pattern is the
cause of concern in some states. However, they are annually renewable resources and hence their
periodical removal is desirable to make full use of the fishery. There is scope to expand the fishing
effort for targeting anchovies.
5.1.4. Whitebait
They are the small pelagic fishes. Ten species of white baits occur in our seas -Encrasicholina devisi,
E. heterolobus. E. punctifer (Stolephorus buccaneeri), Stolephorus andhraensis, S. baganensis (S.
macrops), S. commersonii, S. dubiosus, S. indicus, S. insularis and S. waitei (S. bataviensis). Dominant
species available throughout the coast are E. devisi, S. bataviensis. E. punctifel; S. commersonii. S.
indicus and S. baganensis. However, E. devisi and S. bataviensis constitute the mainstay of the

fishery along both coasts and other species occur seasonally. The availability and abundance of all
these species indicate inter-annual variations. They are distributed mostly in areas with bottom
depths of 10-50 m and indicate diurnal vertical migration. The seasonal movements of whitebaits
are directly related to the transport of water masses.
Distribution
Global
They are distributed in the Indo-Pacific region.
India
They are abundant in southern states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Very
little catch is obtained from Maharashtra too.
Production trends
They show wide annual fluctuations. The production varied from 33,680 t in 1980 to 1 lakh t in 1988.
Recent production.
State-wise contribution
The landings of white baits from the southern states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka accounted for 75-97% of the total production of whitebait. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh together contributed nearly 97% of the total production of white baits during
the last decade. Kerala stood first (54.2%), followed by Tamil Nadu (19;.9%); Andhra Pradesh
(12.1%); Karnataka (11.3%); Orissa (1.4%); Goa (0.2%); Maharashtra (0.2%); West Bengal (0.1%) and
Gujarat (0.003%) during 1981-2000.
Catamarans, small country crafts, shrimp trawler and plank built boat fitted with outboard motors
are the crafts commonly used for catching whit baits. Boat seine (cod end mesh, 10 mm), shore
seine (cod end mesh 10-20 mm), gill net (Netholi vala) of 15 mm mesh, shrimp trawls (cod end mesh,
15 mm), purse seine (cod end mesh, 14 - 20 mm) and ring seines are the common gears.
Species composition
In Karnataka, E. devisi (75.6%) dominated the catch during 1995 - 2000. This was followed by S.
waitei (11.9%), E. punctifer (10.9%) and S. baganensis (1.3%). Principal gears employed were purse
seine (51%) and trawl (47%). In Kerala too, E. devisi dominated the catch (48%), followed by S. waitei
(30%), S. commersonii (16%), S. baganensis (3%), E. punctifer (2%) and S. andhraensis (1%). The
gearwise catch was ring seine (53%), trawl (32%) and others (15%). However, along south east region
i.e, in Tamil Nadu, S. indicus (96%) and S. commersoni (4%), but in northern areas E. devisi (60%), S.
waitei (20%), S. commersoni (15%) and S. indicus (5%) supported the fishery. Principal gears used
were trawl (36%), non-mechanised gill net (34%), shore seine (17%) and others the rest. A long the
northeast coast, the main contribution was from Andhra Pradesh.

Food and feeding
Food of E. devisi, S. waitei, S. baganensis and E. punctifer mainly comprises of copepods, Acetes spp.
mysids and other zooplankters.
Spawning season
S. waitei spawns intermittently throughout the year; E. devisi spawns almost throughout the year.
Fecundity
Fecundity is around 1700-6790 eggs for E. devisi of 60-95 mm and 300- 4800 eggs for S. waitei of 80 -
120 mm during the course of multiple spawning.
Utilization
They are consumed fresh and in dried form. Large species like S. commersonii and S. indicus possess
good demand; but they are seasonal in occurrence and not landed in good quantity.
In the east coast, S. commersonii is under high fishing pressure while exploitation of E. devisi is at
optimum level and S. indicus and S. waitei are underfished. In the west coast, in Karnataka, E. devisi
is under high fishing pressure, but S. waitei is underfished. In Kerala, E. devisi and S. commersonii are
exploited at optimum level and S. waitei is underexploited. As the potential yield of white bait is 2,
40,000 t, good scope is available to increase the present yield. Whitebaits are annually renewable
resources and hence their periodic harvest during seasons of abundance is important to make full
use of the fishery. Increasing the fishing pressure during the peak seasons of availability may be a
practical option to enhance the whitebait production in the country. Since the whitebaits being a
non-target species in most of the gears in which it is caught (except the Choodavala operated by ring
seine units), the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and the effort required to obtain the MSY could
be decided only in consideration with stock position of other resources caught in the gears.
5.1.5. Indian mackerel
The mackerels are shoaling pelagic fishes belonging to the family, Scombridae. It is the second
important species after the oil sardine in India. The well-being of the marine fishing industry of India
is determined to a large extent by the sustaining yields from the mackerel fishery. The bulk of the
mackerel landings are contributed by a single species, Rastrelliger kanagurta (Indian mackerel). In
addition to this, species such as R. brachysoma (Short mackerel) and R. faughni (Island mackerel)
have also been reported to occur in India. However, their occurrence is very rare.
Distribution
Global
It occurs in coastal bays, harbours and deep lagoons in some turbid plankton rich waters. It is widely
distributed in the tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific oceans, extending from the African coast
to Australia i.e., between Latitude 300 North and 300 South and Longitudes 300 East and 1600 West.
But it is only in Indian coast this species is highly exploited.
India
It occurs all along the east and west coasts of India from Karwar in the Northwest coast to Calcutta in
the Northeast coast in the inshore waters up to 25 m. Dense shoals of Indian mackerel appear
regularly from Sep - Mar along the west coast of India from Ratnagiri in the north to Kollam (Quilon)
in the south. More than 75% of the total mackerel catch of the country comes from the west coast
and the fishery until late 70's was mostly confined to a narrow coastal belt of a width of almost 10
nautical miles.
Production trend
It constituted on an average 8.6% to the total marine fish production in the country during 1985 -
2000. During the last decade (1990 -1999), the average annual catch of this species amounted to
0.19 million tones. Though distributed all along the Indian coast, the resource supports a fishery of

high magrtitude along the west coast where it contributed 10.2% of the total marine fish catch
during 1985 -2000 whereas the east coast was only 4.9%. Along the west coast, on an average 84.6%
of the total landings were made. Along the east coast from where 15.4 % of the catch is realized,
Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry dominate.
Recent production
It contributed 6.78% in 2002 to 10% in 2005 % to the total pelagic fish landings in India during 2001 -
2006. Its contribution to the total marine fish production ranged from 3.64 % in 2002 to 5.52% in
2004 during 2001 - 2006.
State-wise composition (during 1956 -2000)
Fishing season
It is from August to December along the west coast and from December to May (Peak: March -April)
along the east coast.
Beach seines, boat seines, drift net, gill net and cast net are the common traditional gears and dug-
out canoes, canoe boats, catamarans and plank-built boats are the common crafts used for catching
Indian Mackerels. However, bulk of the catch is mainly by large seines. Ring seines are very common
in Kerala and purse seines in Karnataka and Maharashtra. Ring seines and purse seines together
contribute bulk of the total mackerel catch in India. In other states, gill net is the dominant gear.
Trawl net is slowly emerging as a main gear.
Size composition
The commercial fishery exploits mackerel of 18 cm size which are six months old. West coast catch
comprises of size ranging from 110 to 150 mm and east coast from 175 - 215 mm. The major
contribution to the commercial catch comes from 0-year class. About 80 -90% of fish in the
commercial catch comes from size below 22 cm.

Food and feeding
It is a plankton feeder feeding to a greater extent on small zooplankton (cladocerans, ostracods,
larval polychaetes etc.) and comparatively to a lesser extent on the phytoplankton (diatoms). Adult
individuals feed on macroplankton such as larval shrimps and fish.
Size at first maturity
It is found to be between 190 and 220 mm.
Spawning season
They start maturing by around December. They become mature and start spawning by February.
Intensive spawning occurs from Apr/May - July. Spawning intensity increases and reaches a peak by
May. Peak spawning period coincides with south-west monsoon along the west coast and with
north-east monsoon along the east coast.
Age and growth
Maximum size recorded is 390 mm.
Utilization
It is consumed fresh or in cured conditions. More than half of the mackerel catches are dried with or
without salt. Consumption of fresh fish started gaining momentum recently.
Management
Even though there is no sign of over exploitation, growth overfishing is bound to occur as fishes
below 15 cm size form about half of the catch. Hence, it is necessary to increase mesh size of large
seines to 35 mm.
5.1.6. Tuna
The tunas also known as the "tunnies" are fishes of the family, Scombridae. They are shoaling pelagic
fishes. They constitute one of the economically important marine fisheries resources, but are caught
mainly by small scale sector. The meat of tuna both in fresh and processed form is much in demand
all over the world. They are tropical and subtropical in their distribution in the world oceans. They
commonly occur in the oceanic waters beyond the territorial limits of the fishing nations than in the
coastal waters. A few of them are neretic occupying shallow waters and are called coastal tunas. The
coastal tunas are cheaper than the oceanic tunas. Tunas are very popular as one of the best table
fishes in western and other eastern countries whereas, in India, tunas are not relished as good as
their counterparts like seerfish and mackerel. While comparing to other developed and developing
countries involved in tuna fishing, the exploitation of tuna along Indian waters is limited to the
coastal neretic zone and remain to be in its infant stage.
Distribution
Global
Tuna is distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean and Atlantic
Ocean. Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, USA, China, Taiwan, Spain, Korean Republic, France, Mexico,
Thailand, Venezuela and Maldives are the leading tuna producing countries in the world. Bulk of the
Indian Ocean tuna are caught by Japan, USSR, Taiwan, Korea and other countries.
India
Tuna is distributed along the south-west and east coast and Lakshadweep. They are highly abundant
in Lakshadweep islands, Goa, Vizhinjam and Ratnagiri coasts.
Common tuna species
The commonly occurring tuna species in the fisheries are Euthynnus affinis (Little tuna/Kawakawa),
Auxis thazard (Frigate tuna), A. rochei (Bullet tuna), Katsuwonus pelamis (Skipjack tuna), Thunnus

tonggol (Longtail tuna), T. albacores, (Yellowfin tuna) and Sardo orientalis (Striped bonito, Oriental
bonito), Gymnosarda unicolor (Dogtooth tuna) and Thunnus obesus (Bigeye tuna).
Production trend
Tunas of the oceanic region remain underexploited in the Indian EEZ. Among the resources
identified, the yellowfin tuna constitutes the major species in all the regions. Bigeye tuna dominates
in the equatorial region, while skipjack tuna is abundant in the northwest region. The potential of
coastal tuna resources and oceanic tuna resources from the Indian Ocean have been estimated at 2,
35,000 t and 50,000 t respectively. At present, tuna fishing is restricted to near shore waters only.
Except the Lakshadweep group of Islands where organized fishery for skipjack tuna takes place, in
other regions, there is no organized fishery for tuna. In India, the total annual catch is about 40,000 -
60,000 t, fonning about 3.5% of the total pelagic fish production and 2% of the total marine
production. Region-wise production indicated that the northwest coast contributed 24.1% south-
west 41.2%, Southeast 16.6%, northeast 1%, Andaman-Nicobar Islands 2.5% and Lakshadweep
14.8% of the total tuna landings during 1985-2000. State-wise production indicated that among the
maritime states, Kerala contributed 36 % of the total landings, followed by Gujarat 18.1%, Tamil
Nadu 11.6%, Maharashtra 5.9%, Karnataka 5.3%, Andhra Pradesh 4.4%, Goa 2.2% and the rest by the
Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands during 1985 - 2000. Pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons
are the productive periods along the southwest coast of India and the post-monsoon period along
Maharashtra and Gujarat coasts. Productive periods for tunas in Lakshadweep is December -
February and in Andaman - Nicobar islands is March -August.
Recent production
Tuna contributed 3 - 4% to the total pelagic fish landings during 2002 - 2006. Its production (in
tonnes) during 2001 -2006 is as follows:
Species composition
The tuna fishery is mainly dominated by Euthynnus affinis (about 50%), followed by, Auxis thazard
(16%), T. albacores (10%), Katsuwonus pelamis (9%), Thunnus tonggol (9%), A. rochei (3%) and Sarda
orientalis (3%). E. affinis and A. thazard are the major species along both the coasts whereas T.
tonggol and T. albacares are along the northwest coast. Sarda orientalis support a minor fishery
along the southwest coast. Gymosarda unicolor is mainly caught by handlines in Andomans and by
pole and line at Lakshadweep.

The pole and line with live bait is used in the traditional tuna fishery in the Lakshadweep islands.
Principal gears employed are drift gillnets, hook and lines, purse seines, pole and lines and troll lines.
Long line gear is employed in the fishery for yellowfin and bigeye tunas in the oceanic waters. Drift
gill nets contributed 56%, hooks and lines 16%, pole and line 11 %, purse seine 9% and troll line 8%
during 1985-2000. Purse seining has been introduced recently in the Indian Ocean which is the most
important gear in this ocean. The live-baits commonly exploited for tuna pole and lining in
Lakshaweep islands include the sprats, apogonids, caesionids, artherinids and pomacentrids.
Fishing season
Though tunas are caught throughout the year, the peak season extends from October -May for the
most of the species. Fishing season of Auxis thazard is from August to December; Sardo orientalis;
August. October; Gymnosarda unicolor: January -March; Euthynnus affinis: October -May; Thunnus
obesus: October -May; Thunnus albacores: Oct -Jan and Skipjack tuna: December - March.
Food and feeding
Tunas are carnivores and the major food items include crustaceans (larvae, juveniles and adults of
shrimps and crabs), cephalopods Guveniles and adults), eggs, larvae and juveniles of fishes,
whitebaits and other small pelagics.
The size at first maturity of E. affinis is 43 - 44 cm; A. thazard - 30 cm; .A. rochei - 23 cm; K. pelamis -
44 - 45 cm.
Spawning season
E. affinis spawns during the premonsoon (April- May) and Post-monsoon (October -November); A.
thazard -August -November; A. rochei -August - October; Skipjack tuna spawns throughout the year
with the peak from January - April. The spawning seasons of yellow fin tuna are January -May;
November- April; December -June in different oceanic sectors of the Indian EEZ.
Age and Growth
Factors affecting tuna fishery
1. Temperature
2. Current velocity

3. Food availability
Utilization
In general, about 73% of the total tuna landed are iced and marketed fresh for consumption. 10%
are used for Masmin production; Masmin is exported to Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore. 9 % are
frozen, chilled and exported chiefly to the Gulf countries. Yellowfm tuna, skipjack tuna and bigeye
tuna are the main tuna species exported as frozen tuna. 4% of them are used for canning; 3% are
salt dried for internal market.
The use of improved gear and mechanisation resulted in the increase in production of bullet tuna (A.
rochei) from southwest coast, longfin tuna (T. tonggol) and young yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) along
the northwest coast. Similarly, strategy should be adopted in other parts of Indian coast also.
However, mostly tuna fishing is done only in the inshore region and there are no well organised tuna
fisheries. Hence, most of the tuna landed are of small species and juveniles. The major resources are
exploited by foreign fleets. Hence, it is necessary to utilise the deep sea oceanic resource by using
purse seine..
5.1.7. Seerfish
Seerfishes or Spanish-mackerels (Family: Scombridae) are one of the commercially important marine
shoaling pelagic finfish resources of India of high commercial value. Some of the species grow to
very large size. The fishery is sustained by four species such as the king seer (Scomberomorus
commerson), the spotted seer (S. guttatus), the streaked seer (S. lineolatus) and the wahoo
(Acanthocybium solandri). Of these, the first two species are more common than the last two
species. They usually hunt solitary and swim in shallow water along coastal slopes. They are known
to undertake lengthy long shore migrations, but permanent resident populations also seem to exist.
Distribution
Global
It is distributed in Red sea, east coast of Africa, India, Srilanka, Burma, Malaya to Australia, Fiji and
Western Pacific Ocean along Sunda archipelago, Thailand, Phillippines, Taiwan and Japan.
India
It is distributed along the east and west coasts and in the Andaman and Laccadive islands. King seer
is dominant along the mid-eastern (Orissa, Andhra Pradesh), southeastern (Tamil Nadu), south-
western (Kerala) and mid-western (Karnataka, Goa) coasts. The spotted seer is dominant along
north-east coast (West Bengal) and northwest coast (Maharashtra, Gujarat).
Production trend
The potential of seer fish resources has been estimated as 50,000 tonnes. The average annual catch
was 14,954 t during 1990-99. Along the east coast, Tamil Nadu stood first in production, contributing
38%, followed by Andhra Pradesh (35%), Orissa (16%), West Bengal (6%), Andamans (4%) and
Pondicherry (1%). Along the west coast, Gujarat contributed 40%, followed by Maharashtra (25%),
Kerala (20%), Karnataka (7%), Goa (6%) and Lakshadweep (0.3%). King seer contributed 62.8% and
spotted seer, 36.6% during 1995-1999. In 2000, production was 50,376 t, which formed just 1.85% of
the total marine fish production.
Recent production

Species composition
Size composition
Mean size of king seer was 40.6 cm. and 39 cm for spotted seer during 1996-2000.
Fishing season
Fishing season is influenced by the monsoons along both the coasts. Along the west coast, the
season is from October to May with a peak during November -December. In Tamil Nadu, the season
is from March -October while it is February to May in Andhra Pradesh.
Gill net (major gear); trawls, boat seines, shore seines and purse seines are the gears commonly used
for catching seer fish. Owing to their high unit value and economic returns, they support artisanal
fisheries and are a major source of income for gill net and hook and line fishermen of the country. In
recent years, they are also caught in appreciable quantities by trawl from the deeper waters,
enhancing the financial returns to the boat owners.
Food and feeding
They are carnivorus and predominantly piscivorus. They occasionally feed on prawns, squids and
cuttlefishes. The piscivorus tendency is more pronounced in larger fishes. They prefer sardines and
whitebaits. Juveniles prefer
Minimum size at first maturity
The minimum size at first maturity in S. guttatus is 480-520 mm. S. commerson, S.guttatus and S.
lineolatus mature at 750 mm, 405 and 700 mrn in length respectively.
Fecundity
S. commerson: 0.70 -3.5 million /2- 5 years
S. gutlatus: 0.56 -2.1 million /2 -4 years
S. lineolatus: 0.39 -1.1 million /2 -4 years
Spawning season:
All the three species, the king seer, streaked seer and spotted seer have a protracted spawning
season that extends from January - August with a peak in April -May in the Indian waters.
Age and growth
The king seer grows very rapidly during the first year of its life reaching an average size of 93 cm and
attains 122 cm, 131 cm, 135 cm and 136 cm at the end of 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year. The length at

ages of one to four years for spotted seer is 51 cm, 65 cm, 69 cm and 74 cm respectively. The total
life span in the fishery is 5+ years for king seer and 4+ years for spotted seer.
Marketing and utilization
They are very much in demand both in fresh and cured condition. They fetch very high price, ranging
from Rs. 80 - 200 per kg. They are consumed, mostly in fresh form. Smaller fishes are easily handled
and sold in the local markets; larger fishes are transported in ice to bigger cities. A part of the catch
is exported in the form of frozen fish.
The stock size of king seer has been reduced over a period of time due to continuous increase in
exploitation by different gears. Similarly, the stock of spotted seer has also been reduced to some
extent, but not as king seer. Gill nets and multi-day trawls at present heavily exploit seerfish stocks
and there is need to reduce the effort of these gears. It is necessary to increase the minimum size at
first capture by increasing the mesh size to a minimum of 130 mm to avoid recruitment over fishing.
The hooks and line and large meshed gill nets target mostly larger sized seerfishes and other pelagics
like tunas, barracudas and sharks. These gears need to be encouraged for sustainable catch in the
inshore fishing grounds. Operation of these gears needs to be extended to deeper waters.
5.1.8. Ribbonfish
The ribbonfishes (Hair-tailor Cutlass) are shoaling pelagic fishes. They belong to the family,
Trichiuridae. They are primarily marine, but occur in the estuaries too. This group is comprised of
Trichiurus lepturus (Grey ribbonfish), T. russelli (Short tailed hair tail), T. gangeticus (Ganges hairtail),
Lepturacanthus savala (Silver ribbonfish), L. pantuli (Coromandel hairtail), Eupleurogrammus
intermedius, E. muticus (Small head hairtail) and E. glossodos (Long tooth hairtail). Of these species,
Trichiurus lepturus is the most common ribbonfish species. They are caught almost all along the
Indian coast. They form an exclusive fishery of considerable importance in Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu and Kerala.
Distribution
Global
They are distributed in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific regions.
India
They are distributed all along the coast with abundance in the northwest and central east coasts.
Production trend
The ribbonfish extends all along the coasts of India with varying intensity in the different maritime
states. The ribbon fish landing in India has shown an increasing trend with considerable annual
fluctuations. On an average, it formed 4.4% of the total fish landings and 7% of the pelagic landings
during 1956-2000. They are exploited all along the coast of India and the bulk of the landings during
1956-2000 came from Gujarat and Maharashtra, followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh. The contribution by other states was less than 10%. In the nineties, nearly 39% of the
ribbonfish landings came from Gujarat, followed by Maharashtra (27%) and Kerala (11%). The
contributions by other states were much less. Juveniles of T. lepturus measuring less than 30 cm are
normally discarded, since there is no market value. Plenty of juveniles are landed along with the
trash fishes by the trawlers during the recruitment season.

