1. Presented at EMUN
October, 2007
Understanding and
Developing the
Willingness to Communicate
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada

2. Plan for this workshop
Brief review of underpinnings of WTC theory (20 minutes)
Focus on the choice to communicate or not
Brief review of studies of WTC (10 minutes)
Activity showing situational variation in WTC (20 minutes)
Group discussion of factors affecting WTC (35 minutes)
Discussion of personal experiences with high and low WTC
Discussion of ways to alter the situation to increase WTC
Focus on the personal experiences of people attending the
workshop
Summary and Conclusions (5 minutes)
2

3. When does a language learner
become a language speaker?
(observations from a paper forthcoming in Modern Language Journal)
Moment of decision reflects a collision of
motivation and language anxiety
implicates other process as well
Volitional Action, Freely chosen
Sometimes mindless, sometimes mindful
Reflects the ‘self’
Four Studies
Personal Experiences of attendees
3

4. Language anxiety
“Worry and Emotionality (usually negative) associated
with L2 learning”
3 levels of concepts 3 levels of prediction
Trait Poor
Situation-specific Very good
State Not well known
Observation #1: The relationships among variables under study in
SLA may change substantially when concepts are defined at different
levels of abstraction (e.g., state, situation-specific or trait levels).
4

5. Motivation
Gardner’s SE model
Integrative Motivate
Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System
‘Ideal’ Self
‘Ought to’ Self
5

6. Gardner’s integrative motive
Integrative motivation:
other
other
Integrativeness
Motivation Language
Attitudes toward
Achievement
the learning
situation
Language Aptitude
Observation #2: The major motivation to learn another language is to
develop a communicative relationship with people from another cultural
6
group.

7. Expansion of motivation concepts
in SLA
Self-determination theory (Noels)
Physiological approaches (Schummann)
Learner Autonomy (Ushioda)
Task Motivation (Julkunen)
Process Model (Dörnyei & Otto)
L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei)
Critical-Qualitative Perspective (Norton)
7

8. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational
Self System
Rephrasing of integrative motivation is
needed to account for:
Learning situations without contact
World English has no ethnic group
Integrative and instrumental co-occur
Ideal Self (what we wish to be become)
Ought to self (what we should become)
L2 learning experience (past L2 behavior)
8

9. On the nature of ‘the self’
The Self:
“What began as an apparently singular, static, lump-like
entity has become a multi-dimensional, multifaceted
dynamic structure that is systematically implicated in
all aspects of social information processing.”
(Markus & Wurf, 1987, pg 301).
• Identity – multifaceted, dynamic
• Motivation - multifaceted, dynamic
9

10. Possible Selves (PS) as motivation
PS are views of oneself in the future
Both wanted and feared
Theory emphasizes balance between wanted & feared
Vague hopes and specific expectations
The vision of a new self is motivating
Articulate goals
Links behaviour to goal
Provide potential incentives for actions
The more specific they are, the better they guide
behaviour (Oyserman et al., 2004)
10

11. Motivation differs over time
Different motivational processes occur
before, during, and after behavior.
Motivational approaches will implicate a
time frame, for example
Focus on longer lasting process (integrative)
Focus on rapidly changing events (tasks)
Observation #3:The manner in which motivation affects language
learning changes as the time frame under study changes.
11

12. 1
Communication
Layer I L2
Behaviour
Use
2
Layer II Behavioural Intention
Willingness to
Communicate
34
Layer III Desire to State Situated Antecedents
communicate with Communicative
a specific person Self-Confidence
5 6 7
Layer IV Motivational
Intergroup
Interpersonal L2
Propensities
Motivation
Motivation Self-Confidence
9 10
8
Layer V Affective-Cognitive Context
Communicative
Intergroup Social
Competence
Attitudes Situation
11 12 Social and Individual
Layer
Context
VI
Personality
Intergroup Climate
12

13. WTC concept
Original L1 concept was ‘trait-like’
Our concept proposes a ‘state’ of
readiness
Initiating communication is a matter of
choice
Volitional act
13

14. Volition
Long history in psychology and philosophy
Concept all but abandoned as issues of
‘free will’ were found intractable
Offers the potential to study how multiple,
sometimes contradictory impulses, affect
action
Observation #4: Studying volitional choices demonstrates that
opposing processes (e.g., approach and avoidance) converge to affect
14
second language communication.

