This document provides an overview of the various religious options and philosophies that existed in the 1st century AD Roman world, including those practiced by Jews and early Christians. It describes the decline of traditional Greek/Roman religions and rise of mystery cults, Gnosticism, and philosophies such as Stoicism and Epicureanism. The document also summarizes the diversity within Judaism in this period, including the oral traditions that developed into the Mishnah, Talmud, and other Rabbinic literature.

1. Section 1:
Introduction to
the Life of Christ
Background to the religious options
available in the 1st century AD
1Thursday, 11 July 13

2. Major
locations in
the life of
Jesus
2Thursday, 11 July 13

3. 3Thursday, 11 July 13

4. - Religion permeated almost
every area of life
- Many different religions
- Judaism was diverse at this
time
Blomberg suggests all the
religious options of the 1st
century have a parallel in the
21st century, only the names
have changed.
Religious background of the time
of Jesus
4Thursday, 11 July 13

5. The Greco-Roman world
was in a state of change -
new ideas were
encountered and old
considered outdated - new
cults, movements of
peoples, and differing truth
claims created a form of
pluralism which was
intolerant of exclusive
religions like Judaism or
Christianity.
Hellenistic religion
5Thursday, 11 July 13

6. ...peaked in the 4/5th centuries BC - prominent examples;
Zeus (the king of the gods), Hermes (the messenger),
Aphrodite and Artemis (love and fertility) - the “right”
god had to be prayed to in order to receive the wanted
blessing (safe travel, good harvest, family etc.)
Such belief was in decline at the time of Christ -
geographic limits, impotence and mingling of cultures
aided their decline.
Gods of Traditional Greek Mythology
6Thursday, 11 July 13

7. Families in general paid lip service to these gods - eg
in offering food and drink sacrifices at the fireplace
in the centre of the home.
They did remain strong in:
- rural areas (Acts 14)
- when consulted at shrines, where healing,
prophecy and recreation would be included - an
ancient type of health spa
- seasonal and annual festivals and rituals persisted -
often bringing socioeconomic benefit to a locality
(Acts 19:23ff)
7Thursday, 11 July 13

8. Philosophy and religion were linked -
philosophers addressed correct
behaviour and belief.
Much was built upon the foundation of
Socrates and Plato.
Platonism developed a dualism between
matter (body) and spirit.
Stoicism - developed by Zeno (who
taught in porches stoa) all matter is
infused with a “world-soul” called
reason or logos. It is a form of pantheism
(God is everything) and panentheism
(God is a part of everything) - God here
is very immanent
Greco-Roman Philosophies
8Thursday, 11 July 13

9. Epicureanism - the world is
formed of tiny invisible particles
- Gods were made of the same
matter as the world and so were
removed and unknowable,
conscious existence ended at
death - key was to maximise
pleasure, minimize pain -
however they did not promote
hedonism but valued friendship
and culture. (Acts 17:18, 23-24)
9Thursday, 11 July 13

10. Cynicism - “the supreme virtue”
was “a simple unconventional
life in rejection of the popular
pursuits of comfort, affluence
and social prestige” - one Cynic
summed it up as “Take care of
your soul, but take care of your
body only to the degree that
necessity requires” - they
rejected wealth and relied on
begging to survive cf commands
of Jesus in Mk 6:7-13, Lk
10:1-8.
10Thursday, 11 July 13

11. Skepticism - challenged the
claim that absolute truth could
be known - the agnostics of the
ancient world - indifferent or
apathetic to causes, suspending
judgement, practiced peace and
gentleness.
Neo-Pythagorianism -
Pythagoras 6th century BC -
communal groups who studied
and investigated together -
emphasised harmony,
resolution of opposites and the
discovery of the divine in
yourself.
11Thursday, 11 July 13