Recent production
Species composition
Of the several species of ribbon fishes, Trichiurus lepturus is the dominant species forming more
than 95% of the total ribbon fish landings. Other species are caught in less numbers. These are
mostly reported from northeast coast (Andhra Pradesh and Orissa) where they together constitute
about 14% of the ribbonfish catch. The contribution of species other than Trichiurus lepturus is only
5% of the total ribbonfish production in India.
Size composition
The maximum size of ribbon fishes ranges from 50 cm (T. gangeticus) to 234 cm (T. lepturus), grows
to larger size and fish measuring > 1 m total length are common along the Indian coast. Fishes of one
year old and above dominate in the fishery along the west coast and their mean length ranges from
58 to 69 cm. In the east coast, the fishery depends on 0-year class fish having the mean length
varying from 42 to 50 cm.
Fishing season
The ribbonfishes move to the inshore areas of the continental shelf during monsoon, remain close to
the shore in areas less than 60 m depth in the post monsoon period and contribute abundantly to
the fishery. This migration is mainly for feeding purposes. The place where the continental shelf is
narrow and gradient is steep the stock becomes unavailable to the fishery leading to an off-season.
The place where the continental shelf is narrow and gradient is steep the stock becomes, unavailable
to the fishery leading to an off-season. If the continental shelf is wider and gradient is low, it always
remains in the fishing ground and is accessible to the fishing gears throughout the year. Hence,
ribbon fishes are landed round the year in both the coasts. In southeast coast and Gulf of Mannar,
the shelf is narrow, leading to a seasonal fishery, restricted to a few months in the monsoon and
post monsoon periods. The ribbon fish has a prolonged fishing season, extending from July to April
but the peak varies from area to area. In West Bengal, it is from November -February whereas in
Orissa, July to November. In Andhrapradesh, the season is from August to December while it is from
November to January in Tamilnadu and September to December in Maharashtra. The peak
production in the national level is generally from October –December.
The principal gear is trawl net. This gear landed 74% of the catch during 1991-2000. The other gears
are dolnet, drift gill net, boat seine, shore seine, etc. The mechanized sector (trawl net, gill net, purse
seine and others) contributed about 85% and the rest is from the non-mechanised and outboard-
motorized sectors.
Food and feeding
All the species of ribbonfishes are highly carnivorous, predominantly piscivorous and occasionally
cannibalistic too. They are voracious feeders, feeding both during day and night. They prefer small

and medium size fishes, prawns and shrimps.
The size at first maturity of the most common species, Trichiurus lepturus is 46 -47 cm when it is
about 1 year old. It is 30cm in E. intermedius and about 43 cm in E. muticus.
Spawning
T. lepturus has a prolonged spawning in some areas. On the west coast, the peak spawning is in April
- June. In the east coast, it spawns during February to June with peak in May. Another short duration
spawning also has been reported in November -December.
Fecundity
T. lepturus is found to lay up to 1, 34,000 ova depending on the size and age. It is from 4000 (42 cm)
to 16,000 (60 cm). The fecundity of E. intermedius varies from 2349 (40.9 cm) to 9950 (45cm). In E.
muticus, it is from 1327 (49.5cm) to 2087 (55.lcm) and in L. savala it varies from 9178 (37 cm) to
17347 (54 cm).
Utilization
In India, three decades ago, they were low priced fishes preferred only by the poor. Large fishes
were consumed fresh and transported even to the interior markets, but the smaller ones, in excess
of the local requirements, were usually sun-dried on the beach. But at present, they are significantly
important in the export market. Currently, large quantities of ribbon fishes are exported in the
frozen form to China, Japan and other Southeast Asian countries. During 2000-01, it formed 30% of
the total seafood exported and 63% of total frozen finfish exported. This shows that the ribbon fish
resource plays a key role in the marine product export of India. Only undamaged fresh fish are
considered for export. Ribbonfish formed 56% of total frozen fish export (quantitywise) - 81720
tonnes; valuewise - 35% (Rs. 638.7 crores). Ribbonfish stands first position in the export of frozen
fish -both valuewise and quantitywise. The local people consume large sized fresh fish while the
undersized are sun-dried. A portion of the dried fish is sold in the interior markets and the rest is
exported to Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, etc. The under-
sized fish brought ashore goes with the trash and are utilized in fishmeal production.
In a multispecies fishery, it is impractical to regulate the exploitation of a single resource like the
ribbon fishes. The ribbonfish landings have been showing annual fluctuations but still it has been
maintaining an increasing trend of slightly higher-magnitude in recent years. This is due to resource
abundance on one hand and increased exploitation on the other. The export market has paved the
way for targeted fishing of this resource recently leading to certain degree of over exploitation in
major centres, especially along the east coast. It is necessary to control the exploitation during the
period of abundance through various regulatory measures
5.2.1. Carangids
The carangid fishes in general include horse mackerels, round scads, queen fishes, trevallies,
leatherjackets and pompanos. They belong to the family, Carangidae. They have emerged as one of
the important resources especially in the mechanised sector but also exploited by motorized and
non-motorised sector. Carangid fishes in India is represented mainly by 36 species (21 genera) such
as Alectis indicus (Indian thread-fin trevally), A. ciliaris (Redfin trevally), Alepes djedaba (Djedaba
trevally), A. para (Golden scad), Alepes kalla (Trevally), Atropus atropus (Kuwest trevally), Atule mate
(One-fin let scad), Caranx sexfasciatus (Dusky trevally), C. carangus (Black-tailed trevally), C. ignobilis
(Yellowfin trevally), C. melampygus (Bluefin trevally), C. para, Coryphaena hippurus (Dolphinfish),

Carangoides armatus (Longfin trevally), C. malabaricus (Malabar trevally), C. oblongus (Coach-whip
trevally), C. chrysophrys (Long-nose trevally), C. ferdau (Ferdau's cavalla), Decapterus russellii
(Round-scad), D. kurroides (Scad), D. dayi (Day's scad), Elegatis bipinnulata (Rainbow runner),
Megalaspis cordyla (Horse mackerel), Parastromateus niger (Black pomfret), Rachycentron canadus
(Black kingfish), Scomberoides lysan (Talang leather-skin), S. commersonianus (Talang queen fish), S.
tala (Deep queenfish), S. tal (Slender queenfish), Selar hoops (Banded scad), S. crumenophthalmus
(Bigeye scad), Seriolina nigrofasciata (Black-banded kingfish), Selaroides leptolepsis (Yellow - strip
trevally), Trachinotus blochii (Sub-nose pompano) and T. botla (Russel's pompano). Other species
occur in stray catches.
Distribution
Global
They are distributed in the warm waters of Indo-Pacific regions and Atlantic Ocean.
India
They occur along both the east and west coasts of India. However, they are highly abundant in
southern most states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They are confined in their distribution to shallow
waters upto about 10 fathoms depth, where they breed.
Production trend
This group stood 9th position with a production of 1.11 lakh tonnes, constituting 4.1 % of total
marine fish production in India during 2000. Similarly, it ranked fourth among the pelagic fishes.
Kerala contributed the highest (40.2%), followed by Tamil Nadu (16.5%), Karnataka (12.5%),
AndhraPradesh (7.2%), Gujarat (6.4%), Goa (5.2%), Orissa (1.2%), Pondicherry (0.9%), West Bengal
(0.6%), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (0.5%) and Lakshadweep (0.1%) during 1964 - 2000. Among
the four major groups, the most dominant is the scads forming about 40%, followed by the horse
mackerel 13%, leather jackets 5% and the rest 42% by other carangids during 1983 -2000.
Recent production
Major groupwise production

Species composition
In general, the small sized scads such as Decapterus spp, Horse mackerel, M. cordyla and bigeye
scad, S. crumenophthalmus constitute a fishery all along the Indian coast. The species composition in
the catch depends on the selective properties of the gears employed. Decapterus dayi (43.5%)
dominated in the trawl catch. This was followed by D. macrosoma (6.7%), Selar crumenophthalmus
(8.9%), Horse mackerel, M. cordyla (6.9%), trevally Caranx para (9.8%), C. carangus (3.6%), Selaroides
leptolepis (1.5%) and the remaining 19.1% is constituted by a number of other species. Megalaspis
cordyla (37.3%) dominated in the gill net landings followed by Carangoides gymnostethus (6.2%),
Caranx sexfasciatus (4%), Scomberoides spp. (8.1%), Elagatis bipinnulata (3.1%), S.
crumenophthalmus (2.8%), Scomberoides tala (1.7%), Alepes djedaba (0.7%) and the rest 36.1 % by
other species collectively. The purse seine landed very few species of carangids and in that A.
djedaba was the dominant species (42.7%) followed by C. para (16%), D. macrosoma (16%) and M.
cordyla (2.4). More number of species occur at Tuticorin due to the unique biodiversity supported by
21 coral islands in the Gulf of Mannar.
Carangids are caught as by catch along with other fishes in the gears such as Trawls, drift gill nets,
bottom set gillnets, hooks & line, purse seine, ring seine, shore seine, boat seine and bag nets.
However, the trawls, gill nets, hooks & line, purse seine and boat seine exploit the carangids more
effectively than the other gears. This group is exploited mainly by mechanized sector rather than
motorized and non-motorised sector.
Food and feeding
They are piscivorous feeding mostly on fishes like anchovies, sardines, Thrissocles spp., Apogon spp.,
silver bellies and ribbon fish among fishes, squids' and cuttlefishes among the molluscs and prawns
and crabs among the crustaceans. The young ones feed more on prawns, squids and anchovies and
the adult mostly on fishes, prawns, crabs and molluscs.
Age and growth
Almost all the species exhibit faster growth and have a short life span varying from 2 to 6.6 years.
Small growing species like Selaroides leptolepis attain a maximum of 185 mm where as queen fishes
and jacks grow to 1 - 2 m. The smaller species usually occur in large schools in shallow waters. Owing
to their faster growth, prolonged spawning and continued recruitment, these species are able to
withstand the higher fishing pressure prevailing at present.
Many carangid species form only a bycatch in almost all the gears except in small meshed drift gill
nets, boat seine and shore seine. The landings by these gears are negligible. Hence, it is difficult to
propose any specific regulatory measures exclusively for judicious exploitation of carangid resource.
Fishery is sustained by many fast growing species with short life span and that provides them better
scope to compete with other resources in the process of species succession. The study on some of
the carangids suggests that there is scope for further increase in carangid production in the future.
5.2.2. Bombay-duck
The Bombay-Duck, Harpadon nehereus belongs to the family, Harpadontidae. It is supported by this
single species only. It forms a commercial fishery in the northwest along Gujarat and Maharastra
coast; also available in northeast coasts of India. It exerts a pronounced influence on the livelihood
of men and women engaged in this labour intensive sector in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Distribution

Global
It is distributed along Tanzania to China coast; India, Pakistan, East Pakistan, Burma and straits of
Malacca coasts.
India
It is discontinuously distributed along the Indian coasts.
Discontinuous distribution
Bombay duck occurs in large quantities on the west coast of India from Ratnagiri in the south to
Jaffrabad in the north in the Gulf of Cambay. On the east coast, it is taken in small numbers north of
Chennai and along the Andhra coast. But there is a good Bombay-duck fishery exists in the estuaries
of the rivers in Orissa and West Bengal.
Production trend
It is abundant along the northwest coast of India contributing around 90% of all India landings of this
resource followed by West Bengal and other states. This species contributes about 5% of all India
marine fish landings. The Bombay duck catch ranged from 51, 570 (1972) to 1, 26, 044 t (1979)
during 1958 -1979 constituting 5.02% to 14.01%. The present average annual landing has been
estimated at 1.1 lakh tonnes by traditional and industrial sector along the northwest (88%) and
northeast (12%) coasts of India.
Recent production
Size composition
Larger and older fishes are usually scarce in commercial catches. Fishes ranging from 30-330 mm, in
total length support the fishery. Indetenninate and immature fish below total length of 208 mm
constitute seventy percent of the landings.
Stationary bag net / fixed bag net is the principal gear used for the capture of Bombay- Duck. This
gear is known as dol in Gujarat and Maharashtra and as beenjal/ behundijal or thorjal in West
Bengal. Boat seines are used on the Andhra -Orissa Coasts.
Food and feeding
They are piscivorous and to some extent cannibalistic. They feed on the juveniles of their own
species, other fishes and non-penaeid prawns. The crustaceans like Acetes indicus and Palaemon
tenuipes and fishes like Coilia dussumieri. Polynemus species and Heptadore typus form the main
constituents of diet.
Minimum size at maturity
Minimum size at maturity in the female is between 200 -240 mm. They normally attain maturity at
the end of second year.
Spawning
It is a continuous spawner but the individuals are out of phase with each other. However, two peak
spawning periods, May-July and November-December commonly occur.

Fecundity
It ranges from 15,000 to 1, 50,000 based on the size and age.
Utilization
The catches are sold fresh. As the yield is low in these days, commercial drying on bamboo
scaffoldings which was very common in the past, does not take place now. It is also a valuable export
item in dried or laminated form. Fresh extracts have considerable medicinal properties. It is a highly
perishable fish due to high water content. Hence, it has to be disposed off quickly if it is to be
consumed fresh.
The area of production (offshore) and area of harvest (coastal water) differs. This renders projection
of total availability complicated not only by the mobility of the species but also by the reaction of the
species to coastal environmental factors and intensity of fishing effort. Therefore, the fluctuations in
yield are likely to be a reflection of changes in the 'catchability'. The Bombay- duck has been
exploited with a mixture of success and failure in the past. Large- scale landings of indetenninate and
immature fish have been a source of concern since long. Hence, it is necessary to regulate the mesh
size.
5.3.1. Elasmobranch
Elasmobranchs are commonly called cartilaginous fishes as they posses certilaginous skeleton. This
group consists mainly of sharks, skates and rays belonging to the families Carcharhinidae,
Hemiscylliidae, Rhincodontidae, Sphymidae, Stegostomatidae, Hemigaleidae, Ginglymostomatidae,
Triakidae, Rhincodontidae, Pristidae, Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae and Gymnuridae. The maximum size
in sharks ranges from 70 cm (Rhizoprionodon oligolinx) to 2000cm (Rhincodon typus), in skates from
270 cm (Rhinaancylostoma) to 656 cm (Pristis microdon) and in rays from 70 cm (Dayatis kuhlii) to
204 cm (D. zugei). In the past, it was considered as low value species. It started gaining commercial
importance in India only recently because of increasing demand for shark's fins in the Souteast
Aisian countries. The sharks are predominant along the west coast (76%) while rays along the east
coast.
Distribution
Global
They are distributed in the tropical, subtropical and temperate waters of the seas around the world.
India
They are found distributed along both the coasts from the near shore regions to oceanic waters. The
commercial sharks are mostly found at depths varying from 15 to 150 mm while the rays and guitar
fishes are at 4-150 m.
Common elasmobranch species
The dominant and commercially important species of elasmobranches which support fisheries are
listed below.
Sharks
The dominant species of sharks are Chiloscyllium indicum (Slender bamboo shark), C. griseum (Grey
bamboo shark), Rhincodon typus (Whale shark), Stegostoma fasciatum (Zebra shark), Carcharhinus
brevipinna (Spinner shark), C. dussumieri (White cheek shark), C. limbatus (Black-tip shark), C.
macloti (Hard- nose shark), C. melanopterus (Blackfin reef shark), C. sorrah (Spot-tail shark),
Galeocerdo cuvieri (Tiger shark), Rhizoprionodon acutus (Milk shark), Scoliodon laticaudus (Spade-
nose shark), Eusphyra blochii (Wing-head shark), Sphyrna mokarran (Great hammer-head) and S.

zygaena (Smooth hammer-head).
Skates
Important species among skates are Rhina ancylostoma (Bow-mouthed angel fish), Rhinobatos
granulatus (Granulated shovel-nose ray), Rhynchobatus djiddensis (White spotted shovel-nose ray),
Anoxypristis cuspidata (Pointed saw- fish) and Pristis microdon (Small-tooth saw fish).
Rays
The important species are Aetobatus narinari (Spotted eagle ray), Aetomylaeus nichofii (Nieuhof's
eagle ray), Rhinoptera javanica (Javanese cow-ray), Himantura uarnak (Honey combed sting ray), H.
bleekeri (Whiptail sting ray), Dasyatis zugei (Pale edged sting ray), D. imbricatus (Schneider's scaly
sting ray), Amphotistius kuhlii (Blue spotted sting ray), Pastinachus sephen (Drab sting ray/cow-tail
ray), Gymnura poecilura (Long tail butterfly), G micrura (Short tail butterfly) and Mobula diabolus
(Horny ray).
Production trend
The catchable potential of 64,934 t of elasmobranchs up to 50 m depth zone and 103,000 t from
beyond 50 m have been estimated for the EEZ of India. There have traditionally been important
fisheries for elasmobranchs in India with a relatively steady growth up to the mid 70's, followed by a
period of stability during most of the 80’s, then a tremendous increase in catches in 1987 resulting in
India becoming one of the top three elasmobranch producers in the last ten years. Indian production
of sharks and rays represents 8.78% of the world elasmobranch catches. Still, because of large inland
yields, elasmobranchs comprised only 1.72% of total national catches in 1987-1991. Catches from
the west coast were slightly larger than those of the east coast during 1977-1991.
During 1983-1985 sharks comprised 55% of the elasmobranch catch of the country. The main fishing
areas in order of importance were Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu and important fishing grounds for sharks are reported for Ashikode, Kerala Province.
Sharks, catches are incidental to other fisheries in India and are mainly taken with longlines, which
vary in design by region, and are also as bycatch of trawlers using disco nets off Ratnagiri
(Maharashtra), with bottom set gillnets in Porto Novo (Tamil Nadu) and by shrimp trawlers of Kerala.
Rays are caught with bottom set gillnets in Gujarat, northwest India and Cudalore and are abundant
on the outer shelf and slope off Kerala and Karnatakta. Batoids comprise 10% of bycatches in Calicut;
90% of the bycatch comes from trawlers, 8% from gillnets and 2% from hook and lines. Both sharks
and- rays are abundant in Lakshakweep and form important by catches in trawl fisheries in
Krishnapatnam.
Directed fisheries for sharks are developing on a seasonal basis on the east coast of India. About 500
vessels, both sail -powered and motorized, fish for sharks with bottom or drift longlines of the coasts
of Orissa Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Bottom longlines are usually set in waters 80-150 m deep
and occasionally as deep as 500m and bull sharks and tiger sharks. The longlines have up to 400
hooks and the meat is usually salted on board during the trip. In Orissa alone, about 200 boats are
engaged in drift longlining on a seasonal basis (December -March). The most common species
caught by drift longlines are silky sharks and scalloped hammerhead sharks.
The Elasmobranch fishery is distinct from others by the following features.
The fishing is not restricted to any particular zone. It is distributed both in inshore and offshore
areas. The fishery is operative almost throughout the year. The main fishing centers are: Bombay-
Cambay area, Mangalore-Calicut zone, Tuticorin-Madras, Vishakhapatnam and West Bengal area. Of
these, Bombay, Mangalore, and Tuticorin are the most important landing centres.

