[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]Leadership development remains a popular topic in research and
practice. O...

1. Leadership development: an exploration of sources of
learning.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Leadership development remains a popular topic in research and
practice. Of the estimated $51 billion spent on training annually, more
than $14 billion was for leadership development (Dolezalek, 2005).
However, guidance on the development of leaders tends either to be
purely conceptual or purely applied. Little academic work connects the
theory of leadership development to the interventions used in leadership
development programs and initiatives. As a result, this paper
categorizes a comprehensive list of more than 25 sources of learning
within the framework of Conger's (1992) four approaches to
leadership development programming. Conger's work was
groundbreaking because few scholars had attempted to categorize the
different approaches to leadership development (Hunt, 1992; Yukl, 2002).
Although many scholars have categorized five or 10 sources of learning
(Avolio, 1999; Day, 2001; London, 2002; Yukl, 2002), we provide one of
the first comprehensive lists. Sources of learning are the primary
vehicles for delivering leadership development learning activities
before, during, and after the leadership development intervention (e.g.,
action learning, job rotation, assessment centers). Linking all sources
of learning with Conger's (1992) four approaches provides a
starting point for future work on how best to deliver leadership
development.

2. Leadership and Leadership Development is Contextual
Leadership is a relationship between leaders, followers, and the
context. Likewise, leadership development is contextual and the
approaches and sources of learning used for leadership development
provide a learning opportunity unique to that specific program. The
intention is that participants will draw knowledge from the source of
learning and improve their ability to lead teams, organizations, and
change effectively. As a result, the success or failure of leadership
development initiatives hinges on the overall approach (objectives), the
sources of learning the initiatives provide, and their affect on the
individual.
In addition, individual-level variables like age, learning style,
organizational role, development level, motivation, and self-efficacy
have also affect results of leadership development programs (Conger,
2004). As a result, the predominant historical system where
organizations depend on only one source of learning simply cannot meet
the needs of all. For these reasons we suggest that it is in the best
interest of architects of leadership development initiatives to offer a
variety of interventions that align with various styles of learning,
content coverage, and time spans. Thus, each participant can choose how
he or she will develop. Some organizations may think they lack the
funding to create multiple sources of learning, but there is evidence
demonstrating the effectiveness of job rotation, job enrichment, job
enlargement, developmental relationships, instruments, service learning,

3. personal development plans, and action learning as inexpensive ways to
develop individuals.
Four Themes in Leadership Development Programming
In his book Learning to Lead, Jay Conger (1992) suggests four
primary approaches to leadership development: (1) personal growth, (2)
conceptual understanding, (3) feedback, and (4) skill building (Figure
1).
Naturally, there is an inherent benefit in matching Conger's
(1992) four approaches to leadership development with the various
sources of learning used in leadership development initiatives. Each
source of learning has a number of characteristics, and some would argue
each could be placed in multiple approaches, but we placed each in what
we feel is its primary learning objective (Figure 2). Each leadership
development program varies by the sources of learning offered to
participants. For example, a feedback approach to leadership development
may include a 360-degree evaluation that gives the participant opinions
on their performance from everyone with whom the individual comes in
contact (supervisors, coworkers, partners, subordinates, and the general
public). Since the primary source of learning is derived from the
feedback, we paired it with Conger's feedback approach to
leadership development.
Leadership Development Through Personal Growth

4. Personal growth experiences induce reflection on behaviors,
personal values, and desires (Conger, 1992). Discussion about the
connection between leadership development and personal growth permeates
the literature (e.g., Avolio 2005; Cacioppe, 1998; Popper and Lipshitz,
1993). Personal growth programs are "based, generally, on the
assumption that leaders are individuals who are deeply in touch with
their personal dreams and talents and who will act to fulfill them"
(Conger, 1992). Essentially, the purpose of these programs is to
increase self-awareness and emphasize self-exploration. Avolio and
Gibbons (1989) assert that, "After getting their own personal shops
in order, charismatic/transformational leaders are free to look outward
and beyond the time period in which they operate to solve significant
problems." The relationship with leader development is that the
more self-aware leader will be better prepared to lead others. Sources
of learning that align with the personal growth approach to leadership
development include:
* Group reflection--This source of learning often occurs after an
activity or event within the context of a learning activity. One form of
group reflection is the military's use of an After Action Review.
According to Bruce Avolio (2005), the process has several phases and
begins with a discussion of the event so that a shared meaning of what
happened can be developed. After this step, participants engage in a
discussion of why events unfolded as they were followed by the
development of alternative courses of action. Group reflection is a
popular source of learning in leadership development programs. Often