12. Arguably this is most characteristic
of the Hellenistic period -
mythology was on the wane and
philosophies were for the elite.
A wide variety of unrelated cults
and groups
- they wanted communion with the
“god”
- they promised conscious eternal
life with the gods
- offered equality in society
- held out hope for transformation
of life in a life of arbitrary terrors.
Mystery religions
12Thursday, 11 July 13

13. Some features:
- some had public pageants
- common private meetings for members
- sacramental meals, participation rules, and initiation
rites
- practices could range from meditating on an ear of
corn, a fellowship meal, or a blood baptism (the
priest stood below a latticework over which a bull
was sacrificed so the blood ran down over him)
- initiates into these religions were “not to learn
something, but to experience something”
13Thursday, 11 July 13

14. In post NT times Mithraism (Mithras
was a god who sprang from the earth
and slew a bull as the groundwork
for the creation of the human race)
amalgamated with Roman worship of
Sol Invictus(the unconquerable sun)
with a festival to Sol held every 25th
December. Christians took advantage
of this to protest and celebrate the
birth of Jesus instead. After
Christianity became the religion of
the empire then this festival date was
turned into Christmas.
14Thursday, 11 July 13

15. - Combines many form of belief and
ritual
- attempting to manipulate “god”
through spells, incantations,
techniques etc.
- coercion not petition eg spells have
been found attempting someone to
fall in love with a suitor or to curse a
person, horoscopes, star gazing
- in their most sinister form they are
witches, sorcerers and white magic
workers, workers of the occult
practices - Acts 19:19
Magic
15Thursday, 11 July 13

16. Based on Platonism dualism of matter and
spirit - concludes matter is inherently evil,
only the spirit is potentially good.
Could lead to hedonism but more often to
asceticism (denial of bodily appetites)
Possibly both types at Corinth - 1 Cor 6, 7?
Salvation was viewed as enabling the fetters
of the body to be escaped and the divine spark
within to be liberated.
Gnosticism
16Thursday, 11 July 13

17. Salvation became possible through
gnosis (knowledge) was not
intellectual but of a secret revelation
given to a Gnostic sect. This
knowledge involved understanding
one’s divine origin, one’s current state
of slavery and the redemptive
possibilities of the future. So
resurrection could be attained in this
life - death simply brought full
liberation from the material world.
Possibly 2 Thess 2;2 is Paul
combatting such thinking.
17Thursday, 11 July 13

18. The Nag Hammadi Library (found
just after WWII) containing 60+
gnostic documents has provided far
greater understanding - dates from
mid 2nd cent to 5th cent AD.
They include other gospels,
including of Mary and Judas,
discourses from Jesus after his
resurrection, and the Gospel of
Thomas (which is 114 sayings of
Jesus with no narrative framework).
There appears to be non-Christian
and Jewish forms of gnosticism
before the time of Christ - hence
Paul combats them in some of the
epistles.
18Thursday, 11 July 13

19. By mid 1st cent. most Greeks and
Romans paid lip service to emperor
worship - though in the western part
of the empire it might not have been
more than a token gesture for many,
in the east (where rulers had been
deified for centuries) it was more
serious.
Julius Caesar (after his death) in
27BC was acclaimed as a god by
Augustus - Tiberius followed suit
acclaiming Augustus a god when he
died in 14AD.
Emperor Worship
19Thursday, 11 July 13

20. Gaius Caligula (37-41AD) was the
first emperor to declare himself a god
whilst he was alive - many thought he
went mad as he made extravagant
claims. Nero (54-68AD) followed suit
towards the end of his reign, and in
part this as part of his persecution of
Christians in and around Rome.
Many Christians refused to call the
emperor “Lord and God” and to offer
a pinch of incense to him. Jews were
excluded from this as Judaism was
religio licita until the war with Rome
in the 60’s AD.
20Thursday, 11 July 13