The fact that the elasmobranch fishes constitute an important marine fishery of India is borne out by
the following landing figures of this class of fish in our country during the past few years.
Both the east and west coasts of India contribute equally towards the landings of these fishes and
the fishery is independent of seasons. The statewise percentage contribution during 1961-2000
showed that Tamil Nadu ranked first (27%), followed by Gujarat (23%), Maharashtra (14%), Andhra
Pradesh (13%), Kerala (12%), Karnataka (4%), Orissa (3%), West Bengal (2%), Goa (6%), Andaman and
Nicobar (0.6%), Pondicherry (0.4%) and Lakshadweep (0.4%) during 1961-2000. Of the total
elasmobranchs exploited in the country, the sharks constituted 62% followed by rays (34%) and
skates (4%) during 1981-2000.

The elasmobranchs are mainly exploited by shrimp trawlers (42%) followed by gill net (26%), hooks
and line (16%), dol net (3%) and others (11%). Sharks are exploited by trawl net (32%), gill net (31 %)
and hooks and line (20%), but shrimp trawl chiefly exploits skates (86%) and rays (67%).
Food and feeding habits
Elasmobranchs are carnivores and predaceous in nature, with the exception of Rhincodon typus
(Whale Shark) which is mainly a zooplankton (filter) feeder. Sharks mainly feed on pelagic teleosts
such as sardine, mackerel, Bombay- duck etc. and cephalopods (squid, octopus, and cuttlefish).
Skates and rays mostly feed on benthic organisms viz. crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes,
amphipods and teleosts (Apogon spp, Nemipterus spp., sciaenids)
Spawning season
The majority of species of ealsmobranchs in the Indian seas are viviparous, some are oviparous and
few are ovo-viviparous. The breeding season of various species belonging to sharks, skates and rays
vary. However, the majority of species breed during pre-monsoon (January-May) and post-monsoon
(September- December) and few in monsoon (June-August) period.
Vivparous: Grey sharks, hammerheads, Galeorhinus,Hemitrikis, Hypogaleus and Logo
Ovovipiparous: Filled sharks, cowsharks, bramble sharks, squalids, gulper sharks, tiger sharks,
electric rays, sting rays, guitar fishes and saw fishes.
Oviparous: Whale shark, Zebra shark, bamboo shark, nurse sharks and skates of the family Rajidae
Fecundity
All the species of elasmobranchs have low fecundity. The number of young ones (pups) in shark
species ranges from 1-2 in Scoliodon walbeehmi, 26- 44 in G. cuvieri, in rays it is in Dasyatis walga, 1
-4 in Gymnura poecilura and in skates 6 (Pristis cuspidatus) to 12 (Rhinobatos granulatus). In rays,
the number of pups varies from 1 (Dasyatis walga) to more than one 1-4 (in gymnura poecilura. In
guitar fishes, the number of pups vary from (Pristis cuspidatus) to 12 (Rhinobatus granulatus).
Utilization
Elasmobranchs are valuable fish as almost every part of body is utilized for various purposes. The
shark liver oil could become an important resource in the fight against cancer. It contains alkysoksy-
glycerol, which is said to strengthen the shark's immune defense system. It also strengthens tissues
and has a favorable effect on patient lmdergoing radiation treatment. It is a source of vitamins A and
D, used in textile, tanning, sanitary, cosmetic, etc. as ingredients in shoe-polish, French perfumery,
phannaceuticals, as lubricant, for preserving boats, and in street lamps. Cartilages are used for fish
meal, in medicine for cancer, bum victims, eye fatigue treatments. Fins are used for making soup
and glue. Dried shark fins are exported in large quantities to Singapore, Malaysia, and Hongkong etc.
Skin (used for making a variety of leather products such as hand bags, belts, shoes, sanding the
wooden boats, etc.), teeth (in ornaments), jaws (tourist trade), meat (eaten in fresh or cured) and
viscera (fish meal) are also utilised.
Even though the peculiar flavour of the fish is not relished by many fish eaters, the fresh meat is sold
to some extent in internal markets. At present in the country, the salting and drying is done and are
marketed as "Wet cured" or “dry- cured”. A method has been recently reported to eliminate urea
almost completely from the flesh. The fish salted in the ratio of 1:4 (common salt: fish) is desalted
for 24 hours in 5% brine, resulted in the ratio of 1:6 (salt to fish) for another 24 hours and dried in
sun, when the urea is reduced to negligible quantities. Dry cured cartilaginous fish finds good
markets in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Singapore etc. Shark meat is also used for the production of minced
fish products such as fish balls, fish cakes, fish sausage, and tempura, surimi for ham and fish paste.

Marketing
The products exported from India are frozen shark meat, gutted finless sharks, shark tails, dried
shark fins, shark fin rays, and shark bones. Export of shark products increased from 386 tonnes to
1,508 tonnes and the value from Rs. 9.5 to Rs. 35.49 crores during 1996-97 to 2000-01. Shark fins
and fin rays are traditionally consumed in Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, China and other countries.
Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Korea and Singapore import shark meat from India. The biggest market for shark -
liver oil and skin is Japan and Nepal.
Management
Many species of sharks and rays use the bays and estuaries, as nursery for early growth of their
young ones and hence fishing has to be regulated in these areas. Since the peak period of spawning
in elasmobranchs coincides with the monsoon season, a restriction on trawling during such times
would prevent recruitment overfishing and growth overfishing. Some species of elasmobranchs
school by age, sex and reproductive state. They should be protected from intense fishing. As the rate
of reproduction in rays is extremely low, precaution should be taken to prevent over exploitation.
Whale sharks are few in numbers. Hence the ban on fishing should be continued to help
resuscitation of the stock.
5.3.2. Silverbelly
Silverbelly also known as pony fishes and slip mouths belong to the family Leiognathidae. They
constitute an important component of demersal fisheries resources. 21 species of silverbelly are
available in the seas around India. Species composition of different species of silverbelly varies from
region to region. They inhabit shallow coastal waters, moving in shoals mostly near the bottom. They
may enter the estuaries and backwaters and their seaward distribution is only upto a depth of 30 m.
Distribution
Global
They are found distributed in Indo-pacific region.
India
They are principally shallow water fishes distributed in the 0 - 40m depth range and enter the
estuaries also. They have a peculiar distribution. The landings in Tamil Nadu, particularly southern
areas account for 70% of the total national production, followed by Kerala (9.4%), Andhra Pradesh
(7.4%), Gujarat (4.4%) and other states. In Tamil Nadu, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are the richest in
terms of silver belly species diversity; all the 21 species known from India are available only in this
region. These fishes undertake diurnal vertical migration staying at the bottom at day time and
moving upto surface water during night time.
Production trend
Its production ranged from 15,000 t in 1961 to 49,000 t in 2000. The annual production shows wide
fluctuations with several peaks. The maximum annual landing was about 92,000 tonnes in 1983.
Recent production

Species composition
Almost all the 21 species are known from southern Tamil Nadu, but the dominant species are
Leiognathus dussumieri, L. jonesi, L. splendens, and L. equulus. In the northern Tamil Nadu and along
Andhra Pradesh, about 12 species contribute to the fishery, of which L. bindus. L. splendens and
Secular insidiatar are most dominant accounting for nearly 70 - 80% of the silverbelly landings. It is
interesting to note that these species are also known in the southern Tamilnadu but they are less
abundant in this region. In Kerala, 16 species occur in the landings of which four species (L.
splendens, L. brevirostris. S. insidiatol; Gazza minuta) contribute to the bulk of the landings.
Fishing season
There are wide fluctuations in landings of silverbellies in different months in Tamilnadu. August is
the peak period. It is March in Kerala; April in Karnataka and December in Gujarat.
Trawl net is the major gear as bycatch. Trawl net contributes about 80% of the landings. As the
silverbelly is the major component in trawl catch in terms of quantity along the southeast coast,
dependence by the local population on this resource is considerable. In addition to trawl net, catch
comes from shore seine, boat seine, gillnet, etc., also.
Food and feeding
They are mainly zooplankton feeders.
Spawning
They are fractional spawners spawning throughout the year with one or two peaks of longer
duration each year.
Age and growth
Leiognathus and Gazza species attain a maximum size of 28 cm (L. equulus) and 23 cm (Gazza
minuta) respectively. Most of them are small in size, attaining a maximum length of 15 cm. The
lifespan of silver belies in the fishery in the Indian EEZ is very short and most species yield only
annual crops.
Size at maturity
The length at first maturity ranges from 62 to 100 mm with majority of the species falling in the
range 80 -95 mm.
Utilization
These fishes are of little demand in the fresh condition, but there is considerable market for sun-
dried fish and for fishmeal and poultry feed.
The continuous spawning leads to continuous recruitment. These fishes also constitute the food for
several carnivorous demersal fishes. As the life span of the silverbellies is short, it is considered that
if they are not removed by fishing, they would be subject to natural mortality. Hence, exploitation of
this is not likely to adversely effect the population. However, it is the most important to maintain
species diversity and their proportions.
5.3.3. Sciaenids
Sciaenids commonly known as croakers, grunters, drummers and jewfishes belong to the family,
Sciaenidae. They are small to moderately sized demersal fishes. They inhabit muddy bottom in
coastal waters. About 30 species have been recorded in the Indian and adjacent waters. Of these 12-
17 species form the commercial fishery. Two larger species of sciaenids, Otolithoides biauritu and
Protonibea diacanthus form substantial component of the sciaenid fishery in the northwest region.

Distribution
Global
They are distributed in Southeast Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Persian Gulf, India, Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, Australia etc.
India
They are distributed in both east and west coasts o0f India. However, they are abundant in the
Northwest coast.
Production trend
The annual average landing of sciaenids for the 1961-2000 period was 95, 319 t. Sciaenids sustain
one of the major demersal marine fisheries of India and contributed to 6.5% (1,71,687 t) of the total
marine fish production during 2000. The landing of sciaenids registered an increasing trend over the
decades in all the regions with the northwestern region contributing to more than 50% to the total
catch of this resource. The west coast recorded substantial landing of 67,485 t (71%) during 1961-
2000. Gujarat ranks always first in sciaenid catch, followed by Maharashtra.
Species composition
The sciaenid fishery is supported by about 20 species. Otolithes cuvieri is the most abundant sciaenid
in the Indian waters.
Common species
Centre viz Species
The contribution of juveniles, i.e., immature fish to the fishery is more during the monsoon and post
monsoon months at Veraval, Mumbai and Kakinada.
Juveniles are caught mainly by trawl nets, dol nets and seine nets. Trawl nets contributed about 75%
of the total sciaenid catch, followed by drift gill nets and shore seine.
Food and feeding
Sciaenids are carnivores and active predators; young ones feed on crustaceans, especially prawns

and adults feed on fishes (piscivorous). They also feed on molluscs, echinoderms, annelids etc. to
certain extent.
The smaller sciaenids attain maturity in the second year and breed in shallow coastal waters. The
bigger sciaenids in general attain maturity late in their life. Pseudosciaena diacanthus which reaches
a size of 150-180 cm in length, becomes mature when it is 3 -4 years old and 850 mm is length.
Spawning season
The spawning season for the majority of sciaenid species is during the monsoon and post-monsoon
months. During the protracted spawning period, i.e., spawning over six months, the individual fish
spawns twice.
Fecundity
Fecundity of sciaenids varies from species to species. It is 5000 - 12,250 in P. diacanthus, 32,174 -
60,840 in Johnius dussumieri and 49, 216 - 1, 91, 932 in Otolithus ruber.
Age and Growth
The majority of the sciaenid species have short life span of 2 -3 years except the larger sciaenids such
as P. diacanthus and O. biaurilus. The average size of a 13-year old O. biauritus is 1520 mm. P.
diacanthus attain a length of 1270 mm at the end of 7 years.
Utilization
The swim bladders of larger species like ghol and koth are dried and exported to far eastern
countries for the manufacture of isinglass used in the wine industry as a clarifying agent. The larger
sciaenids are filleted and processed for local and export markets. The smaller species are sold in
fresh condition or salted and sundried. The catches of very small juveniles are used for fishmeal
production.
The fishes below the size at first maturity are not exploited so as to give them a chance to grow and
breed for contributing to the recruitment process. It is proposed that the present cod end mesh size
of 25-30 mm can be retained or increased by 10% without increasing the fishing effort in all the
regions.
5.3.4a. Lizard fishes
Lizard fishes
Lizardfishes belonging to the family Synodontidae are demersal fishes. They do not form an
independent fishery and are caught in small quantities, forming a supporting fishery to the other
major fisheries. This group is an important by catch in shrimp trawlers in tropical and subtropical
seas. Though considered as a supporting fishery, this group assumes significance by virtue of the
high nutritive value and their acceptance as food both in the fresh and dry condition.
Distribution
Global
They are found distributed from the Red sea to the Malay Archipelago, China and Japan.
India
They are available in both east and west coasts. However, they are highly abundant in Kerala.
Production trend
The contribution of lizard fishes ranged between 0.1 % (500 t) during 1956 - 60 to 1.3% (29,600 t)
during 1991-95. Kerala with an average landing of contributed to the maximum of 43.4% to the total

lizardfish landings, followed by Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kamataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
Recent production
Species composition
Lizardfish fishery is represented by species such as the greater lizardfish, Saurida tumbil, brush
toothed lizardfish, S. undosquamis; blunt nose lizardfish, Trachinocephalus myops and engleman's
lizardfish, Synodus englemani along the west coast of India. Other species such as Saurida
longimanus (longfin lizardfish) and S. micropectoralis (shortfm lizardfish) also contribute to the
fishery aong the east coast.
Lizard fishes are reported as an important bycatch of shrimp trawlers. It constitutes about 3 - 4% of
bycatch of shrimp trawlers.
Food and feeding
The juveniles of S. tumbil feed chiefly on crustaceans (Lucifer, Acetes, Mysis) and fishes (Stolephorus
spp., Gazza spp. and Clupeids). The adults feed mainly on prawns (Penaeus spp.,) and on larvae and
adults of teleost fishes such as Stolephorus spp., Engraulis spp., Trichiurus spp., and Leiognathus spp.
They feed on small amount of copepods, cirripid larvae, larval decapods and Sagitta spp also.
Size at maturity
Saurida tumbil matures at about 230 - 270 mm and Saurida undosquamis at 170 - 210 mm
depending on region.
Spawning season
For Saurida tumbil, it is from Sep -March along Northwest coast and Aug -Nov in Cochin. For Saurida
undosquamis, it is from Oct -March (Peak: Nov -Dec).
Age and growth
Maximum size ranges from 25 cm (Saurida longimanus) to 67 cm (S. tumbil).
Fecundity
Fecundity ranges from 40,000 to 2, 15,000 for Saurida tumbil and 16,000 -1, 90,000 for Saurida
undosquamis.
Utilization
Large sized fishes of above 20 cm are used for human consumption, while smaller ones are used as
animal feeds and fertilizers. Of the species used for human consumption, S. tumbil has better
acceptance when supplied in fresh condition. Lizardfishes are used for the preparation of Surimi and
Satai (in Thailand) and fish sauce. Dried air bladder is also used for preparation offish maws
(isinglass).
Various maritime states have imposed a ban on trawling (closed season) to protect the spawning
and juvenile population.

5.3.4b. Pomfrets
Pomfrets belonging to the family, Stromateidae and Carangidae are shoaling demersal fishes. They
are one of the most delicious table fish available along Indian coast. of export quality and command
high unit value. This fishery is primarily composed of three species such as Black pomfret
(Parastromateus niger), Silver pomfret (Pampus argenteus) and Chinese pomfret (Pampus chinensis).
They are found on the continental shelf at all depths, generally upto 100 fathoms. Like any other
groups of coastal fishes, pomfrets often enter the estuaries and brackishwater zones.
Distribution
Global
It is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific region, Persian Gulf, Pakistan, Malay Archipelago, Hongkong,
China, Phillippines and Indonesia.
India
Though they are distributed along both the east and west coasts, they are found to be abundant in
Gujarat and Maharastra. Silver pomfret and Black pomfret are dominant in Maharashtra and
Gujarat, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Chinese pomfret supports a minor fishery and the maximum
production is mainly from Karnataka.
Production trend
Its production ranged from 13,600 t during 1951-55 to 41,000 t during 1996-99 with a peak 47,200 t
during 1981-85. The contribution of pomfrets fishery to total marine landings in India however,
showed fluctuating trend ranging between 1.7% in 1996-99 to 3.1% during 1981-85 period.
Maharashtra with an average catch of 11,958 t (31.2 %) contributed to the maximum of pomfret
landings in India during the period 1985-95. Gujarat accounted for the next higher landings (25.6%)
followed by Orissa (11%), Andhra Pradesh (8.6%), West Bengal (6.1%), Kerala (5.31%) and Tamil
Nadu (4%). Mahanadi River estuary and Sandhead region of are productive fishing grounds for
pomfrets.
Recent produetion

Gill net, trawl and dol net are commonly used for catching pomfrets.
Fishing Season:
It is generally from September to May
Pam pus argenteus
Food and feeding
Young ones of P. argenteus feed on copepods ostracods, amphipods, larval stages of squilla and
Lucifer and filamentous algae mainly Trichodesmium spp. Adult P. argeneus feed on crustaceans
such as copepods (Oithona spp., Euterpina spp., and Eucalanus spp.), copepod nauplii, ostracods,
amphipods, lucifer and zoea larvae. They feed on larger crustaceans, polychaetes, larval decapods,
forarniniferans, Sagitta spp. The species has different feeding habits at different depths.
The size at maturity of the species is 150 mm (Standard Length) for males and 170 mm for females.
Spawning season
The species has a prolonged spawning period extending from February to August with two peaks
during February to April and during June to August.
Fecundity
The fecundity ranges from 40,610 to 90,640 eggs in fishes of 191 - 238 mm.
Pampus chinensis
Food and feeding
They feed on zooplankton (copepods, jellyfishes and decapods) with less preference to
phytoplankton. Unlike other pomfrets, these pomfrets do not change the larval habitat and remains
surface feeder throughout its life.
Parastromateus niger
Food and feeding
P. niger is a carnivore mainly feeding on zooplankon (Thaliaceans, prawns), fish scales, crustacean
larvae, amphipods, cuttlefish, polychaetes and medusa of jelly fish.
Size at maturity for females is 32 cm and 30 cm for males.
Spawning season
It extends from July to October with peak during August/September off Saurashtra coast.
Utilization
Pomfrets in fresh condition are in good demand. They are filleted and frozen for export. Sometimes,
they are brined and sundried. Pomfret stands next to ribbonfish (i.e. second position) in the export
of frozenfish in both quantity and value -6% (8685.9 tonnes) and 28% (Rs. 177.7 crores) respectively.
This endearing resource caught in trawl, gill net and dol net is under threat of overexploitation and
hence warrants measures of conservation. Due to overfishing, depletion in catches is recorded.
Hence, regulaltion in mesh size is necessary to preserve the pomfret stock.
5.3.5a. Goatfishes
Goatfishes also called red mullets belong to the family, Mullidae. They are small sized fishes with a
maximum size of 33 cm (Upeneus taeniopterus). Sixteen species of goat fishes belonging to three
genera occur along the Indian coast. They are Mulloides flavolineatus, M. vanicolensis, Parupeneus
bifasciatus, P. indicus, P. barberinus, P. macronema, P. cinnabarinus, P. cyclostomus, Upeneus

molccensis, U. sulphureus, U. vittatus, U. oligospilus, U. bensasi, U. sundaicus, U.tragula and U.
taeniopterus. Of these, the eight species of the genus Upeneus contribute to the bulk of the fishery.
They inhabit shallow coastal waters with sandy or muddy bottom and their concentration is
generally restricted to a depth of 40 m or less and they rarely occur beyond 60 m depth. A few
species are often associated with coral reefs. Upeneus sulphureus often enters estuaries. U.
sulphureus, U. vittatus and U. bensasi form small schools whereas other species such as U. tragula
are solitary.
Production trend
Catch of goat fish was just 1,344 t in 1961. Since 1986, the catch increased and reached a peak of
33,132 t in 1991, but it started decreasing since 1991. The maximum landing was along the
southeast coast (1961-2000) forming about 55 % to the total goatfish landings in India.
Recent production
Bottom trawlers exploit the maximum amount of goatfishes as bycatch. However, drift gillnets,
bottom set gillnets and hooks and lines are also in use.
Food and feeding
Goatfishes are mid-level carnivores. They feed almost exclusively on crustaceans, especially penaeid
shrimps, crabs and small fishes.
Age and growth
The goatfishes are small sized fishes and their maximum size is about 30 cm. Life span of these
species is about 3 years. However, O-year group dominates the catch.
Spawning season
The goatfishes have prolonged spawning periods from February - November with a peak season
from June - August with little variation among different species.
Utilization
The goattishes are mostly consumed in fresh condition. Smaller ones are sundried for human
consumption. Though the flesh of the goatfishes is of good quality, they are priced low due to their
small size. Hence, they are common in the diet of poor people.
Management
Target fishery does not exist for goatfishes. However, they are one of the dominant groups in the by-
catch of the trawls. Juveniles are overexploited in several regions. Hence, it is necessary to
implement management measures to sustain the fishery.
5.3.5b. Perches
The group of fishes popularly called perches (Order: Percifonnes) include more than 20 families such