5. conducted after a teambuilding or action learning activity, the purpose
is to help participants make connections and capture learning. This
approach is easy to implement and cost effective, but, little in the
management or leadership literature supports its use.
* Individual reflection--Individual reflection occurs through
activities such as journaling and challenges participants to focus on
topics such as goals, personal mission, and experiences. Individual
reflection may focus on past experience or future aspirations. Similar
to group reflection, individual reflection is often combined with other
activities in the context of a leadership development program. Although
widely used in practice, little has been written on the topic in the
management and leadership development literature.
* Service learning--According to Jacoby (1996), service learning is
"a form of experiential education in which students engage in
activities that address human and community needs together with
structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student
learning and development." Reflections on these experiences
encourage individuals to consider the advantages of servant leadership perspective. Service learning
can be a cost-effective source of learning
and has received favorable support in the leadership literature. In
addition, it is relatively easy to implement. However, this source of
learning may be difficult to evaluate in terms of return on
investment--especially in corporations.
* Outdoor management development (OMD)--OMD is "a set of

6. carefully sequenced and integrated experiential learning activities
conducted (primarily) in the outdoors and designed to participant
behavior change" (McEvoy and Buller, 1997). Participants face
direct challenges that encourage them to evaluate their approach to team
leadership. OMD has an extensive base of literature and is relatively
easy to implement (with the help of professionals). However, research on
its ability to develop leadership is mixed, and return on investment is
difficult to measure. In addition the cost of constructing an OMD
facility may also be an obstacle.
* Low ropes course--A ropes course is often an outdoor activity
that challenges participants to focus on tasks and challenges. A key
function of any ropes course (high or low) is to provide an
understanding of self as a mechanism to create or operate in an
effective team. A ropes course is a source of learning that allows
participants the opportunity to work through initiatives and
intentionally debrief all aspects--one goal being an increased awareness
of how participants troubleshoot, communicate, and lead. Low ropes
courses are a popular component of leadership development initiatives
and are often used in the "forming" stage of team development.
Generally speaking, it is cost effective, but return on investment may
be difficult to calculate.
* Teambuilding--Teambuilding emphasizes "members working
together in a spirit of cooperation and generally has one or more of the
following goals--(1) to set team goals and priorities, (2) to analyze
and allocate the way work is performed, (3) to examine how a group is

7. working, and (4) to examine relationships among people doing the
work" (Moorhead and Griffen, 2004). Participants reflect on these
experiences as a guide to becoming a leader in a collaborative
environment. Like a low ropes course, teambuilding is cost effective and
easy to implement. However, determining the return on investment may be
difficult, and without a skilled facilitator, learning opportunities may
be missed. The approach is often used when a group is in its beginning
stages.
* Fellowships--A fellowship is an intense learning experience
usually involving a specific topic of interest. Participants usually
apply to be a part of the fellowship, and much of the learning is
self-directed. Fellowships are easily implemented and highly
individualized but have a number of obstacles. For instance, the
investment in one or a few participants is sizable, and the return on
investment is not easy to calculate. In addition, there is little
research or literature supporting this approach to development.
* Sabbaticals--In higher education, a sabbatical is defined as
"paid leave of absence for a faculty member ... for personal and
professional improvement or development ... [typically lasting] either a
half year with full compensation or a full academic year with somewhat
reduced compensation" (Miller and Kang, 1997). Participants
typically focus on specific areas of interest. Like fellowships, this
approach is highly individualized and without clear objectives, so
development may prove difficult to evaluate. In addition, the cost to

