Chapter 3 provides an overview of loaders and linkers, describing their roles in program execution including functions such as loading, linking, and relocation. It outlines different types of loaders, such as absolute and relocating loaders, as well as linking techniques that address external references and dynamic loading. The chapter also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each loader type and design options, highlighting their importance in efficient program execution and memory management.

1. Chapter 3: Loaders and Linkers
Overview
Basic Functions
Features (Machine Dependent & Independent)
Design Options

2. Overview[1]
• Loader is a system program that performs the loading function.
• Thus, loader is actually responsible for initiating the execution process.
• To execute an object program:
• Relocation, which modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different from the location originally
specified: Allows loading at different locations
• Linking, which combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the information needed to allow references between
them
• Loading and Allocation, which allocates memory location and brings the object program into memory for execution

3. Overview[2]
Role of Loader
Role of Loader with Assembler
Role of Loader and Linker with Assembler

4. Overview[3]
• The execution of program can be done with the help of following
steps
1. Translation of the program (done by assembler or compiler)
2. Linking of the program with all other programs which are needed for
execution. This also involves preparation of a program called load
module.
3. Loading of the load module prepared by linker to some specified
memory location.

5. Overview[4]

6. Overview[5]
• Type of loaders
• Assemble-and-go loader
• Absolute loader (bootstrap loader)
• Relocating loader (relative loader)
• Direct linking loader
• Design options
• Linkage editors
• Dynamic linking
• Bootstrap loaders

7. Basic Loader Functions
• Allocation: allocate space in memory for the programs
• Linking: Resolve symbolic references between object files
• combines two or more separate object programs
• supplies the information needed to allow references between them
• Relocation: Adjust all address dependent locations, such as address constants, to
correspond to the allocated space
• modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different from the
location originally specified
• Loading: Physically place the machine instructions and data into memory

8. Types of Loaders
• Based on the various functionalities of loader, there are various
types of loaders:
• “Compile/Assemble-and-Go” loader
• General Loader
• Absolute Loader

9. “Compile/Assemble-and-Go” loader[1]
• The assembler run in one part of memory
• Place the assembled machine instructions and data, as they are assembled,
directly into their assigned memory locations
• The instruction is read line by line, its machine code is obtained and it is
directly put in the main memory at some known address.
• That means the assembler runs in one part of memory and the assembled machine instructions
and data is directly put into their assigned memory locations.

10. “Compile/Assemble-and-Go” loader[2]

11. “Compile/Assemble-and-Go” loader[3]
• After completion of assembly process, assign starting address of the
program to the location counter.
• The typical example is WATFOR-77, it’s a FORTRAN compiler which uses such “load and go”
scheme.
• Characteristic
• The object code is produced directly in memory for immediate execution after assembly
• Advantage
• Simple, useful for program development and testing

12. “Compile/Assemble-and-Go” loader[4]
• Disadvantages
• Memory wastage (portion of the memory is occupied by assembler)
• Whenever the assembly program is to be executed, it has to be assembled again (There
is no production of .obj file)  More execution time
• Programs have to be coded in the same language (can’t handle multiple source program
written in different languages)
• Difficult to make an orderly modulator program

13. General Loader[1]
• The source program is converted to object program by some translator
(assembler).
• The loader accepts these object modules and puts machine instruction and
data in an executable form at their assigned memory.
• The loader occupies some portion of main memory.

14. General Loader[2]

15. General Loader[3]
• Advantages:
• The program need not be retranslated each time while running it. This is because
initially when source program gets executed an object program gets generated.
• There is no wastage of memory, because assembler is not placed in the memory, instead
of it, loader occupies some portion of the memory.
• It is possible to write source program with multiple programs and multiple languages,
because the source programs are first converted to object programs always, and loader
accepts these object modules to convert it to executable form.

16. Absolute Loader[1]
• Absolute loader is a kind of loader in which relocated object files are created,
loader accepts these files and places them at specified locations in the
memory.
• This type of loader is called absolute because no relocation information is
needed; rather it is obtained from the programmer or assembler.
• Assembler should have knowledge of memory management.

17. Absolute Loader[2]

18. Absolute Loader[3]
• Absolute loader only performs loading function
• Does not need to perform linking and program relocation.
• All functions are accomplished in a single pass.
• Absolute Loader
• Advantage
• Simple (implementation and loading) and efficient (process of execution)
• This scheme allows multiple programs or the source programs written different languages.
• Disadvantage
• Actual load address must be specified
• The need for programmer to specify the actual address at which it will be loaded into memory (memory mgt.)
• Difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently

19. Absolute Loader[4], Algorithm

20. Absolute Loader[5], Object Code
Representation
• In algorithm of Absolute loader
• Each byte of assembled code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form
• Easy to read by human beings
• In general
• Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte
• Most machine store object programs in a binary form
• We must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some of the program
bytes to be interpreted as control characters

21. Machine Dependent Loader Features
• Drawback of absolute loaders
• Programmer needs to specify the actual address at which it will be loaded into memory.
• Difficult to run several programs concurrently, sharing memory between them.
• Difficult to use subroutine libraries.
• Solution: a more complex loader that provides
• Program relocation
• Program linking

22. Program Relocation[1]
• Motivation
• efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when several independent
programs are to be run together
• support the use of subroutine libraries efficiently
• Two methods for specifying relocation
• modification record (Fig. 3.4, 3.5)
• relocation bit (Fig. 3.6, 3.7)
• each instruction is associated with one relocation bit
• these relocation bits in a Text record is gathered into bit masks

23. Program Relocation[2]
• A Modification record is used to describe each part of the object code that
must be changed when the program is relocated.
• For complex machines
• Also called RLD specification
• Relocation and Linkage Directory
Modification record
col 1: M
col 2-7: relocation address
col 8-9: length (halfbyte)
col 10: flag (+/-)
col 11-17: segment name

24. Program Relocation[3]

25. Program Relocation[4]
• For simple machines
• Relocation bit
• 0: no modification is necessary
• 1: modification is needed
• Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record
• since each text record contains less than 12 words
• unused words are set to 0
• any value that is to be modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments
• e.g. line 210
Text record
col 1: T
col 2-7: starting address
col 8-9: length (byte)
col 10-12: relocation bits
col 13-72: object code

26. Program Linking[1]
• Necessary for separate CSECTS
• Goal
• Resolve the problems with EXTREF and EXTDEF from different control sections
• Linking
• 1. User, 2. Assembler, 3. Linking loader
• Example
• Program in Fig. 3.8 and object code in Fig. 3.9
• Use modification records for both relocation and linking
• address constant
• external reference

27. Program Linking[2], Example
Program A Program B Program C
Label Expression LISTA, ENDA LISTB, ENDB LISTC, ENDC
REF1 LISTA local, R, PC external external
REF2 LISTB+4 external local, R, PC external
REF3 ENDA-LISTA local, A external external
REF4 ENDA-LISTA+LISTC local, A external local, R
REF5 ENDC-LISTC-10 external external local, A
REF6 ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 local, R external local, A
REF7 ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) local, A local, A external
REF8 LISTB-LISTA local, R local, R external

28. Program Linking[3], Example
• Load address for control sections
• PROGA 004000 63
• PROGB 004063 7F
• PROGC 0040E2 51
• Load address for symbols
• LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040
• LISTB: PROGB+0060=40C3
• LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112
• REF4 in PROGA
• ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=14+4112=4126
• T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FF
FFC0
• M00005406+LISTC

29. Data Structures
• External Symbol Table (ESTAB)
• Stores the name and address of each external symbol in the set of programs being
loaded.
• Indicates in which program the symbol is defined.
• A hash table is generally used.
• Program Load Address (PROGADDR)
• beginning address in memory where the linked program is to be loaded.
• supplied by the O/S

30. More Databases
• Control Section Address (CSADDR)
• starting address assigned to the CS currently being scanned by the loader
• Its value is added to all relative addresses within the control section to convert them to
actual addresses

31. Overlay Structures & Dynamic
Loading[1]
• Sometimes a program may require more storage space than the available one
• Execution of such program can be possible if all the segments are not
required simultaneously to be present in the main memory.
• In such situations only those segments are resident in the memory that are
actually needed at the time of execution.
• The inter dependency of the segments can be specified by a tree like
structure called static overlay structures.

32. Overlay Structures & Dynamic
Loading[2]
• The inter dependency of the segments can be specified by a tree like structure called static
overlay structures.
• The overlay structure contain multiple root/nodes and edges. Each node represents the
segment.
• The specification of required amount of memory is also essential in this structure.

33. Two pass Direct Linking Loader
• Two-pass process (similar to the Assembler):
• Pass 1:
• Allocate and assigns addresses to all external symbols
• Provides a load map (info. in symbol table)
• Pass 2
• Actual loading,
• Relocation, and
• Linking(resolve external references)

34. Pass 1 Program Logic
• Pass 1:
• Assign addresses to all external symbols
• Variables
• PROGADDR (program load address) from OS
• CSADDR (control section address)
• CSLTH (control section length)
• ESTAB

35. Pass 2 Program Logic
 Pass 2:
» perform the actual loading,
relocation, and linking
 Modification record
» lookup the symbol in ESTAB
 End record for a main program
» transfer address

36. Improve Efficiency[1]
• Use local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the same
symbol
• assign a reference number to each external symbol
• the reference number is used in Modification records
• Implementation
• 01: control section name
• other: external reference symbols

37. Improve Efficiency[2], Example
PROGA
PROGB PROGC
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGA 4000
2 LISTB 40C3
3 ENDB 40D3
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGB 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGC 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTB 40C3
5 ENDB 40D3

38. Machine-Independent Loader Features
• Automatic Library Search
• Many linking loaders can automatically incorporate routines from a
subprogram library into the program being loaded
• A standard library
• Other libraries may be specified by control statements or by parameters to the
loader
• Also called automatic library call in some systems
• Loader Options (Parameters)

39. Automatic Library Search[1]
• Library routines are external references
• Users can include routines to override library routines
• Library search is a search of the directory that contains addresses of the
routines.
• Linking loaders that support automatic library search must keep track of
external symbols that are referred to , but not defined, in the primary input
to the loader

40. Automatic Library Search[2]
• At the end of Pass 1, the symbols in ESTAB that remain undefined
represented unresolved external references
• Then, the loader searches the library or libraries specified for routines
that contain the definitions of these symbols
• Note that the subroutines fetched from a library in this way may
themselves contain external references.
• It is therefore necessary to repeat the library search process until all reference
are resolved.

41. Automatic Library Search[3]
• The process allows the programmer to override the standard subroutines in
the library by supplying his or her own routines
• The libraries to be searched by the loader ordinarily contain assembled or compiled versions
of the subroutines (i.e., object programs)
• For efficient searching
• Directory
• Some operating systems can keep the directory for commonly used libraries permanently in
memory
• The same technique applies equally well to the resolution of external references to data
items

42. Loader Options[1]
• Many loaders allow the user to specify options that modify the standard
processing
• Many loaders have a special command language
• A separate input file to loader
• Embedded in the primary input stream
• In source program

43. Loader Options[2]
• Examples of command language
1. INCLUDE program-name(library-name)
Direct the loader to read the designated object program from a library and treat
it as if it were part of the primary loader input
2. DELETE csdect-name
Instruct the loader to delete the named control section(s) from the set of
programs being loaded
3. CHANGE name1, name2
Cause the external symbol name1 to be changed to name2 wherever it appears in
the object programs
INCLUDE READ(UTLIB)
INCLUDE WRITE(UTLIB)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE

44. Loader Options[3]
• Examples of command language
4. LIBRARY MYLIB
• Specify alternative libraries to be searched.
• These are searched before system libraries, allowing user versions to replace system versions.
5. NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL
• To instruct the loader that these external references are to remain unsolved
• Specify that library routines not be included. If, for example, statistics were normally done, but not done in this run.
6. Others
• Output from the load, e.g., the map which includes control section names and adddresses
• The ability to specify the location at which execution is to begin
• Control whether or not the loader should attempt to execute the program if errors are detected during the load

45. Loader Design Options
1. Linking Loaders
• All linking and relocation at runtime
2. Linkage Editor
• Perform linking prior to load time
3. Dynamic linking
• Linking function is performed at execution time
4. Bootstrap loader
• Be used to run stand-alone programs independent of the operating system or the system loader