as Serranidae (rockcods/groupers), Lutijanidae (snappers), Lethrinidae (pigface breams) (called
major perches in view of their large body size), Nemipteridae (threadfin breams/pink perch),
Haemulidae (grunts/ sweetlips), Caesionidae (fusiliers), Priacanthidae (bulls eye), Aunthridae
(surgeonfishes) and Siganidae (rabbitfishes/spine-foot) (called minor perches in view of their smaller
body size). The group that includes the families Sparidae, Drepaneidae, Ephippidae, Centropomidae,
Lobotidae, and Scatophagidae represents all other perches.
Distribution
Perches occur all along the Indian coast. Most of the species belonging to this group inhabit the
rocky grounds and the coral reef areas, while a few prefer the seagrass beds and muddy and sandy
bottoms. They are particularly abundant in the rocky and coral grounds off Kerala, off Tamilnadu,
(Gulf of Mannar) Gulf of Kutch, off Paradeep and in the Andaman Seas. The major species of perches
are bottom dwellers and they usually inhabit rocky and coral areas. The 100 km long Wadge Bank
extending from Kovalam (South west coast) to Kanyakumari is rocky and the crevices and outcrops in
this area provide a congenial habitat for many species of major perches. The grouper grounds are
located in the depth range of 75-100 m along the 1,000 km long southwest coast between 80 N
(Kanyakumari) and 13°N (Mangalore). These grouper grounds are small areas of hard bottom with
shallow ridge-like outcrops, which rise 2-5 m from the ground level and have very irregular profile.
The thread fin breams occur on muddy and sandy bottoms in the coastal inshore as well as offshore
shelf waters. Although they occur mostly in shallow waters between 5 m and 80 m depth, they are
recorded up to about 300 m depth. In the shallow waters up to 40 m depth, the resource is
dominated by N. japonicus whereas in the deeper zones (beyond 40 m depth) N. mesoprion is the
dominant species.
Potential
As per recent estimate by the Government of India the catchable potential of all the perches within
the 50 m depth zone is about 1,14,000 t and that beyond 50 m, it is 1.25,000 t, total being 2,39,000
t. Within the former zone, southwest is the most productive followed by southeast and northwest.
The rocky grounds of Wadge Bank about 12,000 km2 and Quilon Bank about 3,300 km2 are found to
be rich for the major perches. Although accurate estimates are not available, it appears that about
40,000 - 60,000 t can be caught per year additionally. Since these grounds are not trawlable, their
exploitation is possible only by drift nets, hooks & lines and traps. Potential exploitable resources of
pink perch (Nemipterids) have been located in slightly deeper waters beyond the reach of traditional
gears.
Production trend
These larger perches constitute roughly 2% of the total marine fish production in the country, with
an average annual landing of 28,800 t during 1990- 2000 period. Statewise, the highest share was
from Tamil Nadu (about 50%) followed by Kerala (about 20%), Gujarat (about 11%), Maharashtra
(about 8%), Karnataka (about 6%) and Andhra Pradesh (about 5%). Along the coasts of Orissa and
West Bengal the fishery for these resources is very negligible. The average perch production during
1985 - 89 was 89,100 t and the same was 1.97,100 t during 2000 - 04. Perch fishery is dominated by
the threadfin breams with landings of 1, 11, 345 tonnes annually and forms 57% of the total perch
catch.
There is an organized fishery for major perches in Tamil Nadu, along the Gulf of Mannar and the
Wadge Bank. Both mechanized, as well as non-motorised traditional units in operation employ gears
such as hooks and lines, long lines, gill net and trawl. The annual catch of major perches along
southeast and southwest coasts varied from 5,114 t to 17, 863 t during the years 1990-2000. The

catch consisted of pig face breams (63%), rock cods (about 24%), and snappers (about 12%) in the
order of abundance.
Recent production
The potential yield and yield of these groups in the last ten years are given in the following table.
Potential yield and catch of perches during 1997 -2006
There are 449 species under 62 genera in the family Serranidae worldwide. Of the several species
available in India, seventeen species of groupers constitute the fishery in India. They include
Epinephelus tauvina (Greasy grouper). E, malabaricus (speckled grouper), E, bleekeri (Dusky tail
grouper). E. areolatus (Areolate grouper), E. diacanthus (six banded reef cod), E. episticus (Broken
line grouper), E. fasciatus (Red banded grouper), E. flavocaeruleus (Blue and yellow reef cod), E.
morrhua (Banded cheek reef cod), E. undulosus (Brown lined reef cod), E. merra (Wire netting reef
cod), E. fuscoguttatus (Brown marbled grouper), E, chlorostigma (Brown spotted grouper), E.
longispinis (spotted grouper). E. lanceolatus (Giant grouper), Cephalopholis sonnerati (Red coral cod)
and Cephalopholis boenack (Blue lined seabass).
There are 103 species under 17 genera of the family Lutjanidae worldwide. Of the several species of
snappers available in India, fourteen species of snappers form the fishery. They include Lutjanus
johni (John's snapper). L. argentimaculatus (Red snapper), L. gibbus (Hunched snapper). L. bohar
(Two spot snapper), L. rivulatus (Blue-lined snapper), L. bengalensis (Bengal snapper). Lutjanus
lutjanus (Bigeye snapper), L. fulviflammus (Black snapper), L. kasmira (Blue and yellow snapper), L.
sebae (Emperor snapper), L. sanguineus (Red snapper), L. russeli (Russel's snapper), L. malabaricus
(Malabar snapper) and Pristipomoides typus (Sharp tooth snapper).
There are 39 species belonging to five genera in the family Lethrinidae worldwide. Of the several
species of emperors available in India, nine species constitute the fishery. The representatives of the
Family Lethrinidae include Lethrinus nebulosus (Starry emperor bream), L. obsoletus (Yellow banded
emperor bream), L. microdon (Long face pigface bream), L, miniatus (Long nosed emperor bream), L.
nebulosus (Bridle pig-face-bream), L. mahsena (Skuy emperor), Lethrinus onrnatus (Ornate
emperor), L. semicinctus (Black blotch emperor) and L. variegatus (Slender emperor).

There are 62 species under five genera in the family Nemipteridae worldwide. Of the several species
of thread fin breams, six species constitute the nemipterid fishery in India. They are Neimpterus
japonicus, N. mesoprion, N. delagoae, N. tolu, N. luteus and N. metopias. Of these six species of
threadfin breams (Family Nemipteridae), Nemipterus japonicus (Japanese threadfin bream) and N.
mesoprion (Red filament threadfin bream) are the commercially important species.
Size composition
Among perches, the family Serranidae (Rock cods or groupers) has the dominant sizes in the fishery
ranging from 250-670 mm, the family Lethrinidae (pigface breams) fishery is supported by fishes in
size ranging from 220- 750 mm, the family Lutjanidae (snappers) by fishes of 220- 700 mm and the
family Nemipteridae (Threadfin breams) by fishes of 180 -250 mm.
Fishing season
Peak production of perches along the Tamil Nadu coast is from December to April although good
landings are recorded throughout the year.
Most of the fishing grounds being not amenable to trawling operations, the major perches are
exploited mainly by other gears like gill nets, hooks and lines, traps and drift nets.
Age and growth
The maximum size of fishes within this group ranges from 18 cm (Nemipterus mesoprion) to 221 cm
(Epinephelus lanceolatus).
Food and feeding
Perches are predatory fishes, mainly feeding on other fishes such as Therapon spp., Ambassis spp.,
etc. and invertebrates such as crabs, prawns, stomatopods etc. Cephalopods are also found in the
diet of some perches.
Spawning season
The spawning season varies from locality to locality and among different species. For instance, N.
japonicus spawn during June -September along the northwest coast and during November -April
along the southeast coast. N. mesoprion spawn during November -March.
Utilization and marketing
The major perches are high-value fishes and are exported to different countries. It is possible to
export them in live condition, as live fishes command very high price in the foreign markets. A live
grouper fry (usable for aquaculture) commands a price of 1 US $, a fingerling 3 $ and a 600 g adult
20 $/kg. India exported a few consigmnents of groupers in live or fresh-chilled condition through
cargo vessels in 1996-97, but discontinued the export due to various constraints.
Information available on the biology and stock assessment of perches is scanty. Based on the species
for which reproductive biology has been studied, it is evident that the groupers are protogynous
hermaphrodites. After spawning for one or more years, the female groupers change sex and
function as males. At sexual transition, the oocytes degenerate, the spent1atogonia proliferate and
the ovary is transformed into a functional testis. Evidences of the ovarian origin of the testis are the
remnants of oocytes and the ovarian lumen. The groupers spawn several times in a year. This
protogynous mode of reproduction poses several problems in the aquaculture of groupers as well as
in the fishery management practices. Estimates on the stocks of the major perches along the Indian
coast are not available. Considering the vulnerability of the adult population, especially of the male
population, and the export-oriented target fishing, the biological characteristics and the stocks of
the major perches need to be assessed for the Indian coast.

Information available on the biology and stock assessment of emperors, snappers and threadfin
breams are very much limited. Information available for some species is in the form of fragments.
They need to be consolidated. Hence, research work need to be undertaken on the food and feeding
habits, stock assessment, Maximum Sustainable yield of these species in order to make strategies
and formulate policies for the improvement of production of perches. In addition, possibilities need
to be explored for the mariculture of these perches in commercial scale.
There is a wide gap between estimates of potential yield and present yield of perches from the
Indian waters. There is a vast scope for increasing the catch of this multispecies resource.
Possibilities need to be explored to improve the catch of perches by supplementing catch from
Northwest and Northeast regions through location of new potential perch grounds in these regions.
Suitable fishing methods need to be designed and advocated to exploit perches from the non-
trawlable fishing grounds. Meanwhile, it is important to understand that few species like
Epinephelus diacanthus and Lethrinus nebulosus are under high fishing pressure. The ways and
means need to be found out for the protection of these species.
It should be realized that fisheries need to be viewed from an ecosystem perspective. Demersal fish
species do not live by themselves. Rather, they are embedded in ecosystems where they perform
their roles as consumers and prey of other organisms. For describing the ecosystem impacts of
fisheries, it is necessary to concentrate on the impacts of fisheries on food webs, i.e. on the network
of flows of matter, which in ecosystems, links the plants with herbivores, and the latter with their
predators. These networks of flows are affected directly by fishing, which removes predatory fish, or
competes with them to their preys, in either case affecting the web within which predators and
preys are embedded.
5.3.6. Flat fishes
Flatfishes belong to the families, Bothidae (Flounders), Cynoglossidae (Tongue soles), Psettodidae
(Indian halibut) and Soleidae (Soles). They are bottom dwelling demersal fishes with burrowing
habits. Twenty five species under 11 genera contribute to minor or major fisheries along the Indian
coast. Most of them are small to medium sized fishes except Psettodes erumei, which attains 60 cm
length. They are exclusive benthic fishes, found mainly on muddy or sandy bottom of shelf areas;
most of them are restricted to shallow waters of less than 60 m depth. However, P. erumei (Indian
halibut) and Cynoglossus bilineatus (Malabar tongue sole) occur up to 100 m and 400 m depth
respectively.
Distribution:
Global
West Coast of Africa, seas of India and Malay Archipelago and China, common fishing grounds along
the northwest coast of India.
India
They are distributed in seas and estuaries of India. Soles are common along the Malabar coast.
Production trend
The catch of flatfishes increased from 7,891 t in 1961 to 52,197 t in 2000. Soles and tongue soles
contributed to 94.4% of the total landings of the flatfishes, followed by the Indian halibut (4.8%) and
the flounders (0.8%) during 1961-2000. The substantial increase in the flatfish landings is due to the
intensification of trawling. About 90% of the catch of the soles and tongue soles, is from the west

coast.
Food and feeding
In general, the food items of flatfishes include benthic invertebrates, including cephalopods and also
fishes. The malabar sole prefers polychaetes, amphipods and small bivalves. Perumei is a carnivore,
feeding predominantly on fishes and cephalopods with crustaceans and bivalves contributing the
subsidiary food.
Malabar sole (C. macrastomus) -12cm (1 year old); C. dubius -28. 7cm; C. macrolepidotus -15.7cm (1
year old); P. erumei -41.1 cm
Spawning season
The Malabar sole C. macrostomus has a prolonged spawning period from October to May: C. dubius -
October -December: C. macrolepidotus -January -February & August; P. erumei –Short spawning
period -September & October.
Fecundity
The relative fecundity of C. macrostomus and P. erumei are 6,540-19,890 and 31,380 - 12,19,080
eggs respectively.
Lifespan
The life span of C. macrostomus is about 3 years and P. erumei is 4 years.
Utilization
Large sized flatfishes, such as P. erumei fetch a good price in the marker compared to small sized
soles. About 90% of the small-sized flatfishes are salted and sundried and sold during lean seasons.
During glut season, a part of the catch is used for the production of fertilizers.
There is no sign of over exploitation of flatfishes. However, it is necessary to take precautionary
measures for sustaining the stock.

Unit 6- Crustaceans
6.1. Penaeid shrimps
India is one of the major producers of marine crustaceans. One of the crustacean groups, penaeid
shrimps belong to the family Penaeidae of the class Crustacea under the phylum Arthropoda. The
penaeid shrimps constitute the backbone of seafood export industry as the major foreign exchange
earner as well as a source of livelihood for millions of fishermen. Frozen shrimp contributes to about
70% of the total export value of our country and the share of capture fisheries is about 60% in
quantity.
Distribution
Global
They are distributed along the entire east coast of Africa, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Srilanka,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Phillippines, New Guinea and Australia.
India
They are distributed along both the east and west coasts of India.
Common shrimp species
Important species of penaeid shrimps that form commercial fisheries along the Indian seas are
Fenneropenaeus indicus (Indian white prawn), P. semisulcatus (Green tiger prawn), P. monodon
(Giant tiger prawn), P. merguiensis (Banana prawn), P. japonicus (Kuruma prawn), P. penicillatus
(Red-tail prawn), Metapenaeus dobsoni (Flower-tail prawn), M. monoceros (Speckled prawn), M.
affinis (Jinga prawn), M. kutchensis (Ginger shrimp), M. brevicornis (Yellow prawn), Parapenaeopsis
stylilera (Kiddi prawn), P. hardwickii (Spear prawn), P. sculptilis (Rainbow prawn), P. maxillipedo
(Torpedo prawn), P. uncta (Uncta prawn), Tranchypenaeus curvirostris (Rough Prawn),
Metapenaeopsis stridulans (Fiddler shrimp), Parapenaeus longipes (Flaming prawn), Solenocera
crassicornis (Coastal mud prawn) and S. choprai (Coastal mud prawn). The species such as
Parapenaeopsis stylilera, Metapenaeus dobsonii, M. monoceros, Penaeus indicus, Solenocera
crassicornis, Trachypenaeus curvirostris, Metapenaeopsis stridulans, S. choprai, P. canaliculatus and
P. japonicus are the major constituents of penaeid fishery along west coast. Penaeus semisulcatus
dominate the fishery at Tuticorin. P. semisulcatus, M. stridulans and T. pescadorensis are the
common species along Mandapam coast. M. dobsoni and P. indicus are the dominant species along
Chennai coast. In the east coast, M. dobsoni dominate the catch, followed by M. monoceros,
Metapenaeopsis spp., P. semisulcatus, P. indicus, P. maxillipedo, Trachypenaeus spp., Solenocera
spp., P. stylifera, P. hardwicki and P. monodon, Metapenaeopsis andamanensis, Aristeus alcockii,
Penaeopsis jerryi and S. hextii are the important deep sea shrimps along the southwest coast.
6.1.1. Production trend
Landings of penaeid shrimps showed about six fold increase from 32,000 t to 1, 69, 741 t during
1960-2006. The increase is mainly due to intense trawling operation in inshore waters, increase in
effort, extension of trawling to deeper waters, introduction of multiday fishing operations, night
trawling and introduction of innovative gears in the artisanal sector. About three fourth of the catch
is harvested along the west coast and the rest is from the east coast. Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are the important contributors to penaeid landings in
the order of abundance.
Recent production

Trawl net is the principal gear used for the exploitation of penaeid shrimps. Trawlers contribute to
about 80% of penaeid landing of India. Smaller varieties of penaeids are caught by dol nets along
northwest coast. Ring seines are operated along Kerala-Karnataka coast during monsoon for larger
varieties of penaeids. Mini trawls are operated from Murivalloms along Kerala coast for penaeid
shrimps in near shore waters (3-8 depth). Thalluvalai, a net like a two seam shrimp trawl without
otter boards is operated from flat bottomed wooden palnk-built sail boats along Tuticorin-
Mandapam region to catch juvenile prawns in nearshore waters (3 -4 m depth). Trammel nets along
Vizhinjam - Manakudy region; bottom set gill nets and disco nets along east coast are the other
gears operated in coastal waters to exploit penaeid shrimps. Stake nets are used to exploit juvenile
shrimps along both the east and west coasts.
6.1.2. Food and feeding
Penaeids are mostly omnivorous feeding at the muddy bottom. Food consists detritus of plant
matter like diatoms, planktonic algae and bits of seaweeds and the animal matter like copepods,
ostracods, amphipods, other smaller crustaceans, molluscan larvae, polychaetes, foraminiforans etc.
6.1.3. Age and growth
Young one of less than one year old show faster growth and growth decreases as they become older.
Penaeid shrimps belonging to the genus Penaeus grow to a larger size and among them the tiger
prawn, P. monodon reaches a total length of 300 mm. The species such as P. indicus and P.
semisulcatus reach a maximum size of 290 and 250 mm.
F. indicus attains maturity at a size of 130 mm (TL). P. monodon and P. semisulcatus mature at a
carapace length of 23 mm. The species such as P. stylifera and M. dobsoni mature at 63-64 mm.
Fecundity
Penaeid shrimps have high fecundity and it varies between species and in proportion to Size of
females and weight of ovary.
Spawning season
Penaeids breed throughout the year with peak spawning months varying between years. In the
natural condition, a female shrimp spawns about 4-5 times in a year.
Life span
Life span of a penaeid shrimp is around two years and the O-year group contributes more to the
prawn fishery.
6.1.4. Marketing and management
Frozen shrimp stood first (valuewise (59.02%) in the seafood export in India of 2005-2006. Maximum

of frozen shrimp is exported to USA - (31.90 % in 2005 -2006 -valuewise)
Management
Catch of several commercial species like P. indicus, P. semisulcatus, M dobsoni, M. monoceros and P.
stylilera had crossed the MSY. Estuaries and backwaters are nursery grounds for many commercially
important penaeid species (M dobsoni, M. monoceros and P. indicus). Use of stake nets in these
areas need to be restricted as it results in juvenile overfishing. Minimum size of cod end of the trawl
net needs to be 25 mm. Extension of fishing to areas beyond conventional fishing grounds has to be
encouraged by offering suitable subsidy. Large-scale sea ranching of the post-larvae needs to be
done. Trawling within 10 m depth by commercial trawlers as well as mini trawlers should be
completely stopped in order to avoid exploitation of the juvenile prawns/ shrimps.
6.2. Non-penaeid shrimps
Non-penaeid shrimps belong to the families Hippolytidae, Palaemmidae, Sergestidae & Pandilidae,
containing about 6% of the total marine fish production. The non-penaeid shrimp fisthery is mainly
supported by Acetes indicus, A. johni, A. sibogae, A. erythraeus, A. japonicus, Nematopalaemon
tenuipes (Spider prawn) and Exhippolysmata ensirostris (Hunter shrimp). Of these, A. indicus and A.
johni support the commercially important fisheries from marine waters; others are exploited on a
low key from estuarine and near shore coastal seas along both northeast and northwest regions.
They are of particular importance in Maharashtra and Gujarat in view of their heavy landings.
6.2.1. Distribution
Global
India, Sri lanka, Burma, Sumatra, Bangladesh, Gulf of Thailand, Red sea and Malay Archipelago.
India
Acetes indicus is distributed in northern region of west coast especially Mumbai and throughout east
coast in inshore and brackish waters. Exhippolysmata ensirostris is in inshore waters of Gujarat and
Maharastra and Godavari estuary in Andhra Pradesh.
The estimated average catch of non-penaeid shrimps were 1.14 1akh tonnes during 1991-2000. They
contributed 5.8% of total marine fish production during the same period. Among the maritime
states, Gujarat contributed maximum (57.5%) followed by Maharashtra (33.1%), West Bengal (3.9%),
Andhra Pradesh 2.6%) and Kerala (1.8%). The resource is characteristic of the northwest coast, which
accounts for almost 90% of the total non-penaeid shrimp production in the country. In Maharashtra
and Gujarat, the non-penaeids account for 10.8% and 12.6% of the total marine fish landings in
these states. Deep sea non-penaeid shrimps are being harvested along Tamilnadu and Kerala by the
deep sea shrimp trawlers.
Recent production