8. the organization is high and the literature is mixed. This approach may
prove most beneficial with executives in need of a different approach to
development.
* Developmental relationships--Developmental relationships are a
"means for providing an individual with the information, support,
and challenge which they need to meet their development needs"
(Clarkson and Shaw, 1992). These relationships, formal and informal, can
be important to leadership development. Depending on when and where an
individual entered the organization, it is likely that he or she has
developed a network of relationships--close friends and acquaintances.
This approach is relatively easy to implement and cost effective. In
addition, an extensive literature base supports this approach to
development. It is highly individualized and may be appropriate
regardless of role within an organization.
* Networking with senior executives--Networking is marked by
exposure and relationship building with senior executives. These
interactions expand a participant's horizons and afford them an
opportunity to learn about the organization informally from individuals
at higher levels in the organization. Similar to developmental
relationships, this approach is easy to implement and cost effective.
This approach may be most effective when executives are paired with
employees who have been recommended by managers or human resource
managers because they are viewed as having high potential for
advancement. On the downside, the approach may be difficult to evaluate

9. and there is little research and literature on this source of learning.
Leadership Development Through Conceptual Understanding
Leadership development through conceptual understanding focuses on
improving the individual's knowledge through exposure to the topic
of leadership (Conger, 1992). This form of development often focuses on
various theories of leadership (e.g., Avolio, 2005; Cacioppe, 1998).
Conger (1992) asserts that leadership theory is discussed primarily in
universities, although in the late 1980s and 1990s programs such as
Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Challenge brought some of this
theory to the mainstream. Sources of learning that align with the
conceptual understanding approach to leadership development include:
* Degree programs--Such formal education programs have a prescribed
curriculum and often require exams, papers, and other projects to
graduate. MBA programs have been under scrutiny in recent years and the
return on investment for the organization is difficult to measure
(Mintzber, 2003). Popular in practice, the leadership research is mixed
as to the effectiveness of degree programs as a vehicle for leader
development. Regardless, this approach to development is often used to
develop middle managers in organizations.
* Self-paced learning--This form of learning is highly
individualized and often involves participants reading a book or going
through a workbook, videotape or audiotape. Self-paced learning is a

10. close relative of just-in-time training which is used widely in
organizations. Little has been written in the leadership literature
about this source of learning, so little is know about its effectiveness
as an approach to learning.
* Classroom-based training--According to Vicere and Fulmer (1997),
in-class leadership development initiatives typically last three to five
days. They are formal education programs with a prescribed curriculum.
Classroom-based training is a popular source of learning and has a large
base of literature. Generally the research supports its ability to
increase the participants' awareness of leadership theory, but this
approach can be cost prohibitive and difficult to make relevant to
on-the-job issues.
* E-learning--E-learning is defined as "the use of computer
network technology, primarily over an intranet or though the Internet,
to deliver information and instruction to individuals" (Welsh,
Wanberg, Brown, and Simmernig, 2003). Similar to training and degree
programs, learning is delivered primarily through a predetermined curriculum that intends to
increase the participant's factual or
conceptual knowledge about leadership. E-learning has grown amazingly in
recent years. After initial development costs, the approach is
relatively cost effective (no travel/lodging) and the literature is
generally supportive. In addition, it is a popular approach in practice.
Leadership Development Through Feedback

11. This approach to leadership development suggests that "Through
effective feedback processes, we can learn about our strengths and
weaknesses in a number of leadership skills" (Conger, 1992).
Feedback instruments such as the MBTI and 360-degree instruments are
used widely in leadership development programs (e.g., Cacioppe, 1998;
Yukl, 2002). For instance, the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL)
(McCauley, Moxley, and Van Velsor, 1998) supports an activity called
Feedback-Intensive Program (FIP). A CCL senior fellow, Robert C. Dorn,
suggests that "in a feedback intensive program, development means
helping a person to see more clearly significant patterns of behavior,
to understand more clearly the attitudes and motivations underlying
these patterns, to reassess what makes the person more or less effective
relative to the goals he or she wants to attain, and to evaluate
alternative ways of meeting these goals." Sources of learning that
align with the feedback approach to leadership development include:
* Executive coaching--Executive coaching is described as "a
helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial
authority and responsibility in an organization and a consultant who
uses a wide variety of behavioral techniques and methods to help the
client achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her
professional performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to
improve the effectiveness of the client's organization within a
formally defined coaching agreement" (Kilburg, 2000). This is a
highly individualized source of learning, often tailored to the needs of
the individual learner. The primary challenge to this approach is that

12. the industry lacks standards and regulations. In addition, unless clear
objectives are established at the outset, return on investment may be
difficult to calculate. Moreover, costs can be prohibitive, especially
at the middle-management level. Regardless, this source of learning has
gained in popularity in recent years.
* Instruments--According to Harland (2003), organizations use
assessments "to enhance self awareness and self-knowledge, identify
strengths and weaknesses and enhance team effectiveness." This
source of learning increases self-awareness in a number of areas
including: preferred learning style, personality type, leadership,
confrontation, communication and so forth. Popular in practice, this
source of learning has an extensive and supportive base of literature.
However, like others, if it is not linked to other learning
opportunities or development planning, return on investment may prove
minimal. Often used in the context of a larger program, instruments are
relatively easy to implement and cost effective to development.
* Assessment centers--Often participants are formally evaluated by
trained observers on their demonstration of leadership competences in a
series of activities. Participants receive feedback on their strengths
and weakness to identify training needs, managerial talent, and
performance in relation to other participants. If housed in an
organization, assessment centers are expensive and require a significant
investment of time and money. Although assessments centers have an
extensive base of literature, the research is mixed and little has been

13. written about this approach in recent years.
* 360[degrees] feedback--The 360[degrees] feedback process is a
widely accepted tool to help leaders examine the perceptions of their
co-workers. Also known as multi-rater or multisource feedback, a
360[degrees] feedback instrument solicits feedback from supervisors,
direct reports, peers, and others working closely with the individual,
as well as customers, vendors, and so forth. Costs and ease of
implementation vary depending on the objectives for use and size of the
organization. Although used extensively, return on investment is
unclear.
Leadership Development Through Skill/ Competency Building
Conger's fourth approach to leadership development is
skill/competency building, which is discussed by a number of scholars
(e.g., Cacioppe, 1998; Yukl, 2002). Skill-building "demands that
leadership abilities be broken down into actual mechanical processes
that you and I can perform" (Conger, 1992). Conger asserts that
certain aspects of skills such as communication and motivation can be
taught. London (1999) suggests that leadership skills should include
such elements as "envisioning the future, establishing goals,
communicating, rallying support for the vision, planning for its
implementation and putting the plans in place." Day and Halpin
(2004) assert that leader development is built on a foundation of
cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral skills. According to the

14. authors, "these skills, supported by leader attributes such as
self-awareness, openness, trust, creativity, and practical, social and
general intelligence, provide the basis for leadership." Sources of
learning that align with the skill/competency approach to leadership
development include:
* Just-in-time training--This development tool is designed to
provide the learner with information at a time of need or crisis.
Examples include podcasts, videos, or cases studies with examples of how
to apply specific applications of leadership principles. Little is known
about the impact of this source of learning. The literature base is
small and there is virtually no research. However, employees utilize
this source of learning consistently without even realizing it is
happening.
* Developmental assignments--Developmental assignment have two
attributes: challenge and an opportunity to learn. There should be a
level of challenge for the assignment to be considered
"developmental" (Brutus, Ruderman, Ohlott, and McCauley,
2000). Second, developmental assignments should provide the opportunity
and motivation to learn and the opportunity to try out new skills,
behaviors, and thinking (McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, and Morrow, 1994).
Extremely popular in practice, developmental assignments are easy to
implement, cost effective, and, along with classroom training, may be
the most widely used source of learning.