21. Non-Christian religious options in
the 1st century
21Thursday, 11 July 13

22. There is far more information for
studying Judaism than for Hellenistic
religions, hence it becomes more
complex:
- Josephus
- the apocrypha
- the pseudepigrapha
- vast sources of rabbinic writings
(post AD70)
- Dead Sea Scrolls (200BC-70AD)
- Philo of Alexandria, (pictured a
Hellenistic Jew who combined
Judaism with Hellenistic philosophy)
Judaism
22Thursday, 11 July 13

23. Text
The Talmud
Mishnah
Tosefta
Gemara
Targums
Aramaic
paraphrases
of the Bible
Midrashim
Comment-
aries on
biblical
books
Text
RabbinicLiterature
23Thursday, 11 July 13

24. One example: The Mishnah - the
first writing of the oral laws that had
developed over centuries.
It is slightly thicker than the Bible -
by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi AD200.
Divisions include: seeds, feasts,
women, damages, hallowed things,
sisters-in-law, marriage deeds... - 63
sections in total.
Most of the sections are rulings by
unnamed rabbis over specific legal
disputes.
We do not have time here to go into
what is covered in the Tosefta or
Gemara - or the specifics.
24Thursday, 11 July 13

25. The Talmud (first codified in
Palestine in 400AD) was the
encyclopedia which brought
together all of these sections.
24Thursday, 11 July 13

26. ...of pre 70AD Judaistic writings
(covering the intertestamental
period) and which help in
considering Jesus and the gospels.
1. Angels, demons and life after
death became more commonly
talked about than in OT.
2. Lots of poetry and wisdom
literature was written
These 2 brought about a possibility
of talking about ‘god’ in a way that
included beings other than Yahweh
(Judaism remained monotheistic)
General Characteristics
25Thursday, 11 July 13

27. 3. An increasingly +ve view of human
nature, with less of original sin, was
developing. One view of ‘merit theology’
developed where good deeds would be
weighed against bad in the judgment and
eternal destiny determined from them.
4. Prayer and good works were viewed as a
substitute for animal sacrifice. See temple
destroyed, synagogue, diaspora, Hos 6:6, Ps
51:16
5. Apocalyptic themes proliferated and the
idea that the KOG /Messianic age would be
brought about by supernatural intervention.
26Thursday, 11 July 13

28. 6. Worship and study in the synagogue developed -
a pattern followed by the early church.
•Prayers and hymns (start and close)
•Reading of Torah, Prophets and Psalms (became a
lectionary)
•Targum and homily based upon the texts for the
day
•Synagogue was also the centre for education for
boys aged 5-12/13
7. Scribes became experts/teachers of the law (not
mere copyists). Found in any sect but mainly
Pharisees.
27Thursday, 11 July 13

29. ESVSB: This illustration is based on the excavation of
the Gamla synagogue, one of the oldest in Israel. The
city of Gamla was 6 miles (9.7 km) northeast of the Sea
of Galilee. It was destroyed by the Romans in a.d.67,
early in the Jewish Revolt.
28Thursday, 11 July 13

30. 8. The Sanhedrin became increasingly important in
Jewish life - it was the “supreme court” and
legislative body - made of 71 people, inc. High priest,
sadducees (proRome and usu. dominant due to
Roman support) and pharisees.
9. Judaism was becoming an option for Gentiles. For
a man to be approved of in the community Judaism
presented three almost inviolable practices:
Dietary laws - a kosher table
Observing the Sabbath
Circumcision
29Thursday, 11 July 13

31. 8. The Sanhedrin became increasingly important in
Jewish life - it was the “supreme court” and
legislative body - made of 71 people, inc. High priest,
sadducees (proRome and usu. dominant due to
Roman support) and pharisees.
9. Judaism was becoming an option for Gentiles. For
a man to be approved of in the community Judaism
presented three almost inviolable practices:
Dietary laws - a kosher table
Observing the Sabbath
Circumcision
29Thursday, 11 July 13