6.2.3. Age and growth
Acetes spp are shoaling epipelagic non-penaeid shrimp. Acetes indicus grows to a maximum size of
40 mm; Acetes erythraeus attains a maximum size of 30 mm (female) and 20 mm (male) while for
Acetes johni, it is 20 mm. Nematopalaemon tenuipes reaches a maximum size of 75 mm.
Exhippolysmata ensirostris is the largest among the coastal non-penaeids, growing to a maximum
size of about 90 mm. It attains 64.8 mm in 6 months and 92.8 mm in one year.
Lifespan
The fishable life span of Acetes indicus is 3 -6 months. It is about one year and slightly more than 1
year for Exhippolysmata ensirostris and Nematopalaemon tenuipes respectively.
Spawning
Acetes indicus breeds almost throughout the year in the shallow coastal waters showing peak
spawning activity during September - January period.
Fecundity
The fecundity of Acetes indicus is 4,300 -1, 03,000 eggs.
6.2.4. Utilization and management
Utilization
They are consumed fresh in Maharashtra; used for fishmeal production in Gujarat. Sundried Acetes
are consumed by poor people. A fermented product of Acetes spp., called Blachan is in the market in
Southeast Asian countries and China. N. tenupies has market acceptance in fresh and in dried form.
Peeled meat of larger species like E. ensirostris, though insipid in taste, is salted and dried or
consumed fresh.
Management
Non-penaeid shrimps are the bycatches of dol nets and trawlers along Maharashtra and Gujarat
coast. Hence, further exploitation of the resource is not advisable along these coasts. Though they
are of low commercial value, they find prominent place in the marine food chain of important food
fishes of the region. Therefore, large-scale exploitation of the resources of non-penaeid shrimps will
not be economically feasible.
6.3. Marine crabs
Crabs belong to the suborder Brachyura under the order Decapoda and class Crustacea. Some of the
species of marine crabs are in great demand both in the domestic market and the export market.
The crabs are distributed all along the coast down to a depth of five to seven fathoms and within a
distance of a mile from the coast.
6.3.1. Species composition
There are about 600 species of crabs in Indian waters. Of these, 8 species belonging to the families
Calippidae, Portunidae and Grapsidae support localised fishery of some importance in the marine
and brackishwater regions. Portunidae includes the commercially important marine species such as
Portunus sanguinolentus, P. pelagicus, Charybdis feriatus, C. annulata and C. natator. The country
has a good fishery for marine crabs. Three species namely C. feriatus (Cross crab) P. sanguinolentus
(Spotted crab) and P. pelagicus (Reticulate crab) predominate the fishery of edible crabs in the
Indian coastal waters.
The fishery showed an overall improvement (40%) from nearly 20,000 t in 1975 to 28,000t in 1999.

During 1994-2001 on an average, crabs formed about 8% of the total crustacean landings. The
catches were comparatively good in the southern states, Tamil Nadu contributing to 28%, Kerala
12% and Andhra Pradesh 6% during 1996-2000. Nearly 33% of landing was from Tamil Nadu, 31 %
from Gujarat, 17% from Kerala and 8% from Andhra Pradesh. During 1999, maximum landing was
from the southeast region (54%) followed by the southwest (22%), northwest (18%) and northeast
(5%) regions. However, during the year 2000, the northwest contributed the maximum (45%)
followed by southeast region (34%) and southwest region (17%). Maximum landing of crabs was
from Gujarat (43%) during the year 2000.
Recent production
The gear used for crab fishing varies much. The seine nets, dip nets, cast nets, lines, hooked iron
rods, crab net, gill net and traps are used for crab fishing. However, crabs are landed mainly as a by-
catch of trawlers, mostly caught from a depth of about 10-60 m. In Tamil Nadu, which accounts for
28% of the total crab landing, the mechanised trawlers lands about 60%, non-mechanised bottom-
set gill nets 20% and the out-board engine bottom-set gill nets about 10% of the catches.
Crabs feed mainly on smaller crustaceans, fishes and molluscs, polychaetes, detritus, bits of plant
and other decaying organic materials.
Spawning season
These crabs breed throughout the year with peak seasons and spawning may take place twice or
more in a season. Peak breeding and recruitment seasons vary from region to region.
Fecundity
The number of eggs laid by a female crab ranges from about 50,000 to over a million.
6.3.5. Management
Species and sizes that are not suitable for human consumption are often discarded in the sea. The
crab fishery shows an overall improvement in all the maritime states of India. This is due to the
utilization of C. feriatus for human consumption in the recent years. The improvement in the catches
is the result of expansion of the fishing activity to deeper waters by fishermen engaged in multi- day
fishing. However, in order to sustain the crab fishery, it is necessary to increase the cod-end mesh
size of trawl nets to 40 row and above.
6.4. Lobsters
The lobster fishery of India is mainly contributed by spiny lobsters or rock lobsters (Palinuridae) and
the slipper of shovel-nosed lobster (Sycllaridae). They are highly priced seafood items and currently
fetch the highest unit value among commercially exploited marine resources. Heavy demand and
attractive price for lobsters in the international market have resulted in increased exploitation of

lobsters in recent years. The multispecies and multigear fishery involving both traditional and
mechanized sectors poses problems for effective management.
6.4.1. Distribution and species composition
Distribution
P. polyphagus is normally found in muddy substrates and sometimes on rocky bottoms whereas P.
homarus and P. ornatus inhabit rocky and reef areas. Berried females of P. homarus are normally
observed in inshore areas.
Species composition
Lobster fauna in India are represented by 20 species that include 14 species of littoral and 6 species
of deep sea lobsters. However, only four species of littoral such as Panulirus polyphagus, P. homarus,
P. ornatus and P. versicolor and one species of deep sea lobster, Thenus orientalis alone contribute
to commercial fishery. In the northwest coast, lobster fishery is mainly supported by the spiny
lobster, Panulirus polyphagus (Mud spiny lobster) and the slipper lobster, Thenus orientalis (Shovel-
nosed lobster) which inhabit at 20-50 m depth. The shallow water P. homarus (scalloped spiny
lobster) occupying 1-10m depth range is the most dominant species along the southwest coast. The
species such as P. ornatus (Ornate spiny lobster), P. homarus and T. orientalis support the lobster
fishery on the southeast coast. Small quantities of P. versicolor are also landed along the Trivandrum
and Chennai coasts. P. penicillatus and P. longipes are the two other species, which are not
important from the fishery point of view. Adult P. ornatus inhabits relatively deeper areas (40 -50
m). The spiny lobster Puerulus sewelli occupy the upper continental slope between 175 - 200 m
depth off the southwest and southeast coasts. In these regions, they are caught along with deep sea
prawns by trawlers. A spiny lobster species, Linupurus somniosus has been reported from the
Andaman Sea. Similarly, a new species of seyllarid, Scyllarus tutiensis was reported from Gulf of
Mannar region.
Bulk of the landings comes from the northwest, southwest and the southeast coasts. The northwest
coast comprising Gujarat and Maharastra contributed to 69% of total landings during 1996-2000.
Gujarat contributed 43.7%, Maharashtra 25.4%, Tamil Nadu 14.6% and Kerala 13%. Though they
form only 0.12 ± 0.05% of total marine landings, they are an important export commodity
comprising 1.07 ± 0.44% in quantity and 2.59 ± 1.15% in value.
Statewise landings of lobsters (in tonnes)
The main lobster landing centres in India are Veraval, Bombay, Kozhikode, Kolachal, Mandapam,
Tuticorin and Chennai.

Recent production
6.4.3. Mode of exploitation
Mostly (75%) lobster is caught as bycatch by the shrimp trawlers. Along the northwest coast 95% of
the lobsters; appear in trawls, whereas on the southwest coast, indigenous gears such as traps, gill
nets and trammel nets are used for shallow water lobster fishing. On the southeast coast, lobsters
appear both in the trawls as well as in the indigenous gears. On the northwest coast, lobsters are
caught incidentally in trawl nets operating for shrimps at Veraval. P. polyphagus constitutes 45% of
total catch and the rest is by T. orientalis. In Mumbai, P. polyphagus constituted 54% and the rest
was contributed by T. orientalis. P. polyphagus is available round the year. On the southwest coast,
lobsters are fished in almost all the fishing villages starting from Kollam to Kanyakumari. Nearly 90%
of the catch is constituted by P. homarus; Total landings gradually declined from 301 t in 1966 to 8 t
in 1995-96. The fishery is seasonal and extends from August to May with peak catches from
November to January. Fishing season coincides with peak breeding season (November-December)
and the major portion of females caught during this period is egg bearing. Increase in fishing effort,
exploitation of juvenile lobsters by trammel net and heavy exploitation of ovigerous females have
led to overall decline in the landings. In Chennai, lobsters are landed both by trawls and artisanal
gears. 92% of the small trawlers catch was constituted by T. orientalis. 68% of the gillnet catch was
constituted by P. homarus, followed by P. ornatus (18%) and P. versicolor( 13%). 50% of the lobsters
caught in trammel net are below 55 mm (Carapace Length). The spiny lobster, P. sewelli is the only
deep sea species exploited for commercial purpose. During 1998-2000, an average 524 t of deep sea
lobsters were landed at Cochin and Sakthikulangara. The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) was
estimated to be 8000 t for the west coast and 1200 t for the east coast.

6.4.4. Biology
Food and feeding
Lobsters generally feed on smaller crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes, fishes and other animals
which inhabit in the bottom of the sea. The main food item is known to be the mussel.
Male P. polyphagus attains sexual maturity at 175 mm TL, whereas majority of males mature at 265
mm TL. P. homarus attains sexual maturity at 55 mm CL and majority of females start breeding at
sizes above 60 mm CL. P. ornatus starts breeding at 90 mm CL (250 mm TL)
Spawning season
P. polyphagus is found to breed almost throughout the year with a peak breeding season extending
from August to October. Similarly, P. homarus also breeds throughout the year and the peak
breeding season is found to be from November-December along the southwest coast and January-
March along the southeast coast. P. homarus normally breeds in the shallow waters, whereas P.
ornatus breeds at relatively deeper areas. Larvae are found to be abundant at 100 m depth.
Fecundity
Spiny lobsters are highly fecund and fecundity ranges from 50,000 to 10, 00,000 eggs depending
upon the species and the size of lobster.
Marketing
Maximum lobster (49% valuewise) is exported to Japan. The export value of lobster was Rs. 1846
lakhs in 2003.
6.4.5. Conservation and management
Lobsters are under heavy threat in recent years due to over exploitation and destruction of coral
reefs and the lobster settling grounds and operation of trammel net. Juvenile lobsters landing were
observed heavily at northwest and southeast coast of India. The reduction in maximum sized
specimen and higher number of smaller sized lobsters in the fishery, clearly indicate that these
resources are over exploited. Sporadic capturing of berried female spiny lobsters should be banned
and once caught berried females and juveniles once should be released into the sea to avoid
recruitment overfishing and juvenile overfishing. As lobsters are slow growing animals with the
extended life span of 7-10 years, these precious resources should be exploited optimally to sustain
the production. As over - exploitation of this resource to meet the demand in international market is
always on the increase, conservation measures need to be initiated to protect the lobster resource.
At present, there is no control over lobster fishing. The following measures need to be implemented
to conserve the lobster resource.
• Issuing individual lobster quota to the fishennen and thereby fixing the number of lobsters to be
harvested by an individual per day.
• Fixing the size of the first capture so as to set the animal breed naturally at least once in their life
span. To harvest the lobster species, the minimum carapace length should be fixed as 90 mm CL for
P. ornatus 60 mm P. homarus and 80 mm P. versicolor.
• Mesh size of all gears should be above 35 mm to avoid the catch of juvenile crustaceans.
• Installing artificial lobster aggregating devices (LAD) such as submerged reefs for providing shelter
and breeding habitat for them.
• Strict implementation of sea ranching programme to rejuvenate the stock. .Fattening of baby
lobsters to marketable size for increasing lobster production for export from the country.
• Biological data have to be recorded so as to formulate better management strategy.

• Capturing of berried females should be banned.
• Seasonal closure should be attempted during December -March, the peak - breeding season.
• Release of berried female and small one to avoid recruitment over fishing as well as juvenile over
fishing.
• The young once caught off the nets can be used for fattening programme or returned back to the
sea.
• EIA notification must be followed for capturing and exporting the lobsters as well as other
crustaceans.
• Ecofriendly fishing methods such as gill nets and lobster traps should be encouraged instead of
destructive trammel net fishing.
6.5. Stomatopods
Stomatopoda (Family: Squilldae) derives its name from Latin which means "mouth foot". They are
called as squilla, mantis shrimps, shrimp mummies, sea mantis, nurse shrimps, thump splitters, or
thugs of crustaceandom. They are predatory crustaceans that live in the shallow waters of tropical
and subtropical seas. These animals range in size from 1 - 2 cm to more than 35 cm and are one of
the most aggressive and pugnacious of all animals. There are around 300 species under the order
stomatopoda. Of these, 30 species are found to occur in India.
6.5.1. Species composition and Production
Species Composition
Squilla sp., Hemisquilla sp., Nannosquilla sp. and Otrattasquilla sp. are the most common
stomatopod species occuring in India. Otrattasquilla nepa is the species that contributes to most of
the catch.
Production
There is no fishery targeting stomatopods in India. They are caught incidentally with penaeid
shrimps and fishes as bycatch throughout the tropics. They are landed in almost all the maritime
states of India. The maximum catch recorded so far have been 1, 00,000 tonnes. They contribute
about 18% to the total crustacean landings. Due to lack of ready market, most of the stomatopods
are now thrown back into the sea and that way the catch potential is very large.
6.5.2. Utilization
The exosckeleton of stomatopods is useful for the production of chitin and chitosan which are useful
in chemistry, biochemistry, medicine (antibiotics), pharmacology, enzymology, microbiology,
biotechnology, agriculture, nutrition, food science (baby foods), biopolymers etc. Many species of
stomatopods are ornately coloured as red, blue, green, etc with deep mottling and are considered as
ornamental organisms. They are used as good protein supplements in compounded feeds of

shrimps. They contain 80% protein (on dry weight basis). They are used as manure and raw material
for poultry feed. Stomatopods are used as delicious food items In Japan, Philippines, and China and
in some Mediterranean countries.
7.1 Gastropods
There are 5070 species of mollusca recorded in India. Of which, 3370 species are from marine
habitats. In India, certain areas are having rich molluscan diversity. Andaman and Nicobar inlands
have a very rich molluscans diversity, which includes over 1000 species from the marine region. Gulf
of Mannar and Lakshadweep have 428 and 424 species respectively. Among molluscans, the
gastropods are by far the most successful class of all the molluscs with atleast 60,000 living species.
The marine gastropod resources in India comprise a variety of species and are exploited regularly for
various purposes. Gastropods are mostly distributed in the shallow waters, lagoons and reef areas of
the coastal sea. In the past, these shells were thrown out into the sea as discards. Nowadays, though
they have less edible value, but find a prominent place in the commercial shell-craft industry. It
constitutes a minor fishery. Many of these gastropods are exploited for food as well as for
ornamental purposes. The shells are used in making ornaments and curios. They are used either
whole or cut into pieces of desirable shapes during processing.
Distribution
Gastropods are mainly reported from Gujarat, Gulf of Mannar, and Coramandal coast along the east
coast, Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands.
Common Gastropods in India
The sacred chank (Xancus pyrum) occupies the top status followed by the Turban shell (Turbo
marmoratus) and Top shell (Trochus niloticus). The most important among them and highly priced is
the sacred chank. Presently, they are exploited from both the east and west coasts of India and the
fishing by trawl net is the most popular. The bottom trawl exploits not only the shrimps and fishes
but also the benthic animals like gastropods. Other important shells of commercial value are Button
shell (Umbonium spp.), Winged shell (Strombidae), Spider shell or Scorpion shel1 (Lambis spp.),
Cowry (Cypraeidae), Helmet shell (Cassididae), Hairy triton (Cymatidae), Frog shell (Bursidae), Murex
shell (Muricidae), Rock snail (Thaididae), Whelk (Nassaridae) etc.,
7.1.1. Gastropod fishing
Chank Fishing in Gulf of Mannar
Xancus pyrum popularly called, sacred chank forms an important fishery in the Gulf of Mannar. They
live in sandy areas preferably under burrows, in search of food such as small polychaete worms and
algae. They are abundant in the Paar areas locally known as Sangu nilam where coarse sand and
dead corals characterize the bottom areas. About 49 such Paars extending on an average from 4 to
25 km2
are present in the GuIf of Mannar. The depth of these grounds ranged from 16 - 24 metres.
The chank fishery, which has a long history in Tamilnadu, is solely restricted to Gulf of Mannar for
the best quality of chanks viz. X. pyrum var. acuta. Hornell (1915) distinguished five well marked sub-
species of T. pyrum in different localities. The varieties distinguished are T. pyrum var. acuta, T.
pyrum var. obtusa, T. pyrum var. globosa, T. pyrum var. comorinensis and T. pyrum var. lusus. Their
breeding season is during February -March. In Tamilnadu, around Tuticorin, the chank fishing season
starts during middle of October and extends to May and moves up the coast to Cuddalore and
Rameshwaram until July or August. Over 95% of catch is taken by skin-diving upto 20 m depth, while
remaining comes from incidental catches taken in various fishing gears i.e., trawl and bottom set gill
nets.