15. * Simulations--Simulations are used to "create experiential
environments within which learning and behavioral changes can occur and
in which managerial behavior can be observed" (Keys and Wolfe,
1990). Simulations require "trainees to analyze complex problems
and make decisions" (Yukl, 2002). Simulations have a supportive
literature base; however, the research is mixed and evaluating the
activities has proven difficult. In addition, costs can be prohibitive
(depending on the product) and some argue that they do not adequately
"mimic" the business environment.
* Games--According to Hsu (1989), "Gaming consists of
interactions among players placed in a prescribed setting and
constrained by a set of rules and procedures." Games have existed
in management and leadership education for generations. In recent years,
electronic games have grown in popularity and just might be the future
of leadership development. Currently, the literature base is sparse and
development costs can be prohibitive. However, Generation X & Y have
grown up learning through this approach, so this is a source of learning
to keep an eye on.
* Personal development plans--Taylor and Edge (1997) define a
personal development plan as "a process through which the
individual prepares a training and development plan, and for which the
individual takes responsibility." Personal development plans,
although popular in practice, lack an extensive literature base. Easy to
implement and evaluate, they often fall victim to poor implementation

16. and a lack of follow through. Like other sources of learning, unless
they are linked to other organizational systems (e.g., performance
management), return on investment is unlikely.
* Action learning--This is learning from concrete experience and
critical reflection on that experience--through group discussion, trial
and error, discovery, and learning from and with each other. It is a
process by which groups of people (whether managers, academics,
teachers, students or 'learners' generally) address actual
workplace issues or problems, in complex situations and conditions. The
solutions they develop may require changes to be made in the
organization, and these solutions often pose challenges to senior
management" (Zuber-Skerritt, 2002). Action learning has received a
fair amount of attention in recent years and is cost effective and easy
to implement. Perhaps its greatest benefit is that actual work problems
are being solved while those participating are learning in the process.
On the downside, there is mixed support in the literature, and without
clear objectives, return on investment may be difficult to measure. On
the other hand, with clear objectives this may be one source of learning
that is easy to evaluate.
* Job enrichment--Job enrichment means that roles are
"enriched" by adding tasks that are of greater and lesser
responsibility to a person's role in hopes that a more meaningful
job is created. Job enrichment gives workers more tasks to perform and
more control over how to perform them (Moorhead and Griffen, 2004). Job

17. enrichment has a large base of literature, but little has been written
on it in recent years. The research on this approach was more supportive
than not, but for some reason it lives only in management text books as
an approach of yesteryear.
* Job enlargement--Also called horizontal job enlargement or
horizontal job loading, it involves, "the meaningful addition of
similar jobs, not simply adding identical, boring repetitive tasks to an
already boring one" (Gifford, 1972). The end purpose, according to
Gifford (1972), is increased satisfaction of higher needs (as in
Maslow's hierarchy). Similar to job enrichment, little has been
written on the topic in recent years. A popular practice in the
'60s and '70s, job enlargement suffered from mixed success
when implemented in organizations. Potentially cost effective and easy
to implement, this source of learning sounds good in theory but has
stalled in practice.
* Job rotation--Job rotation is a development tool that fosters
"lateral transfers of employees between jobs in an
organization" (Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens, 1994). Bennett
(2003) defines job rotation as "a planned movement of people
between jobs over a period of time and for one or more of a number of
purposes." Job rotation is used widely in industries such as
banking and medicine. Surprisingly, little is written on the topic in
the management and leadership literature, so the literature base is
relatively sparse. However, the approach is easy to implement and

18. cost-effective.
Leadership Development--Sources of Learning
Based on our review of the leadership development literature, there
appears to be little evidence-based guidance on how to best develop
leaders, and it is difficult to assess which of the existing leadership
development programs are useful and which show little return on
investment. Mintzberg (2003) agrees, suggesting that neither
institutions of higher education nor organizations are doing a
particularly good job using any of the sources of learning as a means to
develop leaders. In reference to his four dimensions (personal growth,
feedback, conceptual understanding, and skill building), Conger
suggested that leader development occurs when a conceptual understanding
of leadership is provided, while some leadership skills are practiced
and there is an awareness of skills that are not easily taught. In
addition, Conger believes feedback must be provided so potential leaders
can understand their strengths and weaknesses while also experiencing
personal growth by bringing out emotions. While he suggests leader
development should encompass these four dimensions working in concert,
he, too, gives little practical guidance or a recommended order of
delivery or time frame in which leader development must occur. Mintzberg
(2003) suggests leader development usually occurs in the early career
stage when the participant has time to engage in this type of training.
However, at this career point participants often lack context for the
training material as their actual leadership experiences tend to be