15. Two studies on the process of
initiating communication
MacIntyre, Babin & Clément (1999)
communication in both oral and written forms.
MacIntyre, Clément & Noels, 2007
In familiar conditions, introverts learned more
and were more WTC than extraverts
In moderately unfamiliar conditions, extraverts
learned more and were more WTC than
introverts
15

16. Effects of Extraversion and Familiarity of Study Situation
25
20 Posttest
15
Score
Introvert
10
Extrovert
State WTC
5
0
Very Similar Somew hat Similar Not at all Similar
16

17. Two Focused Essay Studies
Baker & MacIntyre (2000)
200 English speaking students learning French,
regular and immersion programs
Described 2 situations
most willing
least willing
We looked for themes and noticed emotional
expression
17

18. Most willing
Immersion students had weaker emotional reactions in
these situations than non-immersion students
Non-immersion students were pleased with small
successes:
“My father has a tailoring and bridal shop… and one day a
French speaking lady came in and my Dad’s wife can
speak French but she was off that day, so I was able to
help her [the lady] out enough so that she would come
back.”
18

19. Least Willing
Immersion students expressed stronger emotion
in these situations
In both immersion and non-immersion, the type
of event that upset them most was a
Francophone interlocutor switching to English
a dramatic rejection of volitional self-presentation, it
is ignominious
unexpectedly, many reported this was a motivating
experience
19

20. Second Focused Essay Study
Again used Most / Least Willing
Over 100 Anglophone and Francophone
students in Ottawa
strongly bilingual institution, bilingual city
Typically, Francophones have higher more
experience speaking English than
Anglophones have speaking French
20

21. Most Willing
Anglophones most willing in situations where the only other choice
was silence (25% of situations described)
Interlocutor was expected to speak English if possible
Anglophones said error correction increased and decreased WTC,
depending on context (20% mentioned error correction).
“I’d be most willing if I had friends around me. I always felt comfortable
in a classroom giving a speech. When you are out of the classroom
I feel like people are analyzing me. I don’t mind when a teacher
does it, but not an acquaintance.”
Francophones were generally highly willing, especially if friends
spoke English
21

22. Least Willing - Anglophones
Anglophones described two situations:
a lack of self-confidence in French (over 20%)
speaking to strangers (over 20%)
reported a feeling of being analyzed and
critiqued, especially for accent and grammar
Recall William James’ account of the ‘cold outside’
as a paralyzing force.
22

23. Least Willing – Francophones
Least willing with Francophones (50%)
family, friends, etc.
Political dimension, English poses a threat to the vitality
of French
Highly specific situational vocabulary
“Quand je dois parler de sujets tres precis ou je ne suis pas
certains de l’exactitude des termes.” (“When I must talk
about precise topics and I am not certain of the exact
terminology.”)
23

24. At the moment of decision…
Many factors can increase or decrease the
likelihood of ‘crossing the Rubicon’
Psychological
Pedagogical
Situational
Linguistic
Sociopolitical
The influence of these will vary, wax and wane
over time
24

25. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
Action is based on totality of co-existing,
mutually interdependent facets.
General life vs momentary influences
Momentary influences have greater impact on action
Driving vs Restraining forces
Easier to modify action by reducing restraining
forces.
Anglophone speakers in Ottawa were clearly holding
back
25

26. Future research
Better understand the combinations of multiple driving
and restraining forces
Focus on the moment, state-level processes
Increases the complexity of the models
Wen & Clément (2003) additional restraining forces among
Chinese (based on deference and responsibility)
Yashima (2002) found WTC predicted adjustment and
satisfaction with a stay-abroad program
Observation #5: Future research in SLA should focus on the
momentary restraining forces that come into play when a speaker is
choosing whether or not to initiate communication.
26

27. Summary: The ‘Observations’
The relationships among variables
#1:
under study in SLA may change
substantially when concepts are
defined at different levels of abstraction
(e.g., state, situation-specific or trait
levels).
The major motivation to learn another
#2:
language is to develop a
communicative relationship with
people from another cultural group.
27

28. Summary: The ‘Kernels of Wisdom’
#3: The
manner in which motivation affects
language learning changes as the time frame
under study changes.
#4: Studying
volitional choices demonstrates
that opposing processes (e.g., approach and
avoidance) converge to affect second
language communication.
Future research in SLA should focus on the
#5:
momentary restraining forces that come into
play when a speaker is choosing whether or
not to initiate communication.
28

29. Workshop activities
WTC most and least willing exercise
(handout)
WTC questions for the workshop
participants (handout)
WTC and possible selves (handout)
29

30. Presented at EMUN
October, 2007
Willingness to Communicate:
crossing the psychological
Rubicon from learning to
communication.
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada