The document discusses the clinical interview, which is a major tool used by clinical psychologists to gather data and make decisions. It defines the clinical interview and describes its importance. Several types of interviews are covered, including intake interviews to understand a patient's symptoms, case history interviews to obtain background information, mental status examinations to assess psychological functioning, crisis interviews for emergency situations, diagnostic interviews to determine appropriate treatment, and structured interviews with standardized questions. The document also addresses reliability and validity considerations for clinical interviews.

1. THE CLINICALTHE CLINICAL
INTERVIEWINTERVIEW
Lecture 16Lecture 16

2. DEFINITION OF INTERVIEWDEFINITION OF INTERVIEW
 According to “Bingham” and “Moore”According to “Bingham” and “Moore”
““A situation of primarily vocal communication, more orA situation of primarily vocal communication, more or
less voluntarily integrated, on a progressivelyless voluntarily integrated, on a progressively
unfolding expert-client basis for the purpose ofunfolding expert-client basis for the purpose of
elucidating characteristic patterns of living of theelucidating characteristic patterns of living of the
patient, client, or subject, which pattern he/shepatient, client, or subject, which pattern he/she
experiences as particularly troublesome or especiallyexperiences as particularly troublesome or especially
valuable, and in the revealing of which he expects tovaluable, and in the revealing of which he expects to
derive benefit”.derive benefit”.

3. INTRODUCTION OF INTERVIEWINTRODUCTION OF INTERVIEW
 The chief technique & a major tool for gatheringThe chief technique & a major tool for gathering
data and making decisions.data and making decisions.
 The most basic and the most serviceableThe most basic and the most serviceable
technique used by the clinical psychologists.technique used by the clinical psychologists.
 Its wide range of applications and adoptabilityIts wide range of applications and adoptability
make it a major instrument for clinical decisionmake it a major instrument for clinical decision
making, understanding, and predictions.making, understanding, and predictions.

4. IMPORTANT THINGS TO KNOWIMPORTANT THINGS TO KNOW
ABOUT CLINICAL INTERVIEWSABOUT CLINICAL INTERVIEWS
1.1. It is not a cross-examination but rather a process duringIt is not a cross-examination but rather a process during
which the interviewer must be aware of the client’s voicewhich the interviewer must be aware of the client’s voice
intonation, rate of speech, as well as non-verbal messagesintonation, rate of speech, as well as non-verbal messages
such as facial expression, posture, and gestures.such as facial expression, posture, and gestures.
2.2. Although it is sometimes used as the sole method ifAlthough it is sometimes used as the sole method if
assessment, it is more often used along with several of theassessment, it is more often used along with several of the
other methods.other methods.
3.3. It serves as the basic context for almost all otherIt serves as the basic context for almost all other
psychological assessments.psychological assessments.
4.4. It is the most widely used clinical assessment method.It is the most widely used clinical assessment method.

5. ADVANTAGES OF THE CLINICALADVANTAGES OF THE CLINICAL
INTERVIEWINTERVIEW
1.1. InexpensiveInexpensive
2.2. Taps both verbal and non verbal behaviorTaps both verbal and non verbal behavior
3.3. PortablePortable
4.4. FlexibleFlexible
5.5. Facilitates the building of a therapeutic relationshipFacilitates the building of a therapeutic relationship

6. TYPES OF INTERVIEWTYPES OF INTERVIEW
Some important forms of interview areSome important forms of interview are
1.1. The intake admission interview.The intake admission interview.
2.2. The case history interview.The case history interview.
3.3. Mental status examination interview.Mental status examination interview.
4.4. The crisis interview.The crisis interview.
5.5. Diagnostic interview.Diagnostic interview.
6.6. Structured interview.Structured interview.

7. 1. THE INTAKE ADMISSION1. THE INTAKE ADMISSION
INTERVIEWINTERVIEW
 According to Watson; “The Intake Admission interviewAccording to Watson; “The Intake Admission interview
is usually concerned with clarification of the patient’sis usually concerned with clarification of the patient’s
percentage complaints, the steps he has takenpercentage complaints, the steps he has taken
previously to resolve his difficulties and hispreviously to resolve his difficulties and his
expectances in regard to what may be done for him”.expectances in regard to what may be done for him”.
 Main Purpose: to develop a better understanding ofMain Purpose: to develop a better understanding of
the patient’s symptoms or concerns in order tothe patient’s symptoms or concerns in order to
recommend the most appropriate treatment orrecommend the most appropriate treatment or
intervention plan.intervention plan.
 In any setting, the initial interview attempts to evaluateIn any setting, the initial interview attempts to evaluate
the patient’s situation as efficiently as possible.the patient’s situation as efficiently as possible.

8.  Basic question to be dealt with : “Why is the patientBasic question to be dealt with : “Why is the patient
here? i.e., what doe she says is the matter with him?here? i.e., what doe she says is the matter with him?
 Important but secondary questions involve informationImportant but secondary questions involve information
about previous hospitalization, the name of hisabout previous hospitalization, the name of his
doctor(s), what the patient expects from treatment, hisdoctor(s), what the patient expects from treatment, his
availability for treatment, and the like.availability for treatment, and the like.
 Although typically brief, the intake or admissionAlthough typically brief, the intake or admission
interview is extremely important in conserving the timeinterview is extremely important in conserving the time
of other professional staff members and in sparing theof other professional staff members and in sparing the
clinic or hospital for occasional embarrassing orclinic or hospital for occasional embarrassing or
awkward situations by helping to make appropriateawkward situations by helping to make appropriate
referrals.referrals.

9.  Guards against common mistakes at the timeGuards against common mistakes at the time
of admission.of admission.
 Every patient may not be able to stateEvery patient may not be able to state
coherently the nature of his trouble, but evencoherently the nature of his trouble, but even
the unclear replies can be highly revealing.the unclear replies can be highly revealing.
 The diagnostic and treatment session comes atThe diagnostic and treatment session comes at
some time after the intake interview, but it hassome time after the intake interview, but it has
a profound effect on the quality and duration ofa profound effect on the quality and duration of
treatment.treatment.

10. 2. CASE HISTORY INTERVIEW2. CASE HISTORY INTERVIEW
 In many hospitals and clinics the intake or admission interviewIn many hospitals and clinics the intake or admission interview
is followed immediately by the personal and social historyis followed immediately by the personal and social history
interview, usually conducted by the same person.interview, usually conducted by the same person.
 Sources of information other then the patient himself such asSources of information other then the patient himself such as
information from friends, relatives, hospital, military, and otherinformation from friends, relatives, hospital, military, and other
records are also utilized when completing a personal and socialrecords are also utilized when completing a personal and social
history report.history report.
 The purposes : to gather information which will be helpful inThe purposes : to gather information which will be helpful in
diagnosing and treating the patient’s disorder.diagnosing and treating the patient’s disorder.
 For example, The adult schizophrenic who showed markedFor example, The adult schizophrenic who showed marked
apathy and withdrawal symptoms as a preschool child isapathy and withdrawal symptoms as a preschool child is
probably more severely afflicted than patients whom symptomsprobably more severely afflicted than patients whom symptoms
appeared more recently. Or Neurotic symptoms which appearappeared more recently. Or Neurotic symptoms which appear
after the divorce of parents may have different etiology thanafter the divorce of parents may have different etiology than
similar symptoms which appear after the head injury.similar symptoms which appear after the head injury.

11.  In most instances a standardized form or socialIn most instances a standardized form or social
history guide of some sort is used. There arehistory guide of some sort is used. There are
advantages in using a standardized printedadvantages in using a standardized printed
form, as Louttite has noted in that pertinentform, as Louttite has noted in that pertinent
information will not be skipped; however as heinformation will not be skipped; however as he
also notes, a rigid dependency upon the formalso notes, a rigid dependency upon the form
may ensue.may ensue.
 The common sense of the interviewer is theThe common sense of the interviewer is the
answer to such problems.answer to such problems.

12.  The typical information obtained includesThe typical information obtained includes
material on the patient’s early life, withmaterial on the patient’s early life, with
particular attention paid to family relationshipparticular attention paid to family relationship
and general environment. Also included areand general environment. Also included are
data on the patient’s educational and vocationaldata on the patient’s educational and vocational
history, neuro-pathic traits, his habits,history, neuro-pathic traits, his habits,
recreations, etc.recreations, etc.
 Because much of this information can beBecause much of this information can be
obtained only by direct questioning, someobtained only by direct questioning, some
patients can lie or feel threatened, but thepatients can lie or feel threatened, but the
clinician should check other informationclinician should check other information
sources also.sources also.

13. 3. MENTAL STATUS3. MENTAL STATUS
EXAMINATION INTERVIEWEXAMINATION INTERVIEW
 Often a mental status examination interview isOften a mental status examination interview is
conducted to screen the patient’s level ofconducted to screen the patient’s level of
psychological functioning and the presence orpsychological functioning and the presence or
absence of abnormal mental phenomena such asabsence of abnormal mental phenomena such as
delusions, delirium, or dementia.delusions, delirium, or dementia.
 It includes a brief evaluation and observation of theIt includes a brief evaluation and observation of the
patient’s appearance and manner, speechpatient’s appearance and manner, speech
characteristics, mood, thought processes, insight,characteristics, mood, thought processes, insight,
judgment, attention, concentration, memory, andjudgment, attention, concentration, memory, and
orientation.orientation.

14.  Examples:Examples:
 Mental status interviews typically include questionsMental status interviews typically include questions
and tasks to determine orientation to time (e.g., “whatand tasks to determine orientation to time (e.g., “what
day is it? What month is it?), place (e.g., Where areday is it? What month is it?), place (e.g., Where are
you now? Which hospital are you in?”), and personyou now? Which hospital are you in?”), and person
(“who am I who is the president of United States?”)(“who am I who is the president of United States?”)
 Also, the mental status interview asses short termAlso, the mental status interview asses short term
memory (e.g. “I am going to name three objects I’dmemory (e.g. “I am going to name three objects I’d
like you to try and remember: dog, pencil, and vase”)like you to try and remember: dog, pencil, and vase”)
and attention- concentration (e.g., “count down by 7sand attention- concentration (e.g., “count down by 7s
starting at 100. For example 100, 93, and so forth”).starting at 100. For example 100, 93, and so forth”).
 MSE can be structured as well as unstructured.MSE can be structured as well as unstructured.

15. 4. THE CRISIS INTERVIEW4. THE CRISIS INTERVIEW
 A crisis interview occurs when the patient is inA crisis interview occurs when the patient is in
the middle of a significant and often traumaticthe middle of a significant and often traumatic
or life threatening crisis such as in anor life threatening crisis such as in an
emergency situation.emergency situation.
 The nature of the emergency dictates a rapid,The nature of the emergency dictates a rapid,
“get to the point” style of interview as well as“get to the point” style of interview as well as
quick decision making in the context of aquick decision making in the context of a
calming style. For example, it may be critical tocalming style. For example, it may be critical to
determine whether the person is at significantdetermine whether the person is at significant
risk of hurting him- or herself or others.risk of hurting him- or herself or others.

16.  The interviewer may need to be more directiveThe interviewer may need to be more directive
(e.g., encouraging the person to phone the(e.g., encouraging the person to phone the
police, unload a gun, provide instructions topolice, unload a gun, provide instructions to
induce vomiting, or step away from a tallinduce vomiting, or step away from a tall
building or bridge); break confidentiality if thebuilding or bridge); break confidentiality if the
person (or someone else, such as a child) is inperson (or someone else, such as a child) is in
serious and immediate danger; or enlist theserious and immediate danger; or enlist the
help of others (e.g., police department,help of others (e.g., police department,
ambulance).ambulance).

17. 5. THE DIAGNOSTIC INTERVIEW5. THE DIAGNOSTIC INTERVIEW
 The purpose of the screening or diagnostic interview isThe purpose of the screening or diagnostic interview is
to assist the clinician in his attempt to understand theto assist the clinician in his attempt to understand the
patient.patient.
 May involve a general screening task, or a clear, moreMay involve a general screening task, or a clear, more
specific diagnostic purpose.specific diagnostic purpose.
 The interviewer observes the interviewee’s behaviorThe interviewer observes the interviewee’s behavior
as well as noticing the content of his answers.as well as noticing the content of his answers.
Examples: a homosexual male; and a manic person.Examples: a homosexual male; and a manic person.
 Commonly used to describe that whether an individualCommonly used to describe that whether an individual
needs help or not.needs help or not.

18. 6. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW6. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 In an effort to increase the reliability and validity ofIn an effort to increase the reliability and validity of
clinical interviews, a number of structured interviewsclinical interviews, a number of structured interviews
have been developed. These interviews include veryhave been developed. These interviews include very
specific questions asked in a detailed flow chartspecific questions asked in a detailed flow chart
format.format.
 The goal is to obtain necessary information, to makeThe goal is to obtain necessary information, to make
an appropriate diagnosis, to determine whether aan appropriate diagnosis, to determine whether a
patient is appropriate for a specific treatment orpatient is appropriate for a specific treatment or
research program, and to secure critical data that areresearch program, and to secure critical data that are
needed for patient care.needed for patient care.

19. RELIABILTY AND VALIDITY OFRELIABILTY AND VALIDITY OF
INTERVIEWSINTERVIEWS
RELIABILITYRELIABILITY
 The reliability of an interview is typically evaluated in terms ofThe reliability of an interview is typically evaluated in terms of
the levels of agreement between at least two raters whothe levels of agreement between at least two raters who
evaluated the same patients or client, often referred as inter-evaluated the same patients or client, often referred as inter-
rater reliability.rater reliability.
 Standardized (structured) interviews with clear scoringStandardized (structured) interviews with clear scoring
instructions are more reliable than unstructured interviews.instructions are more reliable than unstructured interviews.
 Another type of reliability : the test-retest interviews (theAnother type of reliability : the test-retest interviews (the
consistency of scores or diagnoses across time).consistency of scores or diagnoses across time).
VALIDITYVALIDITY::
 The validity of an interview concerns how well the interviewThe validity of an interview concerns how well the interview
measures what it is intended to measure.measures what it is intended to measure.

20. Types of validity:Types of validity:
 CONTENT VALIDITYCONTENT VALIDITY:-refers to the measure’s:-refers to the measure’s
comprehensiveness in assessing the variable of interest. incomprehensiveness in assessing the variable of interest. in
other words, does it do a good job of adequately measuring allother words, does it do a good job of adequately measuring all
important aspects of the construct of interest?important aspects of the construct of interest?
 CRITERION RELATED VALIDITYCRITERION RELATED VALIDITY:-refers to the ability of a:-refers to the ability of a
measure to predict (correlate with) scores on other relevantmeasure to predict (correlate with) scores on other relevant
measures. These measures may be administered concurrentlymeasures. These measures may be administered concurrently
with the interview (concurrent validity) or at some point in thewith the interview (concurrent validity) or at some point in the
future (predictive) validityfuture (predictive) validity
 DISCRIMINAT VALIDITYDISCRIMINAT VALIDITY:-refers to the interview’s ability to not:-refers to the interview’s ability to not
correlate with measures that are not theoretically related to thecorrelate with measures that are not theoretically related to the
construct being measured.construct being measured.
 CONSTRUCT VALIDITYCONSTRUCT VALIDITY:-is used to refer to all these aspects of:-is used to refer to all these aspects of
validity. Thus many researchers describe the process ofvalidity. Thus many researchers describe the process of
developing and validating a measure as a process of constructdeveloping and validating a measure as a process of construct
validity.validity.

21. SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVESUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE
RELIABILTY AND VALIDITYRELIABILTY AND VALIDITY
1.1. Whenever possible use a structured interview.Whenever possible use a structured interview.
2.2. If a structured interview does not exist for your purpose,If a structured interview does not exist for your purpose,
consider developing one.consider developing one.
3.3. Whether you are using a structured, or unstructuredWhether you are using a structured, or unstructured
interview, certain interviewing skills are essential.interview, certain interviewing skills are essential.
4.4. Be aware of the patient’s motives and expectancies withBe aware of the patient’s motives and expectancies with
regard to the interview.regard to the interview.
5.5. Be aware of your expectations, biases, and culturalBe aware of your expectations, biases, and cultural
values.values.

22. THE ART AND SIENCE OFTHE ART AND SIENCE OF
INTERVIEWINGINTERVIEWING
 Interviewing has often been regarded as an art.Interviewing has often been regarded as an art.
Except in the most structured, formal interviews, thereExcept in the most structured, formal interviews, there
is a degree of freedom to exercise one’s skill andis a degree of freedom to exercise one’s skill and
resourcefulness that is generally absent from otherresourcefulness that is generally absent from other
assessment procedures.assessment procedures.
 For example, When to probe, when to be silent andFor example, When to probe, when to be silent and
when to be indirect and subtle are decisions that testswhen to be indirect and subtle are decisions that tests
the skill of the interviewer.the skill of the interviewer.

23. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCEFACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
INTERVIEWSINTERVIEWS
 Many factors influence on the productivity and utility ofMany factors influence on the productivity and utility of
data obtained from interview. For example, thedata obtained from interview. For example, the
physical settings, patient's cooperation. This can bephysical settings, patient's cooperation. This can be
easily dealt with during supervised training.easily dealt with during supervised training.
1. THE PHYSICAL SETTING1. THE PHYSICAL SETTING
 Should have privacy, freedom from interruption, andShould have privacy, freedom from interruption, and
some control of both inside and out side sounds.some control of both inside and out side sounds.
 The general appearance of the room should suggestThe general appearance of the room should suggest
comfort and yet have a professional flavor about it.comfort and yet have a professional flavor about it.

24. 2. NOTE-TAKING AND RECORDING2. NOTE-TAKING AND RECORDING
 All contacts with the client ultimately need to be documented.All contacts with the client ultimately need to be documented.
However, there is some debate over whether notes should beHowever, there is some debate over whether notes should be
taken during an interview. Although there are few absolutes, intaken during an interview. Although there are few absolutes, in
general, it would seem desirable to take occasional notesgeneral, it would seem desirable to take occasional notes
during an interview. A moderate amount of note- taking seemsduring an interview. A moderate amount of note- taking seems
worthwhile.worthwhile.
 Excessive note taking tends to prevent the clinicians fromExcessive note taking tends to prevent the clinicians from
observing the patient and from noting subtle changes ofobserving the patient and from noting subtle changes of
expression or slight changes in body position.expression or slight changes in body position.
 With today’s technology, it is easy to audio tape or videotapeWith today’s technology, it is easy to audio tape or videotape
interviews. Under no circumstances should be this done withinterviews. Under no circumstances should be this done with
out the patient’ fully informed consent.out the patient’ fully informed consent.

25. 3. RAPPORT3. RAPPORT
 Rapport involves a comfortable atmosphere and aRapport involves a comfortable atmosphere and a
mutual understanding of the purpose of the interview.mutual understanding of the purpose of the interview.
Good rapport can be primary instrument by which theGood rapport can be primary instrument by which the
clinicians achieve the purpose of the interview.clinicians achieve the purpose of the interview.
4. SETTING THE RIGHT TONE4. SETTING THE RIGHT TONE
 Experienced interviewers have learned and repeatedlyExperienced interviewers have learned and repeatedly
confirmed that the atmosphere most conducive to theconfirmed that the atmosphere most conducive to the
successful elicitation of information is one of mutualsuccessful elicitation of information is one of mutual
respect.respect.

26. 5. GETTING THE INTERVIEW OFF TO A GOD START5. GETTING THE INTERVIEW OFF TO A GOD START
 One of the first task, in fact, obligations, of the clinicianOne of the first task, in fact, obligations, of the clinician
is to make sure that the client understand the purposeis to make sure that the client understand the purpose
of t he interview as clearly as he is capable ofof t he interview as clearly as he is capable of
understanding.understanding.
 COMPONENTS OF GOOD LISTENINGCOMPONENTS OF GOOD LISTENING
 -elimination of distraction-elimination of distraction
 -alertness-alertness
 -concentration-concentration
 -patience-patience
 -Open-mindedness-Open-mindedness

27. 6. FRAMING QUESTIONS6. FRAMING QUESTIONS
CLEARLY,ECONOMICALLY,NATURALLYCLEARLY,ECONOMICALLY,NATURALLY
 The clinician can save himself time and secure moreThe clinician can save himself time and secure more
reliable information if he takes a lesson from thereliable information if he takes a lesson from the
experienced public-opinion poll taker who words hisexperienced public-opinion poll taker who words his
question carefully.question carefully.
7. ADJUSTMENT7. ADJUSTMENT :Adjust the sequence of topics to be:Adjust the sequence of topics to be
discussed to the anxiety level of the informant.discussed to the anxiety level of the informant.
8. MOVING RAPIDLY THROUGH THE INTERVIEW8. MOVING RAPIDLY THROUGH THE INTERVIEW ::
-In personal interviewing and, even more important, in-In personal interviewing and, even more important, in
case history interviewing a rapid fire technique maycase history interviewing a rapid fire technique may
result in grater reliability.result in grater reliability.

28. 9. RECORDING INFORMATION AT THE TIME OF9. RECORDING INFORMATION AT THE TIME OF
INTERVIEWINTERVIEW:-Johnson, et al., advice the taking of:-Johnson, et al., advice the taking of
notes on the spot.notes on the spot.
10. ASKING QUESTIONS STRAIGHTFORWARDLY10. ASKING QUESTIONS STRAIGHTFORWARDLY:-:-
Johnson, et al., remarked, having laid a solidJohnson, et al., remarked, having laid a solid
foundation of rapport, mutual understanding andfoundation of rapport, mutual understanding and
respect, it is best to ask questions in a direct manner.respect, it is best to ask questions in a direct manner.
11. CONSIDERABLE TACT AND SKILL MUST BE11. CONSIDERABLE TACT AND SKILL MUST BE
USED IN HADLING PAUSESUSED IN HADLING PAUSES:-we should not be too:-we should not be too
eager to make and answer for a client and should giveeager to make and answer for a client and should give
him time to think through his answer carefully. On thehim time to think through his answer carefully. On the
other hand, we must not allow pauses to become soother hand, we must not allow pauses to become so
long as to become painful or awkward and this makelong as to become painful or awkward and this make
the client uncomfortable.the client uncomfortable.