Chank fishery was under the monopoly of State Fisheries Department of Tamilnadu up to 1993. Now
the Department has been giving lease of rights of chank fishing to the local chank traders. The chank
fishery of Thoothukudi consists of T. pyrum var. acuta, locally known as Jadhi. The chanks collected
from this region are very thick and glossy. Hence, they are considered as the most suitable raw
material for the bangle industries. Accordingly, they fetch the best price in the market.
During a diving day, on an average 50 to 70 boats are engaged in chank fishing. In a boat about 4 to 6
divers take part and one diver collects about 15 to 20 chanks in a day. Trawlers also land chanks
occasionally. Chank production in Gulf of Mannar during 2003-04 was 239 tonnes. The most
important chank beds are near Thoothukudi, Tiruchendur and Kilakarai. The estimated chank
landings off Thoothukudi, exclusively from traditional skin-diving, were 4.2 lakh numbers during
2003, whereas they drastically decreased to 2.92 lakh numbers during 2005. Comparing the last
three years, chank production has fallen considerably. It is a vulnerable shellfish species.
The chank resources are under severe threats all along the coast of Tamilnadu. The factors like
intensified bottom trawling, catching of baby chanks and mother chanks during breeding season,
dumping industrial effluents etc. are leading to heavy depletion of this valuable resource off
Thoothukudi coast. Further, the recent demand for ornaments, making food and medicine led to
increased exploitation. Hence, conservation of this resource is of great importance.
7.1.2. Other gastropod fishing
Gulf of Mannar
Every week, about 6 to 8 gunny bags consisting of a variety of gastropod species like Cypraea,
Strombus, Turbo, Thais, Lambis, etc are exploited in a season near the islands, situated in the Gulf of
Mannar.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the shore is found to be rocky. The rocky shore with algal growth
provides gastropods with conducive environment for better survival and growth. Generally, people
of the islands depend on the seafood, supported by gastropods mainly Trochus and Turbo. Others
like the limpets, Strombus, Thais and Cypraea are also being exploited for food and as well to
support the for shell craft industry. There is an organized and regular fishing for Turbo and Trochus in
Andaman Islands. Of these two, Trochus is abundantly exploited. Although there was good landing

during the past, of late the catch has decreased. The availability of this gastropod ranges from a
depth of 4 to 8 meters in the rocky and coral beds. The Trochus and Turbo zones were made into
nine fishing sectors by the Andaman Adminstration for the purpose of leasing to the private
entrepreneurs. Under the licensing system, only the shells above 9 cm diameter (Trochus) and 6.3
cm (Turbo) are allowed to be fished. Turbo is available in greater abundance at 12 to 25 m depth.
The average annual landing of Trochus is about 400 to 500 tonnes whereas Turbo is about 100 to
150 tonnes. Their shells are widely used in the shell-craft industry.
Lakshadweep Islands
In Lakshadweep Islands, the population of gastropods is scarce. An organized fishery exists only for
Cypraea. The most commercially important gastropods occurring here are species of Trochus, Turbo,
Strombus, Cypraea, Nautilus (Monsoon shells) and Conus.
7.1.3. Collection of chank egg capsules
Collection of chank egg capsules
The divers along the Thoothukudi coast also exploit the egg capsules together with chanks for selling
them for medicinal purpose. They collect about 10-20 egg capsules in a day. This exploitation of egg
capsules, every year'in large numbers affects recruitment and the renewal of the population.
Conservation measures need to be taken to prevent removal of egg capsules
Edible gastropods
A few gastropod species are utilized as food by man. However, they are seldom sold in the markets
for human consumption. The button-shell, Umbonium vestiarium is the only species that finds a
place in fish-stalls in Malwan in Maharashtra. The important species of edible gastropods of Indian
coasts are Cellana radiata, Trochus niloticus, Tradiatus, Umbonium vestiarium, Turbo marmoratus, T.
intercostalis, Strombus conarium, Lambis lambis, Thais rudolphi, T. bufo, Oliva gibbosa and Xancus
pyrum. Recently, whelks are exploited along the east and west coasts for export purpose. Babylonia
spirata and B. zeylanica are the two species of whelks, which form bycatch of shrimp trawlers in
Sakthikulangara-Neendakara area along the southwest coast of India and Annappanpettai near
Parangipettai along the southeast coast. The opercula of these species having aphrodisiac qualities
are exported to Gulf countries under the trade name "Fish nail'.
7.1.4. Conservation and management
Conservation measures for chank should include (i) Intensive exploitation of chank should be
avoided during the peak breeding season (Jan-Mar) every year for conservation of the egg capsules
and baby chanks (2) The size at first capture needs to be increased from the present level of 64 mm
to 75 mm MSD to enable the chanks to spawn at least once in their life and to avoid recruitment
over fishing (3) The fishing effort should be decreased by about 35 % from the present level of
exploitation (4) Laws should be enforced to prevent the discharge of industrial effluents and
operation of mini trawlers over chank beds and (5) Declaration of protected areas, development of
captive breeding technique and promotion of sea ranching.
Recently, the following species of gastropods have been included in the Schedule I of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The species are Cassis corn uta, charonia triton is triton is, Conus
milne-edwardsi, Cypraecassis rufi1, Nautilus pompilius, Cypraea limacine, C. mappa, C. talpa,
Fasciolaria trapezium, Harpulina arausiaca, L.chiragra chiragra, L.chiragra arthritica, L. crocata, L.
millepeda, L. scorpius, L. truncata, Strombus plicatus slibbaldi, Trochus niloticus and Turbo
marmoratus. The landings of the Turbo shells in Andamans also have very much come down when
compared to few decades ago mostly due to overexploitation irrespective of the size of the animal.

Hence, the stock of this gastropod is to be replenished urgently. This can be achieved by breeding
and rearing them under controlled conditions for sea ranching. At present, there is no special
hatchery for the gastropods or even a programme for their breeding and sea ranching. Nowadays
the smaller gastropods like Cypraea are also overexploited which is evident from the decline in the
availability of these shells. Regulation on size of the Cypraea exploited (above 5 mm) and a ban on
gathering shell at least for three months once in a year during their breeding season need to be
implemented.
7.2. Bivalves
Bivalves belong to the phylum Mollusca. They include clams, mussels, edible oysters, pearl oysters
and window pane oysters. Mostly, bivalves are collected for their meat and shell. Pearl fishing took
place for the golden coloured pearls till 1961. When the pearl oyster beds became barren, pearl
fishing became uneconomic and it did not take place since then. Meanwhile edible bivalves and
ornamental shells gained popularity and their fishery improved. During 1995-99, the average
quantity of edible bivalve products exported per annum have been estimated as 580 tonnes, worth
Rs.26 million and 567 t of oyster shell powder valued at Rs.1.5 million. The bivalve resources are
mostly underexploitated along the northwest and northeast coasts whereas overexploited along the
southeast and southwest coasts.
Production trend
The average annual production of edible bivalves during 1996 to 2000 was estimated as 1.52 lakh
tonnes, about 2.5 times more than the average landings during the period prior to 1996. A variety of
clams, oysters, mussels and windowpane oysters are distributed along the Indian coastline. They are
mostly collected by the local people. Clams and cockles form 73.8%, followed by oysters (12.5%),
mussels (7.5%) and windowpane oysters (6.2%). The west coast accounts for 52.3% of the landing
where the catch is utilized for both the meat and the shell. Among the maritime states, Andhra
Pradesh is the top producer (70,705 t) followed by Kerala (58,763 t). The production levels in other
states are negligible.
Commercially important bivalves of India

.2.1. Mode of exploitation
Bivalve fishing
Fishing methods for bivalves are simple, using non-mechanized gear ranging from manual picking to
hand operated dredges. Clams are handpicked by men and women usually during low tide. In the
shallow estuaries and sandy beaches, fishers usually remove the sand by their feet or by wooden or
metal plates and pick out the buried clams. About 50 kg of clams are fished within 3 to 4 hours daily.
A scoop net made of semicircular iron frame and nylon net of 30 mm mesh size is used for fishing
clams. In deeper areas, fishermen go out in pairs, dive in turns and collect clams. In Kakinada Bay,
Shoe Dhoni is used for clam collection with a fishing trip extending from 3 to 4 consecutive days.
Oysters are gathered by separating them from the rocky substratum with knife. Mussels are also
collected in the similar way. but those in the subtidal regions are collected by diving.
Fishing season
The fishing season is usually during the post and premonsoon period. In certain estuaries of Goa, the
clam fishery is mainly during the monsoon period when there is no marine fishing activity.
7.2.2. Production
West coast
the estimated landing of bivalves along the west coast is 52,537 tonnes. Kerala state accounts for
47% of the total landing of clams and cockles. Organized clam fishery takes place in Vembanad and
Ashtamudi lakes in Kerala. Vembanad is known for the black clam, Jillorita cyprinoides while
Asthamudi is known for the short neck clam Paphia malabarica. Their fishery depends on the export
demand. Mussels are the second dominant group, which are gathered all along the coast. Oyster
fishery is limited to certain estuaries like Dharmadam, Vembanad Lake, Kayamkulam and Asthamudi
Lake. Clams and oysters are very popular in Karnataka where the fishery is conducted in the major
estuaries like Udayavara, Mulky and Gurupur. Recently, the demand for green mussel has increased
and about 2,000 tonnes of Perna viridis were landed during 2000. Information on the bivalve fishery
and exploitation along the Northwestern states is scanty. Nauxim Bay is famous for the fishery of
windowpane oyster where about 8,000 to 10,000 oysters are gathered every day. In Maharashtra,
bivalves are collected only in certain regions like Ratnagiri coast. Windowpane oysters and edible
oysters are the main bivalve resource of Gujarat. However, there is no bivalve well organized fishery
in these regions.
East coast
Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry and Andhra Pradesh are rich in bivalve resources. However, their utilization
for human consumption is very negligible. Information on bivalve fishery in the northeastern states
like Orissa and West Bengal are not available. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have several bivalve
resources among which the black lip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, the giant clams Tridacna
maxima, T. squamosa, T. crocea and Hippopus hippapus are gathered for the tourism based
ornamental shell industry. Perna viridis and economically important clams like Paphia spp. are used
occasionally, In the Lakshadweep Islands, local people collect the giant clams.
7.2.3. Pearl oyster resource in Gulf of mannar
Hornell (1922) gives the history of the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. During the 16th
Century', the history of pearl fisheries is intricately connected on the one hand with the ruling power
like the Nayakas of Madura, Nawab of Camatic and the Portuguese and on the other hand with the
"Paravars" who traditionally exploited the fisheries. The pearl oysters are always found attached to
some hard substratum such as rocks, dead coral outcrops or sand grit covered with marine

organisms. The areas of occurrence of pearl oysters are known as pearl banks or "Parrs". Hornell
divided these Paars into three divisions:
1. Northern (Kilakarai)
2. Central (Thoothukkudi)
3. Southern{Kanyakumari)
Of these, the central division is the most productive one in view of the fact that out of the 40
fisheries that had taken place between 1663 and 1961, 39 fisheries had been in the paars located in
this division.
Pearl fishing, which was once historically famous, has been gradually discontinued from 1961.
Natural pearls were collected from Pinctada fucata in - the pearl fisheries of Thoothukudi in Gulf of
Mannar. There are about 80 pearl banks in this region. These banks vary in depth from 10-20 m.
Maximum numbers of pearl banks are along Thoothukudi coast. Among the shellfishes, the pearl
oyster - Pinctada fucata is an endangered species in this region. Apart from industrial pollution and
intensive bottom trawling, settlement of heavy load of silt and clay from the Tamiraparani has also
been identified to adversely affect the habitat and population of pearl oysters. Feeding of pearl
oyster flesh by boring molluscs and barnacles are also the reasons for destruction of pearl beds.
Presently, all the pearl beds are under the control of State Government.
Utilization
The bivalves are utilized in various forms such as frozen, dried, pickled and canned clam and mussel
meat, oyster shell powder and other ornamental shells. Bivalve meat is consumed along the west
coast. Smoked and canned oysters are found in big cities. In Kerala ad Andhra Pradesh clams are also
used for preparation of artificial shrimp feed or directly as shrimp feed. Shells of bivalves are used
for the production of cement, calcium carbide, sand-lime bricks and lime. The lime shell is used as
manure, as mortar in building construction, as a pesticide by mixing with copper sulphate, in the
effluent treatment and in glass, rayon, polyfibre, paper and sugar industries. Attractive bivalve shells
are used and traded for ornamental purpose.
Bivalves are one of the least managed fishery resources along the Indian coast. There is no proper
regulation for effective utilization and conservation of bivalve resources. Sexually mature bivalves
with high reproductive potential constitute bivalve fishery. Indiscriminate exploitation of young
clams and mussels take place in some states, especially in Kerala and Andhrapradesh. Efforts for
fishing bivalves can be enhanced in majority of the states. Pearl oyster spats need to be ranched in
the pearl beds to improve the stock of pearl oysters.
7.3. Cephalopods
Cephalopods that include squids, cuttlefishes and octopuses belong to the phylum Mollusca. At
present, there are about 700 described species of living cephalopods worldwide. In India, the species
diversity of cephalopods is very poor. The order Nautiloidea has no representation in Indian coast as
its distribution is restricted around Australia and south East Asian countries. As far as squids are
concerned, the order Sepioidea is represented only by three families namely, Sepidae (True cuttle
fishes), Sepiadaridae (Bottle tail squid) and Sepiolidae (Bobtail squid). The rest of the families
namely, Idiosepidae and Spirulidae have no representation in Indian waters. Therefore under
Sepioids, true cuttlefishes of the family Sepiidae is the dominant variety in Indian waters with the
representation of two genera namely, Sepia and Sepiella. So far 13 species have been reported
under the genus Sepia and one species namely, Sepiella inermis under the genus Sepiella.

As far as squids are concerned, the neritic squids come under the suborder, Myopsida are
represented by the members of the family Loliginidae. The family, Pickfordiateuthidae is completely
absent in Indian waters. The family Loliginidae is represented by four genera namely, Loligo,
Doryteruthis, sepioteuthis and Loliolus. Of the 28 families of deep sea squids (suboreder Oegopsida)
only three families viz Onychoteuthidae (Onychoteuthis banksii), Thysanoteuthidae (Thysanoteuthis
rhombus), Ommastephidae (Ommastrepheus bactrami & Symplectoteuthis ovalaniensis) are
represented in the deep seas of Indian waters. .
In the case of Octopus, an intresting group of Octopods namely Cirrate, Octopods are completely
absent in Indian waters. Further, out of the eight families of Incirrate Octopods, only two families
namely, Octopodidae and Argonautidae. The family Octopodiae is represented by four genera
namely, Octopus, Cistopus, Hapalochlaena and Berrya. The family, Argonuta is represented by the
single genus, Argonauts.
Cephalopods are commercially exploited all along the Indian coast. The catches of cuttlefish and
squid are almost equal along the Indian coast. The contribution of octopus to the cephalod landings
is negligible, but showing an increasing trend nowadays. Cephalopods were thrown overboard as
discards until mid 70's. Export demand in the mid 70's induced the fishermen to improve the catches
of cephalopods. Since then, the production has been rapidly increasing and the present annual
production is about 100,000 tonnes. The cephalopods contribute to about 4% of total marine
landings. They account for about 10% by value of the total marine products exported. There are
about 80 species recorded from Indian waters but only a dozen are of commercial importance.

The production of cephalopods increased from 94 t in 1961 to 1,11, 534 t in 2000 along the Indian
coast. The rapid increase in the catch during 1961-76 could be attributed to the combined effect of
finding virgin trawling grounds for cephalopods in the inshore waters after the introduction of
commercial trawlers in the early 1960s, as well as export demand. The extension of fishing grounds
to areas beyond 50 m depth (up to 100 m depth), by introduction of larger trawlers (OAL 13-18 m)
and high opening bottom trawls along the Indian coast. The cephalopods have been fully exploited
up to 100 m depth contour along the Indian coast during the last five years.
The production of cephalopods increased all along the Indian coast during 1961-95. However, the
increase was more along the west coast and in the east coast. Cephalopod production is more from
the west coast than the east coast. It was 86% in the west coast and 14% in the east coast during
1991 -2000. During the same period, northwest contiributed 45%, southwest 41 % and southeast
13% to the total cephalopod landings in India. Northeast coast did not contribute remarkably.
Recent production
Cephalopods are caught as bycatch of trawl nets along the Indian coast except along the Vizhinjam -
Kanyakumari region. Target fishery for cuttlefishes takes place only along Vizhinjam-Kanyakumari
region. Trawl nets operating up to 100 m depth account for 85% of the cephalopod landings. The
introduction of high opening bottom trawl nets increased the cephalopod production. Other gears
used for cephalopod fishing are scoop net, hooks & lines, boat seines and purse seines. Along the
Vizhinjam-Kanyakumari coast, hooks & lines operated from motorized and non-motorized craft
account for the entire cuttlefish catch of the region. Squids are caught in boat seines in this region.
The cephalopods are generally carnivorous. The food mainly consists of teleost fishes, crustaceans
and cephalopods. Cannibalism is common among cephalopods. Feeding intensity decreases during
the spawning periods.
Lifespan
Cephalopods generally have a short life span, of less than two years.
Utilization
Most of the catch of cephalopods is utilized by the export industry and only very little is used for
local consumption. They are exported as frozen or dried products (34 listed products). The
cephalopods formed nearly 45% of the total quantity exported; however, the annual average is
about 25%. The value of cephalopods in total marine exports has remained between 11 % and 15%
without much variation. The main markets for export of Indian cephalopods are Europe, Japan and
China. Maximum Cephalopods are exported to Spain (valuewise) - 34% -Rs.28783 lakhs
Management

No target fishery takes place for the cephalopods in India except along the Vizhinjam-Kanyakumari
coast. Hence, it is difficult to manage cephalopod fishery. However, indiscriminate bottom trawling
severely disturbs the habitat that facilitates the cephalopods to lay their egg masses. It also affects
their food availability. It is necessary to close trawling during peak spawning periods and increase
the cod end mesh size from 15 to 25 mm for sustainable production of cephalopods along the Indian
coast.
8.1. Deep sea fisheries
Marine fish production has increased more than five folds since independence. The substantial
increase in fish production after independence was largely due to introduction of mechanized fishing
vessels and synthetic gear materials, expansion of trawl fleet, motorization of traditional fishing
craft, substantial growth in number and efficiency of trawlers and motorized craft, and development
of infrastructure for fish preservation, processing and storage. These developments increased fishing
pressure in the coastal waters up to a depth of 100 m and had led to over-capitalization in certain
fisheries like trawl fishery and over-fishing of a few fish stocks like sharks, catfishes and whitefish.
The resources in the inshore waters are being fully exploited and scope for increasing production
from the present fishing grounds is limited. However, commercial deep-sea fisheries have not
developed in India. The Maritime Zones of India Act came into force in 1981 and rules were framed
in 1982, which enabled the Government to regulate deep sea fishing activities.
8.1.1. Fisheries potential in deep sea
Sudarsan and others (1991) estimated a resource potential of 3.92 million tonnes from the Indian
EEZ. Of this, the inshore water (0.50 m), 10 percent in area of the EEZ, possesses an estimated
exploitable potential of 58 per cent (2.28 million tonnes). The rest, 1.64 million tonnes, are scattered
over a very large area of (89 percent of EEZ) offshore waters (50-500 m). The 1.64 million tonnes of
deep-sea resources comprise 45.25 percent of pelagic stock, 39.8 percent of demersal stock and 15
percent of oceanic species. The major fish groups are the threadfin breams, yellow fin tuna, pelagic
sharks, cephalopods, carangids, and shrimps in the order of abundance. The new Deep Sea Fishing
Policy (1991) seeks to facilitate the exploitation of these resources, but without considering the
indigenous potential particularly that of the artisanal deep-sea-going fish workers and the likely
adverse impact of welcoming foreign investment to exploit these resource.
The current yield of 2.7 million tonnes is mainly from 387,500 km2
of inshore waters (within 100 m
depth). The additional annual harvestable yield of 1.22 million tones is available in the extensive
deep-sea and far sea (beyond 100 m depth) area of 1.63 million km2
in the EEZ. While, harvestable
potential is 7.0 tonnes/ km2
in the inshore waters, it is only 0.7 tonnes/ km2
deep-sea and far sea.
Hence, scouting time, and manpower and fuel requirements will be very high to exploit deep-sea
and far sea resources. Moreover, high cost of investment on larger vessels with several days of sea
endurance makes operation expensive. Of the 1.22 million tonnes in the far sea, 0.97 million tonnes
(15.7 tonnes/ km2
) is available at depths of 100-200 m (area: 61,900 km2
) and 0.25 million tonnes
(0.16 tonnes/ km) beyond the continental shelf (200 m) in the EEZ. Thus, the underexploited depth
zone between 100 and 200 m has a high density of fish biomass. The partially exploited demersal
resources offering scope for increasing exploitation in this depth zone are the threadfin breams,
horse mackerel, scads, ribbon fishes and sciaenids, Some of the non-conventional varieties available
in this depth zone are bullseye (Priacanthus spp.), black ruff (Centrolophus niger), green eye
(Chlorophthalmus spp.) and Ariomma indica, Among crustaceans, deep- sea shrimps and lobsters are
available in good concentration up to 500 m depth along the southwest coast, Wadge Bank (off