32. 8. The Sanhedrin became increasingly important in
Jewish life - it was the “supreme court” and
legislative body - made of 71 people, inc. High priest,
sadducees (proRome and usu. dominant due to
Roman support) and pharisees.
9. Judaism was becoming an option for Gentiles. For
a man to be approved of in the community Judaism
presented three almost inviolable practices:
Dietary laws - a kosher table
Observing the Sabbath
Circumcision
29Thursday, 11 July 13

33. For the nation three symbols represented them:
The temple - religious, political and economic
significance all came from here, along with ongoing
sacrifice/worship/pilgrimage.
The land - the desire to live free of foreign
oppression in the land God had promised them.
The Torah / Law - obedience to the truth contained
within this was vital
29Thursday, 11 July 13

34. People Groups
30Thursday, 11 July 13

35. The ordinary people who were not
aligned to any particular group or sect
- fishermen, craftsmen, merchants etc.
Believed in God, followed OT laws
but not concerned about “all the rest
of it.” Faithful, ordinary people who
probably were most of Jesus’ early
followers.
However four special groups made up
around 5% of the population.
1. The People of the Land
30Thursday, 11 July 13

36. Arose opposing the combined
kingly and priestly power of the
Hasmonean rulers.
Name probably means ‘separatists”.
Usually opposed the Sadducees.
A “generally popular and
prominent group of laymen who
sought to apply the Torah to every
area of life” They developed the
oral laws (traditions of the elders)
which became the Mishnah - they
simply wanted to protect and
explain the Torah.
2. Pharisees
31Thursday, 11 July 13

37. 2. Pharisees
Not popular with upper classes who
feared their power to sway the
masses.
Anti-Roman and anti-violence -
thought obedience to the Law
would mean God would send a
saviour.
Denounced by Jesus for hypocrisy.
Luke show more +vely 7:36, 11:37
- and Nicodemus was one (Jn 3:1).
31Thursday, 11 July 13

38. A fairly diverse group,
Blomberg,
“Pharisees were the upstanding “conservative
evangelical pastors” of their day, strongly
convinced of the inerrancy of Scripture and its
sufficiency for guidance in every area of life, if
only it could be properly interpreted. Yet it is
precisely such an environment in which a healthy
perspective on the bible can easily give way into
legalism. Even the Mishnah and Talmud,
reflecting back from a later era on the diversity of
types of Pharisees, admit more bad types than
good.”
32Thursday, 11 July 13

39. - Small group of aristocrats and social
elite who supported the Hasmoneans
- Mainly from priestly families (name
might come from Zadokites, 2 Sam
8:17)
- Little evidence in general about
them
- In the time of Caiaphas they had
great wealth and were corrupt in their
use of it in administering the temple
-Rejected oral law and only doctrine
found in the Pentateuch was binding,
they did accept all OT as God’s Law
3. Sadducees
33Thursday, 11 July 13

40. 3. Sadducees
- Did not protest Roman occupation of
Israel (they profited greatly from it)
- Denied immortality, resurrection,
angels and demons
- strong emphasise on freedom of the
human will and living as God’s people
in this life
- So tied into the temple and its cult
that they did not survive its
destruction in 70AD
- Jesus often criticised them with none
of the balances associated with the
Pharisees eg Mk 12:18-27
33Thursday, 11 July 13

41. Do not appear in the NT but
thought to be around from mid 2nd
century BC to fall of Jerusalem.
Present on the shore of the Dead
Sea, in 1/4 of Jerusalem and in
other major cities - so Jesus et al
probably interacted with them.
Essence comes from the Aramaic
for pious or holy.
Their lifestyle is thought to be a
radical protest at the Hellenization
and Romanization of Israel.
4. Essenes
34Thursday, 11 July 13