29. 12. ATTEPMT TO GET BENEATH SUPERFICAL ANSWER12. ATTEPMT TO GET BENEATH SUPERFICAL ANSWER:-we:-we
should attempt to rephrase or ask additional questions whenshould attempt to rephrase or ask additional questions when
client’s answers are obviously superficial.client’s answers are obviously superficial.
13. NOTE DISCRIPANCIES IN THE ACCOUNT AND CHECK13. NOTE DISCRIPANCIES IN THE ACCOUNT AND CHECK
THEMTHEM:-when inconsistencies are noted, they should not be:-when inconsistencies are noted, they should not be
ignored, but should be checked as unobtrusively as possibleignored, but should be checked as unobtrusively as possible
without challenging the client’s veracity.without challenging the client’s veracity.
14. HANDLING EMOTIONAL SCENES TACTFULLY14. HANDLING EMOTIONAL SCENES TACTFULLY:-a:-a
moderate amount of crying, weeping, anger, or hostility is to bemoderate amount of crying, weeping, anger, or hostility is to be
expected and is frequently of sign a good rapport. However it isexpected and is frequently of sign a good rapport. However it is
responsibility of the clinician to maintain control of the situationresponsibility of the clinician to maintain control of the situation
and not to allow it to get out of hand, or the client to become tooand not to allow it to get out of hand, or the client to become too
depressed.depressed.

30. 15. ENCOURAGING FREE EXPRESSION OF15. ENCOURAGING FREE EXPRESSION OF
OPINION AND EMOTIONOPINION AND EMOTION : Encouraging free: Encouraging free
expression of opinion and emotion whileexpression of opinion and emotion while
keeping in mind the limitations of the interviewkeeping in mind the limitations of the interview
situations, is very important.situations, is very important.
16. PREPAREDNESS16. PREPAREDNESS :-be prepared for the:-be prepared for the
questions directed to you by the informant.questions directed to you by the informant.
Clinician’s answer will depend upon his role inClinician’s answer will depend upon his role in
clinic routineclinic routine

31. POTENTIAL THREATS TOPOTENTIAL THREATS TO
EFFECTIVEEFFECTIVE
INTERVIEWINGINTERVIEWING

32. BIASNESSBIASNESS
Interviewers may be biased. Their personality,Interviewers may be biased. Their personality,
theoretical orientation, interests, values, previoustheoretical orientation, interests, values, previous
experiences, cultural background, and other factorsexperiences, cultural background, and other factors
may influence how they conduct an interview, whatmay influence how they conduct an interview, what
they attend to, and what they conclude. Interviewersthey attend to, and what they conclude. Interviewers
may consciously or unconsciously distort informationmay consciously or unconsciously distort information
collected during an interview based on their own slantcollected during an interview based on their own slant
on the patient or the patient’s problems.on the patient or the patient’s problems.
 For example, a psychologist is an expert on childFor example, a psychologist is an expert on child
sexual abuse.sexual abuse.

33. THREATS TO RELIABILITY ANDTHREATS TO RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITYVALIDITY
 Reliability and validity may also be threatened. For example, ifReliability and validity may also be threatened. For example, if
two or more interviewers conduct independent interviews with atwo or more interviewers conduct independent interviews with a
patient, they may or may not end up with the same diagnosis,patient, they may or may not end up with the same diagnosis,
hypothesis, and treatment plans.hypothesis, and treatment plans.
 Furthermore; patients may not report the same informationFurthermore; patients may not report the same information
when questioned may be several different interviews.when questioned may be several different interviews.
Interviewer's gender, race, age, and skill level are some of theInterviewer's gender, race, age, and skill level are some of the
factors that may affect patient response during an interview.factors that may affect patient response during an interview.
 Reliability and validity may be enhanced by using structuredReliability and validity may be enhanced by using structured
interviews, asking similar questions in different ways, usinginterviews, asking similar questions in different ways, using
multiple interviewers, and supplementing interview informationmultiple interviewers, and supplementing interview information
from other sources (e.g., medical records, observers,from other sources (e.g., medical records, observers,
questionnaires).questionnaires).