Kanyakumari), the areas off Gulf of Mannar and Point Calimere. The spear lobster (Linuparus
somniosus) along with other species of deep-sea lobsters occurring in 150-500 m depth in the
Andaman waters can also be developed for a fishery. It has been identified that oceanic squids can
also be a major fisheries resource in the deep sea.
8.1.2. Development of deep sea fishing in India
Deep sea fishing operation started with two Mexican trawlers imported from USA in 1972. However,
these vessels did fishing in inshore waters only. There were 110 chartered and joint venture deep-
sea fishing trawlers operating all along the Indian coast in 1982. Most of these vessels were
Taiwanese, and exploited mostly inshore waters, and rarely fished beyond 50 m depth. In 1983, the
Government of India enforced a depth limitation of 80 m. Hence, all the chartered vessels wound up
their operations which resulted in the termination of foreign vessel-chartering programme.
Following termination of foreign vessels chartering programme in the mid 1980s, the Government of
India formulated various schemes and projects to diversify and strengthen deep-sea fishing industry
and large industrial houses. New Deep Sea Fishing Policy announced in March 1991 became fully
effective during the year 1992-93 as a number of vessels under Joint Ventures, Test Fishing and
Leasing were permitted and operation of a few vessels was started. Multinational companies were
permitted to undertake deep-sea fishing through joint venture arrangements in early 1990s. Under
these schemes, 33 stem trawlers and 22 pair trawlers operated in 50 to 100 m depth during 1990 -
1993 and 23 tuna long liners during 1990 -1995, As the trawlers could not get the expected
quantities of shrimps, the operations were gradually reduced since 1993. Due to high operational
and maintenance costs, only 10 tuna long liners and 5 stem trawlers operated in 1994 and 1995,
which too closed their operation by the end of 1990s.
In addition, fishermen too stiffly resisted to the scheme. They were of the view that fishing in deep-
sea would deplete inshore resources and jeopardize their already diminishing income. The main
objection was for chartering foreign trawlers as these vessels often fished in waters below 100 m
depth, thereby confronting local fishennen. Fishermen were not ready to accept the operation of
tuna loglines too, which generally operated in waters far beyond their reach. In addition, three
corporate companies, which were involved in far sea long lining, reported closure of their fishing
activities in 1995-1996.
In 2003 and 2004, under joint venture policy, about 30 deep-sea fishing vessels have been permitted
to operate in the Indian EEZ. Because of the deficiency in monitoring and surveillance of such
operations, it is bitterly complained by fishermen that these vessels fish inside territorial waters and
sweep away all types of fishes. Responding to protests and agitations by fish workers all over the
country against the DSFP, Govenm1ent of India (GOI) appointed a commission headed by Sri Murari
to examine the issue. The commission recommended that issuing license to foreign vessels must be
stopped and indigenous potential for exploiting deep- sea fishery resources should be assessed and
promoted. Accordingly, the Government stopped issuing new licences and emphasised the need to
search for indigenous means of harvesting the unexploited deep sea resources of India.
Thus, exploitation of deep-sea resources has never been consistently successful in India. It is high
time that the following vital scientific facts are considered for success in deep-sea fishing operations.
 The fisheries resources are less abundant in the far sea and deep sea.
 Far sea and deep- sea fishing is several times costlier compared to inshore fishing.
 The species found in the deep-sea are generally not popular in the market, and hence, fetch
very poor price.
8.1.3. Needs for a revised deep sea fishing policy
After the acceptance of the Murari Committee Report on the Deep- Sea Fishing Policy (DSFP) in
1996, the DSFP 1991 is not implemental. To facilitate exploitation of resources in the EEZ on a
sustainable basis, there is an urgent need to evolve a new DSFP. Without a deep-sea fishing sector,

India would lose its stakes in international arena. Formulation of DSFP is also essential from the
point of view of global initiatives such as development of a deep-sea fishing sector for Code of
Conduct for Responsible fisheries and UNCLOS. India is a signatory to these conventions. Article 62
of UNCLOS indicates that a coastal country must determine its capacity to harvest unexploited
resources in the deep-sea and far- sea; as there is possibility that several coastal and landlocked
countries may stake a claim to harvest those resources.
Therefore, it is a matter of great urgency that India should formulate an effective and viable DSFP at
the earliest. As a part of the policy package, a comprehensive legislation for regulating fishing
activities of all types of fishing vessels should be enacted by the parliament. This is also necessary to
give effect to the recommendations of the Murari Committee that waters up to 100 nautical miles
on the west coast and 50 nautical miles on the east coast in the EEZ (including Andaman and Nicobar
and Lakshadweep Islands) should be allotted exclusively for exploitation and further expansion of
mechanized fishing sector (vessels below 20 m OAL).
The number and type of vessels needed for exploiting deep-sea and far-sea resources should be
determined. Such an exercise is imperative to restrict fleet size consistent with resources and their
sustainability. The fleet size for each region should be identified by considering length, engine horse
power, winch capacity, fish-hold capacity, on board processing facility, fishing systems available
onboard and estimate of average catch a single vessel would be able to take. Government would
have to promote Indian-owned vessels based on the limits of pre-determined capacity for each
region. For acquiring vessels, a system of issuing licenses will have to be introduced, integrated with
financing by authorized banks. Government of India could provide a part of the fund for providing
loan for acquiring vessels and for working capital. Further, a system of financing a group of vessels to
operate from major fishing harbours or ports will facilitate effective monitoring of their activities and
ensure prompt loan recoveries.
8.1.4. Financing for deep sea fishing
The task of financing of deep sea fishing vessels was performed by Shipping Development Fund
Committee (SDFC) by providing soft loans for acquisition of deep sea fishing vessels, It was abolished
in April, 1987 and the Shipping Credit and Investment Company of India Ltd. (SCICI) took up the work
off mancing of acquisition of deep sea fishing vessels. With a view to achieving an integrated
development of the deep sea fishing sector, the Central Ministry implemented the schemes such as
schemes for setting up of Cold Chain, tuna and other fish processing, effective implementation of
MZI Act, 1981 by providing funds for installation, communication facilities to coast guard, providing
loan for acquisition of deep sea fishing vessels, equity participation in deep sea fishing and
processing ventures (through MPEDA), assistance for diversified fishing and formation of National
Marine Fisheries Development Board (NMFDB).
8.1.5. Commercial exploitation of deep sea crustaceans along the southwest Coast
Until late 1990s, it was considered that deep-sea resources could be exploited only by large trawlers.
These resources were considered beyond the reach of small and medium trawlers, operating in the
coastal waters. From November 1999, the fishermen of Kerala, and from 2001, the fishermen of
Karnataka are engaged in deep-sea fishing by employing conventional trawlers. The major deep-sea
pandalid shrimps landed at Kochi Fisheries Harbour are Heterocarpus woodmasoni, H. gibbosus,
Plesionika spinipes, Aristeus alcocki, Metapenaeopsis andamanensis, Solenocera hextii and
Penaeopsis. The deep-sea lobster fishery is supported by a single species, viz. Puerulus sewelli.
In the last three years, the fishermen of Tamil Nadu also have ventured into deep-sea trawling up to

400 m depth. Extreme caution should be exercised in exploiting deep-sea resources. Deep-sea
shrimp fishery is characterized by the absence of juvenile populations and heavy dominance of
berried, impregnated or mature females of almost all species. Compared to coastal species, the
fecundity of deep-sea species is low and growth rate is slow. Because of these disadvantageous
biological characteristics, most of the deep-sea resources including penaeid prawns are extremely
vulnerable to fishing. Taking these biological limitations into account, it is advisable not to increase
fishing pressure on these fragile stocks.
8.1.6. Development of artisanal deep sea fishing in south west coast
The lower south-west coast of India has unique ecological features such as the long stretch of sandy
bed with rocky outgrowth, steep sloping continental shelf (40 to 54 km in the belt as against 69 km
further north), and the intensively surf ridden sea especially during the monsoon. Catamaran with
sail, landing a wide variety of colourful reef fishes caught with hook and line, is a unique fishing
method of this region. About 2000 small-scale fish workers of the border fishing village of
Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) and Trivandrum (Kerala) districts who have been engaged in migratory
deep-sea fishing for the past two decades covering the entire coast of India from Okha sea in Gujarat
to the Andaman Sea in the Bay of Bengal. Kerala contributes a large share to national deep sea fish
production.
Fishermen belonging to the fishing villages of Kadiyapattanam, Eneyam, and Thoothoor in
Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu have been masters in hook- and-line fishing from time
immemorial. The Kadiyapahanam and Eneyam fishermen continued to build on their expertise to
innovate and develop artificial baits from time to time to improve the efficiency of hook-and-line
fishing. The fishermen of Thoothoor have been masters in shark fishing with hook-and-line and
bottom-set gill-nets on catan1aran with sail. They have been improvising on the development of
fishing gears for catching sharks, a species which enjoyed a good local market. As these fishermen
migrate towards Kerala for fishing some of them have settled in the fishing villages of
Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam after marrying girls from the localities concerned. They continued
with their highly specialised fishing techniques of hook- and-line with artificial baits. Shark fishing
with hand-line and bottom-set gill-nets was also prevalent in some fishing villages such as Poonthura
and Puthiathura in Thiruvananthapuram district. Hand-line with large-sized locally made hooks
baited with tuna meat was the simple gear used by these fishelmen. Bottom-set gill-net known
locally as thathu vala, which has very big mesh size (250 mm) made with thick twine was also ill use.
This unique practice involved setting up shark gill-nets at the sea bottom and leaving them there for
a couple of days. Thereafter they would locate the net at the open sea by a very special traditional
method of position fixing at sea. Visual triangulation technique is the method which is more or less
similar to that of navigational methods adopted by commercial ships Position-fixing at sea is
essential to locate the high-yielding fishing grounds such as natural reefs, cuttlefish-fish grounds,
shipwrecks and so on. It is essential to locate the bottom set gill-nets left at sea also. Fishermen
usually ignore lighthouse for position-fixing at open sea; instead they use landmarks like peak of
mountains, towers of churches, and other elevated marks for the purpose. The fishermen term this
technique as kaniyam or kanicham which means position.
8.1.7. Problems in artisanal deep sea fishing
 Prolonged absence from family
 Safety and security at destinations

 Problems in marketing
The artisanal group display many distinct features which place them in a unique category among
deep-sea-fishing groups and distinguish them from other artisanal groups. Its uniqueness lies in two
aspects, technological and socio-cultural.
Technological
The technological features that make them different are the following:
 Deployment of different combinations of fishing gear targeting a variety of fish species.
 Extensive and migratory fishing over the entire west coast of India.
 Low cost but highly skilled and knowledge-based technology employed without resort to
costly electronic equipment meant for deep-sea fishing.
 Use of simple and comparatively low-cost fishing crafts.
 Continuous and sustained improvement in fishing techniques and gear in response to the
fluctuations in resource base.
 Long-stay weekly fishing extending up to seven days.
 Use of mechanical energy for reaching the fishing ground and non-use of mechanical energy
for operation of fishing gears.
 Use of indigenous and traditional skills appropriate to the local resource base.
 Selective fishing by using a particular size of mesh in gill-nets and hook-size in long lines.
 Non-destructive, sustainable, eco-friendly and selective fishing, avoiding young fishes and
other flora and fauna unlike in trawler-fishing.
Through continuous interaction, artisanal fishermen have learnt tlle hidden intricacies of the vast
expanses of the sea. They have rich knowledge of the pattern of ocean currents during each season,
and of plankton bloom and its correlation with fish production. By merely looking at the colour of
the sea i.e., plankton bloom they predict the immediate fishing potential and the species that would
be available, by correlating the food chain and the annual weather cycle. They are aware of the
complexities of tropical fishery and the availability of a variety of species in small quantities at
different seasons. Accordingly, they have designed and fabricated a variety of fishing gear to catch
diverse species of fish available at different seasons of the year. Artisanal fishermen have gained
mastery over the fishing gear by constant interaction with the sea under compulsions of earning a
1ivelihood. None is more concerned than the fishermen to ensure the sustainability of resources of
the size. The design details of their fishing gear and their fishing methods incorporate features to
ensure sustainability and the sharing of common property resources.
The genuine community perspectives of sharing and sustainability are reflected in the mix of
practices and the technology employed listed below:
 Excluding juveniles by selecting a combination of netting with different mesh size and
selecting different sizes of hook for different lines.
 Use of different fishing gears to target different species and sizes offish (eg. 10 mm small
meshed net for catching anchovies and 250 mm large meshed nets for large shark).
 Passive methods followed for fishing in which fish come and get entangled instead of
chasing and catching them with active gear using high techniques and large equipment.
The commercial fishing gear designed by gear technologists has greater catching efficiency, But does
not take care of the other subtle intricacies of fishery particu1arly fisheries of tropical areas. These
gears are 'active' in nature - chasing the fish with intricate equipment and using large amounts of
mechanical energy unlike in traditional fishing which uses shooting and hauling of the gear (e.g. in
trawling and purse seining). The features the gear used, that is, whether it is passive or active have a
direct implication for the sustainability and economic viability of fishing operations. The choice of

technique determines the volume and quality of output and the pattern of its sharing. Striking
contrasts exist in these respects between artisanal deep-sea fishing and Indian deep-sea fishing
using trawlers.
Socio-cultural
Deep-sea artisanal fishing has evolved as a continual improvement process over centuries in the
social and cultural setting of the coastal areas of Kerala and has enjoyed favourable market
conditions for its output, particularly for shark and shark products. The major features of the socio-
cultural features include the following.
 Inherited knowledge system and traditional skills acquired through trans- generational
processes.
 Accumulated knowledge gained from continuous interaction with the sea
 Initiation of the learning process from early childhood.
 Skill development through responsible methods of learning in a community context.
 Proactive and timely responses to changing fishing technology over time.
 Continuous assimilation of positive features of traditional fishing practices in the system.
 Positive and ready response to potential opportunities in the market.
 Capability to pursue risky and adventurous economic activity in competition with modern
technology and capital-intensive corporate business.
As nearly one-third of the marine fisheries potential remains to be exploited from the deep-sea and
far-sea sectors in the Indian EEZ, the country should develop immediate strategies for optimal
utilization of these resources and for emerging as a major distant-water fishing nation in the
international waters.
8.2. Conservation of marine animals
Biodiversity loss is one of the world's most pressing crises. It has been estimated that the current
species extinction rate is between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than it would naturally be. Many
species are declining to critical population levels due to habitat destruction, climate change and
anthropogenic activities. At the same time, there is also growing awareness of how biodiversity
supports livelihoods, allows sustainable development and fosters co-operation between nations.
This awareness about the biodiversity conservation is generated by the organizations such as World
Conservation Union (earlier known as IUCN), Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), International
Whaling Commission etc.
India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. It contains 172 species of animal
considered globally threatened by IUCN, or 2.9% of the world's total number of threatened species.
In order to protect these animals, a National Policy for Wildlife Conservation was adopted in 1970
and the Wildlife Protection Act was enacted in 1972 which have a significant impact on the
maintenance of biodiversity. After a careful study on the population and catch particulars, the
marine animals such as the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), 9 species of sharks and rays, finfishes
such as the giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus), 17 species of seahorses and pipefishes, 24
species of molluscs and all species of seacucumbers, corals, seafans, turtles and marine mammals
were enlisted under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 with a view to conserve them.
.2.1.Conservation of endangered marine animals of India
Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus)
It is the largest of all fishes. It is a pelagic species that occurs in continental shelf and offshore waters

in both tropical and warm temperate waters of all oceans. It may grow up to 18 m in length, but fish
of 4 m to 12 m in length are more commonly seen. Frequent entangling of this giant cartilaginous
fish in trawl nets has been reported in India particularly in the east coast. This is included
undermSchedule -I part II A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The ban should be continued to
help resuscitation of the stock. This species also has been included in the IUCN Red List (2000) as
vulnerable and listed as 'species under threat'.
Sharks and Rays
In India, a total of 110 species of elasmobranchs which include 66 species of sharks, 4 species of saw
fishes, 8 species of guitar fishes and 32 species of rays have been reported. Sharks are slow growing,
viviparous, with long gestation period and limited fecundity. The size at first maturity is also high.
Many species of sharks and rays use the bays and estuaries as nurseries which are susceptible to
overexploitation.
The stock assessment studies on elasmobranchs indicated that there is overexploitation of some
species while some of the species are underexploited. Hence, a ban was imposed under the Wild Life
Protection Act, 1972, on the capture of three species of sharks namely, Glyphius gangeticus, G.
glyphius and Carcharhinus hemiodon, two species of rays such as Himantura fluviatilis and
Urogymnus asperrimus, three species of saw fishes such as Pristis microdon, P. zijsron and
Anoxypristis cuspidatus and one species of guitar fish, Rhynchobatus djeddensis. All these species
have also been brought under IUCN Red List (2000) either as vulnerable or endangered. To replenish
the stocks, management measures like restriction of trawling during peak spawning period of
elasmobranchs can be enforced for sustaining the juvenile population. Operation of gilInets or other
entangling nets for the capture of juvenile elasmobranchs in the bays and estuaries which serve as
nursery grounds need to be prohibited.
Seahorses
Seahorse belongs to the family Syngnathidae which also includes pipefishes. This family consists of
about 215 species. 33 species of seahorses have been recorded throughout the world. In India 6
species of seahorses were recorded and they are Hippocampus trimaculatus, H. kuda, H. fuscus, H.
spinosissimus, H. kelloggi and H. histrix. The species, H. histrix was recorded for the first time in India
by Fisheries College and Research Institute, Thoothukudi in 2003. Seahorses are used in traditional
medicines especially in Chinese medicines. India was one among the 20 nations exporting seahorses.
Their medicinal value and international demand resulted in overexploitation of wild population. Life
history strategies of seahorses make populations susceptible to over-exploitation. The strategies
include male's brooding behaviour, low fecundity, decreasing reproductive potential, lengthy
parental care, monogamous, sparse distribution, low mobility and small home ranges. In addition to
these, destruction of habitats like coral reef, mangroves, seagrass beds and estuaries, increase in
demand and catching accidentally as by-catch in fishing nets particularly in trawl nets are threats
faced by seahorses.
Recently, all the syngnathids that include seahorses and pipefishes were included in Schedule I of
the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. However, clandestine catching and exporting are still taking place
in some places. Sea ranching of seahorses should be done periodically to improve the stock. CMFRI
has succeeded in production of young seahorse in captivity and planned to range seahorses in the
sea. Fisheries College and Research Institute, Thoothukudi sea ranched young ones of seahorses in
hulf of manager during 2003 -05.
Brindle Bass Giant Grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus)
This species occurs in tropical waters throughout the Indo-Pacific but is also recorded occasionally in

temperate waters. It grows to at least 2.7 m in length and over 400 kg. It is one of the largest
bonyfish and is the largest on coral reefs. Since large area of reef is required to support such a large
predator, their populations are always relatively low even in areas that are not regularly disturbed
by people. This species is found to be vanished from the reefs due to overfishing. Sporadic
occurrence of this species is reported along both the coasts. Fisheries College and Research Institute,
Thoothukudi reported a specimen of this species of about 30 years old measuring 210 kg and 202 cm
caught by trawl net at Gulf of Mannar in 2003. Hence, in order to protect this endangered species
from further extinction, it has been brought under the schedule I -Part I A of the Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972.
Molluscs
There is no organized fishery for commercially important molluscs except very few. As far as
gastropods are concerned, organized fishery is only on sacred chank along the main coast, Trochus
and Turbo in Andaman Islands and Cypraea in Lakshaweep (CMFRI, 2003). Among the gastropods,
one of the overexploited species is sacred chank, Turbinella pyrum. This species is now in the
vulnerable stage. Hence, conservative measures are to be enforced. Government should enact laws
to prevent the fishing of undersized chanks. There must be a fixed season declared for chank fishing
over the chank grounds. The fishing for chanks should be banned for 3 months (Jan -Mar) every year
in order to conserve the egg capsules and baby chanks. In addition to chanks, other gastropod shells
were also over exploited for food as well as to support the shell craft industry.
Bivalves are perhaps the least managed resources along the Indian coast. Till 1961, pearl oysters
were fished for golden coloured pearls. Pearl oyster beds along the Gulf of Mannar coast were
destroyed by indiscriminate trawling and pollution caused by industrial effluents. Indiscriminate
exploitation of seed clams is prevalent in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Destruction of seed mussel has
been observed as the fishermen discard the seed mussel after they are fished from the natural bed
(Mohan Joseph and Jayaprakash, 2003). Similary, population of the only shelled cephalopod,
Nautilus pompilus has also become very rare.
Hence, 19 species of gastropods belonging to the genera, Cassis, Charonia, Conus, cypracasis,
Tudicla, Cypraea. Fasciolaria, Harpulina, Lambis, Strombus, Trochu and Turbo, 3 species of bivalves
such as Hippopus hippopus, Tridacna maxima and Tridacna squamosa and 1 species of cephalopod,
Nautilus pompilus have been included in the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. In
addition, searanching should be done periodically to improve the stock of the vulnerable and
endangered molluscs, for which hatchery technology should be developed if not available. The
existing chank beds, pearloyster beds and clam beds should be totally banned from trawling
activities.
8.2.2. Conservation of endangered marine animals of India
Seacucumbers
Seacucumbers are a delicacy for the Chinese, the Japanese and Koreans. The processed
seacucumbers commands good price in the international markets like Hong Kong, Singapore and
Taiwan. In the world, there are about 1400 species. Of these, about 30 species are edible. In the seas
around India about 200 species are known. Of these about 22 species were once abundant and they
are now found to be overexploited. Commercially important species includes Holothuria scabra, H.
nobilis, H. spinefera, Thelenota ananas, Actinopyge miliaris, A. echinites, A. mauritiana, Stichopus
hermanni, S. cholronotus and Bohadschia marmorata.
Holothuria scabra and H. spinefera were indiscriminately collected at Gulf of Mannarwithout giving a