42. - Apocalyptically orientated
- Founded by “the teacher of
righteousness”
- Believed Jerusalem and the temple
was hopelessly corrupt, opposing
those who taught the Law as “seekers
of smooth things”
- Society was corrupt, the end was at
hand, only social withdrawal and
intense trust in God would bring in
the KOG (when God came with his
armies)
- Strong emphasis on God’s
sovereignty and predestination
35Thursday, 11 July 13

43. Qumran is the only completely
monastic site of the Essenes and is
often used to give examples of
Essence lifestyle - though in some
places Essenes married, had children
and lived in part of the main city.
1. Communal lifestyle - prayers,
work, study and ritual (daily)
bathings/baptism to wash away sins
2. Up to 3 years probation before
membership - strict rules for
excommunication
3. A belief they were fulfilling
biblical prophecy
36Thursday, 11 July 13

44. 4. The Qumran community looked
for 2 messiahs - one priestly, one
kingly (as each would come from
different tribes)
5. Had communal meals which
foreshadowed the messianic banquet
of Isa 25:6
6. Very interested in Melchizedek as
a kind of archangel cf Hebrews
7. Had an entire scroll with a
blueprint for a new temple - but no
sacrifices before it was constructed
8. The Copper scroll talks of a vast
hoard of wealth buried in the desert
(never discovered)
37Thursday, 11 July 13

45. The Dead Sea Scrolls are of special interest - containing
manuals for discipline and organisation of the community,
hymns, psalms, prayers, liturgical texts, calendars, OT
commentaries, apocalyptic literature.
Most of these have been translated - none are damaging to
Christianity, and none refer to Jesus or Christianity.
New translation work is ongoing - with possible reference
to Messiah as Son of God and beatitude type teachings.
38Thursday, 11 July 13

46. A loosely knit collection who are
thought of as a party only around the
time of the rebellion in the 60’s AD.
Precursors: uprising of Judas of Galilee
in AD6 - various rebels, bandits or
terrorists arose and commanded a
following for a time, Acts 5:36, 21:38.
Simon the Canaanite aka Zealot Lk
6:15, Acts 1:13
In the 50/60’s AD the dagger men
sicarii emerged, and by stealth killed
prominent Jews who cooperated with
Rome.
5. Zealots
39Thursday, 11 July 13

47. 1st century Judaism contained a
mixture of groups who offered a
diverse range of answers to the
theological problem of living under
Roman oppression in a land promised
to them by God.
Pharisees looked for internal reform.
Sadducees benefited from the status
quo and opposed change.
Essenes saw no hope and withdrew
looking for a fresh start.
Zealots looked to overthrow by might.
The people of the land looked for
survival but many hoped for a
deliverer of sorts.
40Thursday, 11 July 13

48. The NT world at this time offered
great possibilities to “pick and
mix” your beliefs (syncretism).
Emperor worship, traditional
myths, philosophy and mystery
cult could all be practiced by one
person without feeling the
contradiction - you could add
what you liked when you liked.
The level of morality was
abysmal and often morals were
divorced from ethical living -
homosexuality, adultery, divorce,
abortion, infanticide, slavery etc.
Were commonly accepted.
In Conclusion
41Thursday, 11 July 13

49. The NT world at this time offered
great possibilities to “pick and
mix” your beliefs (syncretism).
Emperor worship, traditional
myths, philosophy and mystery
cult could all be practiced by one
person without feeling the
contradiction - you could add
what you liked when you liked.
The level of morality was
abysmal and often morals were
divorced from ethical living -
homosexuality, adultery, divorce,
abortion, infanticide, slavery etc.
Were commonly accepted.
41Thursday, 11 July 13

50. A monotheistic worldview like
Judaism and Christianity was in
great contrast to such syncretism
and the general attitude of adding
gods to the pantheon of Roman
gods (pluralism).
Intolerance for polytheism was
surprising in such a world. The
idea of Jesus being the only way
took this intransigence even
further.
41Thursday, 11 July 13

51. The End
42Thursday, 11 July 13

52. The End
42Thursday, 11 July 13