46. Linkage Editors[1]
• A linking loaders performs
• All linking and relocation operations
• Automatic library search
• Loads the linked program directly into memory for execution
• A linkage editor
• Produces a linked version of program (often called a load module or an executable image),
which is written to a file or library for later execution
• A simple relocating loader can be used to load the linked version of program into memory
• The loading can be accomplished in one pass with no external symbol table required

47. Linkage Editors[2]
• The essential difference between a linkage editor and a linking loader

48. Linkage Editors[3]
• A linkage editor
• Resolution of external references and library searching are only performed once
• In the linked version of programs
• All external references are resolved, and relocation is indicated by some mechanism such as
modification records or a bit mask
• External references is often retained in the linked program
• To allow subsequent relinking of the program to replace control sections, modify external
references, etc.

49. Linkage Editors[4]
• Linkage editors can perform many useful functions besides simply
preparing an object program for execution
1. The linkage editor can be used to replace the subroutines in the linked version
INCLUDE PLANNER(PROGLIB)
DELETE PROJECT
INCLUDE PROJECT(NEWLIB)
REPLACE PLANNER(PROGLIB)

50. Linkage Editors[5]
2. Linkage editors can also be used to build packages of subroutines or other control
sections that are generally used together
It could be used to combine the appropriate subroutines into a package with a command
sequence INCLUDE READR(FTNLIB)
INCLUDE WRITER(FTNLIB)
INCLUDE BLOCK(FTNLIB)
INCLUDE DEBLOCK(FTNLIB)
INCLUDE ENCODE(FTNLIB)
INCLUDE DECODE(FTNLIB)
.
.
.
SAVE FTNIO(SUBLIB)

51. Linkage Editors[6]
3. Linkage editors often allow the user to specify that external references are not to be
resolved by automatic library search
Only the external references between user-written routines would be resolved

52. Dynamic Linking[1]
• Postpone the linking function until execution time
• A subroutine is loaded and linked to the rest of the program when it is first called
• Dynamic linking, dynamic loading, or load on call
• Allow several executing programs to share one copy of a subroutine or library
• In object-oriented system, it allows the implementation of the object and its
methods to be determined at the time the program is run
• Dynamic linking provides the ability to load the routines only when they are needed

53. • Dynamically loaded must be called via an
operating system service request
• Load-and-call service
a) OS examines its inernal tables to determine
whether or not the routine is already loaded
b) Routine is loaded from library
c) Control is passed from OS to the called
subroutine
d) Subroutine is finished
e) Calling to a subroutine which is already in
memory
• Binding of the name to an actuall address is
delayed from load time until execution time
Dynamic Linking[2]

54. Dynamic Linking[3]
• Advantages
• The overhead on the loader is reduced.
• The required subroutine will be load in the main memory only at the time of execution.
• The system can be dynamically reconfigured.
• Disadvantages
• The linking and loading need to be postponed until the execution.
• During the execution if at all any subroutine is needed then the process of execution
needs to be suspended until the required subroutine gets loaded in the main memory.

55. Bootstrap Loader[1]
• Bootstrap Loader
• A special absolute loader
• Typically single pass
• When a computer is first tuned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called bootstrap loader is
executed
• This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer -- usually an operating system
• Example (SIC bootstrap loader)
• The bootstrap itself begins at address 0
• It loads the OS starting address 0x80
• No header record or control information, the object code is consecutive bytes of memory

56. Bootstrap Loader[2]
SIC Bootstrap Loader Logic
1. Begin
2. X=0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded
3. Loop
4. AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII character code to the value of the hexadecimal digit)
5. save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S
6. AGETC
7. combine the value to form one byte A (A+S)
8. store the value (in A) to the address in register X
9. XX+1
10. End
0~9 : 48
A~F : 65
GETC Aread one character
if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80
if A<48 then GETC
A  A-48 (0x30)
if A<10 then return
A  A-7 (48+7=55)
return

57. Bootstrap Loader[3]
• Given an idle computer with no program in memory, how do we get things
started?
• With the machine empty and idle, there is no need for program relocation
• Some early computers required the operator to enter into memory the object code for an
absolute loader, using switches on the computer console
• One some computer, an absolute loader program is permanently resident in a ROM
• A built-in hardware function that reads a fixed-length record form some device into memory
at a fixed location

58. Chapter 3}
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