chance for the animal to breed at least once during their life. To prevent the collection of smaller
forms the Government of India imposed a ban in 1982 on the export of material, which is less than
75 mm in length. However, undersized materials were illegally sent out of the country as hand
baggage. Hence, all the seacucumbers were brought under Schedule I list of the Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972 and strictly banned their collection in 2001. It is suggested to have mass breeding and sea
ranching programme to keep up the natural stock in the sea.
Turtles
Five species of marine turtle such as Green turtle Chelonia mydas, Loggerhead Caretta caretta, Olive
Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata and Leatherback Dermochelys
coriacea occur in Indian waters. Most of the marine turtle populations found in the Indian region are
in decline. The principal reason for the decrease in numbers is deliberate human predation. Turtles
are netted and speared along the entire Indian coast. In southeast India the annual catch was
estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals, with C. mydas accounting for about 70% of the harvest. C. carella
and L. olivacea are the most widely consumed species. E. imbricala is occasionally eaten but it has
caused deaths and so is usually caught for its shell alone. D. coriacea is boiled for its oil which is used
for caulking boats and as protection from marine borers. Incidental netting is widespread.
The coast of Orissa, in the eastern part of India on the Bay of Bengal, is the most important sea turtle
nesting area in India and possibly the most important olive ridley nesting site in the world. In the
Gulf of Mannar, turtles are still reasonably common near seagrass beds where shrimp trawlers
operate, but off the coast of Bengal the growing number of mechanized fishing boats has had the
effect of increasing incidental catch rates. In Gulf of Mannar, island based stake net operations have
entailed heavy destruction by fisherfolk of the marine turtle eggs which are laid seasonally by the
olive ridely on the seaward sandy beaches of almost all the islands. Drift netting in the zone of arrival
of the turtles, traps the breeders coming in for nesting. Besides, this area also has been identified as
an important feeding ground for green turtle and hawks-bill turtle. A fishing village on the Gulf
Mannar coast, Periyathalai, known for turtle nesting from time immemorial, nowadays finds turtles
very rarely.
Major threats include incidental and accidental catching, destructive fishing gears, exploiting the
adult female when it comes to the beach for nesting, exploitation of eggs for human consumption,
predation of eggs by dogs, ghost crabs and birds, predation of hatchlings by birds, sharks and fishes,
beach erosion, habitat destruction and pollution. In addition to this, turtles are long-lived, slow to
mature, low fecund and have low survival rate. All the five species of turtles occurring in Indian seas
are protected as they are placed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. India abides by
the CITES which prohibits the trade in turtle products. To reduce the mortality due to incidental
catch, two options namely closure of fishing during mass nesting period and attachment of Turtle
Excluder Device (TED) to the trawl nets are suggested.
Marine Mammals
The world marine mammal diversity includes about 87 species of whales, .dolphins, porpoises and
dugong. Marine mammals are among the most neglected groups in India as no concerted efforts
have been made in the country even to collect basic information about them like species diversity,
distribution and biological characteristics. Twenty six species of cetaceans and one species of Sirenia
(Dugong) have been reported in the seas around India. Dugong, an endangered marine mammal,
also known as Sea Cow, is only strictly marine mammal, which is hervivorous. It mainly feeds on sea-
grass and other aquatic vegetation.
They are widely hunted for their flesh, oil and other products. Due to their large size, docile nature,

low birth rate and long life span they become highly vulnerable to overexploitation. Thus many
species have become rare or endangered. They frequent the coastal waters, for feeding or breeding,
where they get entangled or entrapped in the fishing gears such as trawl net, gill net or purse seines
that are operated for exploiting other resources. Although mammal fishery is banned, there have
been clandestine attempts at their capture. The degradation and denudation of seagrass beds lead
dugongs to seek similar pristine habitat elsewhere. Marine mammals migrate seasonally to tropical
waters for breeding or to escape climatic extremes; during the course they get stranded in gently
sloping beaches, murky water and tidal sites. Pollution caused by the discharge of industrial effluents
particu1arly the hot water effluents and fly ash from the thermal power plants also affected the
plankton diversity which in turn affected population of dolphin along the Gulf of Mannar coast.
Habitat degradation, predation of their calves by sharks, directed hunting, opportunistic netting and
illegal capture are the major threats for the life of marine mammals. Hence, all the marine mammals
including 11 species of whales, 14 species of dolphins, 1 species of Dugong dugon (Seacow) and 1
species of porpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoides (Little Indian Porpoise / Black Finless Porpoise)
have been listed under the schedule I - Part I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. International
Whaling Commission has also declared the Indian Ocean as a sanctuary for the cetaceans. As they
are protected under this act, there is no organized exploitation. However, there are clandestine
catches of the most desired dugongs, which go either unnoticed or unreported. The suggestions to
mitigate the anthropogenic threats are: (i) ban their catch, intentional or unintentional and the trade
if any, (ii) replace the destructive gears with BED fitted gear, and acoustically opaque gill nets, (iii)
establish marine parks and sanctuaries, (iv) curtail irrational fishing in vulnerable habitats and
destruction of sea grass meadows and (v) creation of public awareness.
A notification without the promotion of conservation awareness programmes among the
stakeholders and subsistence fishers could drive the trade underground and could divert the scarce
resources towards enforcement. More emphasis should be laid on habitat improvement and
pollution monitoring. Only effective management through strict regulation, periodic monitoring and
sea ranching alone can save these vulnerable and endangered animals from further extinction.
Corals
There are about 793 living species of Scleractinian corals worldwide. A total of 199 coral species
divided among 71 genera are hitherto recorded from India. Indian coral reefs have a wide range of
resources which are of commercial value. Exploitation of corals, coral debris and coral sand is
widespread on the Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch reefs, while seafans are exported for decorative
purposes. The coral reefs of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar have been quarried for industrial purposes
from early 60's from Mandapam to Tuticorin before the declaration of Marine Biosphere Reserve
and National Park. About 10,000 tonnes of lime was manufactured annually by burning mainly
species of Acropora in kilns in 1981. At Tuticorin alone one estimate was 80,000 t per year. Even
though gorgonians are widely distributed all along the coast of India, they are abundantly seen on
the South-east coast of India from Rameshwaram to Kanyakumari.
Deforestation, construction, coral mining and sand mining cause a lot of sedimentation and siltation
on coral reefs. Recently, 2 islands viz. Vilanguchalli in Tuticorin group and Poovarasanpatti in
Keelakarai group in Gulf of Mannar submerged under water due to coral mining. Sewage enriches
the nutrients and thereby reduces the photosynthetic efficiency of corals. Destructive fishing
practices like purse seining, bottom trawling, blast fishing and using fishing traps destroy corals. Ola
valai and shore seines also cause damages to corals to certain extent. Mangroves and seagrass that
normally act as filters for sediment are being rapidly destroyed. There has been an unprecedented

increase in the number of coral bleaching events during the past two decades.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES, has
classified many corals as threatened species. All the corals that include reef building corals
(Scleractinans), black corals (Antipatharians), organ pipe corals, fire corals and seafans (Gorgonians)
are protected under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. India has 36 marine protected areas of which 20
comprise exclusively in intertidal/subtidal or mangroves, coral reefs, lagoons, estuaries, beaches
etc., and the rest of the 13 include major parts of the marine ecosystem and some parts of terrestrial
ecosystem. Awareness should be created among the coral reef resource users on the importance of
conserving corals. Trawling in and around coral reefs should be prohibited. Existing laws should be
enforced strictly.
8.2.3. Conservation of exploited fisheries resources
The following main action points need to be considered for the sustainable utilization and
conservation of exploited fisheries resources.
Reduce losses
Discards at sea constitute up to 30%. Other post harvest losses are up to 15% and on account of non-
food uses up to 9.73%. In other words, up to 55% of the fish which is actually caught at sea could be
better utilized for human food purpose through appropriate intervention to reduce losses.
Harvesting immature / undersized fish
Use of undersized fishing nets result in capture of undersized / immature fish. This results in great
loss to the fishery resources. Strict adherence to the recommended cod end mesh size of 35 mm will
allow the juveniles to escape and grow to commercial size, thus contributing to the total weight
(quantity) of fish caught from the seas.
Banning destructive fishing
Fisheries use several destructive methods of fishing such as blasting, poisoning, trawling in reefs, sea
grass bed. Appropriate action should be taken by the Government to prevent such destruction.
Ghost fishing must be reduced.
Implemetation of closed seasons
The committee apponted by the Government of India has recommended a closed season for 47 days
from 15th April to 31st May along the east coast and 15th June to 31st along the west coast. All
maritime State Government should be directed to strictly enforce the monsoonal ban as per the
recommendations.
Diversification of fishing
The pressure on the nearshore fish stock should be reduced by opting for diversification of fishing to
multi-day fishing, deep seafishing. This will increase yields substantially.
Optimising fishing fleet size
The non-mechanized sector contributes to 13% of the yield. This sector has an overcapacity of 81 %.
The motorized sector contributes to 20% of the yield. This sector has an excess capacity of 60%. In
contrast to these, the mechanized sector which contributes to 67% of the yield has an excess
capacity of 55%. It is this sector where the excess capacity has to be gradually reduced to optimum
levels. Even a reduction of 10% of trawlers can increase the fish yield by 50 lakh tonnes annually,
Sea ranching
One of the methods to enchance coastal productivity is through sea ranching of juveniles of hatchery
produced fish and shellfish. This has to be massive and continuous at various locations to achieve a
noticeable impact. Government sponsored schemes are to be implemented for sea ranching of

shrimps, high value species such as lobsters, crabs, sea cucumbers and demersal fishes on a long
term basis for visible increase in production.
Reducing biological overfishing of stock
The overall exploitation rate (E) is 0.59 for Southeast Asia while the optimum should be between 0.3
and 0.5. Therefore, reduction in exploitation rate is an ideal way to increase the yield.
Degradation of critical habitats
Substantial loss of critical habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds, estuaries, coral reefs occurs
due to coastal pollution, fishing, industrialization, urbanization, global warming etc. Government
action is needed to put in to place coordinated action plan to restore degraded critical habitats.
Mariculture
Production of fish from sea also could be enhanced through growing fish in sea by using pens, cages.
Shellfishes like mussels, oysters, clams, scallops, seaweeds could be grown on rafts by using ropes,
nets etc. The production of mussels through mariculture has reached the present level of 6,000
tonnes/year and oysters 1,000 tonnes/year. However, it must be realized that production of fish and
shellfishes through mariculture has its limitations and it would never compensate adequately the
gap in capture fisheries, although value-wise the increase could be remarkable. Further, it would add
to coastal livelihood, employment and nutritional security.
Artificial Reefs and FADs
These man-made structures will attract fish to these areas, thus allowing local fishers to undertake
concerted fishing to capture fish easily. There is need to install FADs in certain sensitive and
distressed areas to promote local livelihoods, but this should not be taken up as a massive activity
across the coastal regions as it has also adverse impacts on the fish resources.
Responsible fisheries
By following the code of conduct for responsible fisheires both in letter and spirit, it will be possible
to increase marine fish yields systematically over the next few years. It must be reckoned that
interventions in the capture process will result in an initial decrease which should be viewed without
any panic. The situation will show improvement slowly as it takes time for the resources to respond.
In a year or two, the anticipated results will be achieved. Governmental initiative in this direction is
urgently called for.
8.3. GIS application and remote sensing uses in fisheries
Applications of GIS, RS & GPS in Fisheries Science
Burrough (1986), defines GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming
and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes". In a nutshell GIS is a
tool to assist in decision-making and management of attributes that needs to be analysed spatially.

Data is a collection of attributes (numeric, alphanumeric, figures, pictures) about entities
(things, events, activities)
Information is the organization of data such that it is valuable for analysis, evaluation, and decision
making
Information Systems
Information systems are the means to transform data into
information.
Information systems are used in planning and managing
resources
Elements of GIS Data
Attribute data
Data pertaining to the entity under study.
Eg: Fish is the entity under study.
Weight, length, age, feeding habit, fecundity, physiochemical parameters of water in which it occurs,
etc.
Questions that a GIS can answer
1. Location: What is at...?
2. Quantification: How big, How long ...?. How many in ..?

3. Condition: Where is it...?
4. Routing: Which is the best way to..?
5. Trends: What has changed since...?
6. Patterns: What spatial patterns exist...?
7. Modelling: What if...?
Geographic Information Systems - Describing Our World
8.3.1. remote sensing in fisheries
Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the earth's surface without actually
being in contact with it. It is also defined as the science and technology by which the characteristic of
objects of interest could be identified, measured or analyzed without direct contact. The remote
nature of these technoilogies allow us to make observations, take measurements, and produce
images of phenomena that are beyond the limits of our own senses and capabilitie. Remote sensIng
technology makes use of the wIde range Electro-Magnetic Spectrum (EMS) ranging from Gamma
ray, X-ray, Ultraviolet (UV), Visible light, Infrared (IR) to Radio Wave, in order from the shorter wave
lengths.
Components of remote sensing system
There are four basic components in a remote .sensing system like
1. Target: It is the object or material that is being studied.
2. Energy source: It is the one which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target.
3. Transmission path: The energy interacts with the target, depending on the properties of the
target and the radiation, and will act as a medium for transmitting information from the target to
the sensor.
4. Sensor: It is a remote device that collects and records the electromagnetic radiation. It can be
used to measure energy that is given off / emitted by the target, reflected off the target, or
transmitted through the target. Thus, a sensor can be designed to detect energy in specific wave
lengths to provide information about the surface type being scanned. The sensors can be fixed on
different platforms (Vehicle to carry the sensor) like
Ground platforms -Tower, scaffolding, building etc.,
Aerial platforms -Ballons, rockets, helicopters etc.,
Satellite platforms -Satellites like geostationary satellites, polar orbiting satellites and higly elliptical
orbits satellites.
The following sensor platforms are used to measure the oceanographic parameters.

8.3.2. Advantages of remote sensing in fisheries
 To image large areas at once
 To discreetly observe a range of scales
 To repeat observations frequently
 To make observations independent of weather
Ocean applications of remote sensing
 Locating potential fishing zone
 Algal (Primary production) and other plankton
 Ocean pattern identification
 Fish stock and marine mammal assessment
 Intertidal zone activities
 Wetland mapping and monitoring
 Weather forecasting
 Pollution monitoring
 Oil spill
 Shipping
Prerequisites for the application of remote sensing to fisheries
It requires previous knowledge of
 Habitat preference of the fish
 Biological qualities of the waters
 Oceanography of the area
 Behaviour of a given fish at various temperatures, and catch rates obtained under
those conditions
8.3.3. Locating Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ)
Oceanographic data that could be obtained from satellite includes: Sea surface temperature,
ocean formations such as eddies, plums and internal waves, salinity, sea colour and red tides.
These data are used to solve the effects of sea conditions on biological production. Studies on
the characteristics of the marine (environment are important in fisheries research as the
conditions in the sea play a major role in the availability offish. The fluctuations in the
physical, chemical, and biological oceanographic conditions have a profound influence on the
periodic and seasonal migration of fishes in the sea. The major parameters, which have
bearing on the marine living resources, are temperature, salinity, upwelling, primary and
secondary production.
i) Temperature
It is one way we measure ocean variability, but it is also an indicator of more complex ocean
processes. Changes in surface seawater temperature affect the abundance and diversity of

plankton, which are food for small fishes. Most fish species have a fairly narrow range of
optimum temperatures related both to the species basic metabolism and the availability of
food organisms that have their own optimum temperature ranges. In Indian EEZ, the mean
surface temperature is about 29˚ C during summer (April- May). With the advancement of
the summer monsoon (southwest monsoon) over the Arabian Sea and Indian Peninsula, the
surface temperature cools down, reaching 25°C during August -September. The variations in
the surface temperature are considered as an indiactor of fish abundance. The surface
temperatre and ocean frontal zones, where temperature of water suddenly changes are used in
locating the potential fishing zones using remote sensing techniques.
Thermocline
Remote sensing helps in locating the thermocline. In general, thermocline in the Indian sea is
shallow during the southwest monsoon, moderate in summer and deeper during winter.
Strong thermocline keeps the pelagic fishes like the coastal tunas and small pelagics above it
and demersal fishes below it, thereby forming a natural barrier in between. During purse
seining, shallow and strong thermocline make fishery very effective, especially when the
vertical depth of the gear is more than the depth of the thermocline. The seawater temperature
gradient is useful in commercial fisheries for
 Setting the depth of the long lines for tuna fishing
 Setting the depth of the drift gill nets for shark and seer fishing
 Determination of optimum depth of mid water trawling
 Deciding the operational pattern of the purse seines.
ii. Salinity
The monthly mean surface salinity varies from 32.5 ppt to 36.1 ppt. The northern region of
the Arabian Sea (Mangalore to Ratnagiri) is favourable for the mackerel fishery, while the
southern region for sardine fishery. The reason attributed is the sudden increase in salinity
occurring northwards (north of 130 N) from the region off Mangalore during major part of
the year. The higher salinity values in the northern regions are favorable for mackerel fishery.
iii. Upwelling
In Arabian Sea, upwelling starts at the southern tip of the west coast b the end of May or
early June and propagates northwards with time. During upwelling, the oxygen minimum
layer emerges from 100 m to 150 m depth to the surface, especially in the areas between
Quilon and Kasargod. As a result, some fish population move in to the shallow surface waters
while the others move offshore, away from the centre of strong upwelling. Pelagic fishes like
mackerel, oil sardine and white baits avoid temporarily the areas of intense upwelling and
concentrate into dense schools close to the surface and the coast in the near shore grounds,
affording good catches. With the progress of monsoon and upwelling towards north, pelagic
shoals also follow the trend and spawn intensely during June to September when there is
maximum availability of larval food. The economic benefit of upwelling is the large
concentration of commercially important fishes such as oil sardine, mackerel and white baits
in those areas. During upwelling chlorophyll a, primary productivity and secondary
productivity (zooplankton biomass) increase several folds.
iv) Primary and secondary production
Several attempts have been made to relate primary productivity to that of potential yield or
optimum sustainable yield. From our EEZ of 2.02 million km2
, the total estimated production
is 283 million tonnes of carbon. Therefore, the calculated harvestable fishery resource from

our EEZ would amount to about 5.5 million tonnes (0.02% of the calculated primary
production). Secondary production along the Indian coast ranges from 1.4 mg C /m2
/day to
57.3 C /m2
/day.
v) Estimation of chlorophyll fronts
Phytoplankton pigments form base in marine food chain and therefore, this parameter forms
the direct link to plankton feeders. Detection of chlorophyll rich waters from satellite image
ensures availability of food for fish and hence, positive indication of fish availability.
8.3.4. Oceans and coastal monitoring
The remote sensing helps in collection of data and information needed for understanding ocean
dynamics and for coastal monitoring. The oceans not only provide valuable food and biophysical
resources, they also serve as transportation routes, are crucially important in weather system
formation and CO2 storage, and are an important link in the earth's hydrological balance.
Understanding ocean dynamics is important for fish stock assessment, ship routing. Coastlines are
environmentally sensitive interfaces between the ocean and land and respond to changes brought
about by economic development and changing land-use patterns. Coastlines are also biologically
diverse inter-tidal zones, and can also be highly urbanized. With over 60% of the world's population
living close to increasing stress from human activity and hence require new data sources with which
to monitor such diverse changes as coastal erosion, loss of natural habitat, urbanization, effiuents
and offshore pollution.
Marine remote sensing organizations in India
In India, the Marine Satellite Information Service (MARSIS) was initiated by the Department of Ocean
Development and is coordinated by the National Remote Sensing Agency, as the nodal agency and
the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) as one of the participating agencies.
It is important for the local fisheries managers to have access to up-to- date information and cost
effective tools for monitoring changes in fish habitats, fishing activities and potential impact sources.
The remote sensing technology offers a number of important advantages over the subjective view. It
provides a synoptic (large area, all-at-once) view of the earth's features from bird's eye perspective.
With the development of modem satellite systems, and improvements in image transmission and
ground receiving station technology, remote sensing image can now be obtained rapidly and
repeatedly over large areas. Hence, remote sensing has become an integral part of most fish
resource mapping and inventory procedures.

Marine fisheries

More Related Content

What's hot

Similar to Marine fisheries

More from Kartik Mondal

Recently uploaded

Marine fisheries