19. minimal. Mintzberg also suggests that most individuals interested in
developing leadership skills are left to seek their own development
path, which is often an MBA program.
Effective leader development is best when it occurs within a
context for leadership, along with continuing to participate in
formalized leadership development programs throughout a career,
preferably at key transition points, not just at the early career stage.
This model of development should also be reinforced with coaching,
mentoring, and other organizational systems. Mintzberg (2003) has his
own method for integrating leader development and Conger's four
dimensions, but little independent validation relating to this method is
available. Nevertheless, he makes it clear that shortcuts or inexpensive
ways to develop leaders do not exist, and leader development is likely
to require a formal process. Many experts still agree that the
development of human capital is a critical factor for an
organization's long-term success (Oxman, 2002) and development when
strategically linked with human resource management practices are
predictors for the overall performance of that organization (Bowen and
Ostroff, 2004).
Based on this, we see the current state of leadership development
largely as a free market phenomenon, where individuals hold the
lion's share of responsibility for their own development as a
leader. Further complicating this free market system is a lack of
guidance about how to engage in leadership development and individual

20. differences in people seeking leadership development. Noncognitive
constructs like personality and values relate to the potential leader
behaviors through the individual's motivation to lead, which, in
turn, affects the individual's participation in leadership roles
and activities (Chan and Drasgow, 2001). Through leader development
activities the individual obtains the skills required for effective
leadership (Lord and Hall, 1992) and possibly finds an individual
leadership style. Motivation to lead, an individual-differences
construct, affects the potential leader's decisions regarding the
choice of leader development activities and also affects how experience
from these activities plays out in his or her future efforts at leading
or persistence in becoming a leader. This assumes that individual
differences in motivation change with each leadership development
experience and that positive experiences build leadership self-efficacy
and desire to accumulate additional leadership experience. In the
absence of formalized recommendations, it appears that individuals
higher in extraversion and openness to experience are more likely to
seek a leadership experience, improve their leadership self-efficacy,
and have a higher motivation to lead than those with a lower rating
(Chan and Drasgow, 2001).
Sources of learning may take place in the classroom, outdoors, or
on the job. They may be highly personalized and can incorporate intense
feedback from peers, subordinates and supervisors. Moreover, they may
require passive involvement on the part of the learner or, conversely,
learners may find themselves intently involved in a simulation, case

21. study or even "real life" organizational programs. Yet,
when
creating a leadership development program, it is
necessary to use the
list of sources of learning (Figure 2) to create a program
that, over
time, uses all four of Conger's dimensions in alignment with the
organization's strategic human resource management objectives. At
the same time Mintzberg's (2003) recommendation for using a
long-term leader development perspective and Chan and Drasgow's
(2001) concern for differences in individual motivation should be taken
into account.
Each source of learning has benefits and drawbacks depending on the
context or use, organizational culture, or the participant's
motivation. It is likely that some 'conceptual understanding'
of leadership sources of learning should be provided prior to engaging
in those sources of learning related to skill building. Yet, once some
level of conceptual understanding and skill building has been achieved,
it may be most effective to use sources of learning related to skill
building, feedback, and personal development, depending on the
participant's motivation or career stage. Over-reliance on a single
source of learning in the leader development process should be avoided,
because no single source of learning is appropriate at all times;
variables such as time, money, skill-level of the facilitators, and
learning objectives should be taken into consideration. Depending on the

22. needs of the organization and specific cultural variances, different
tools may be appropriate. In the context of a leadership development
program or initiative, a variety of learning interventions will not only
provide individual learners with varied experiences, but also will cut
across a number of learning styles. By doing so, learning is more likely
to be affected in a positive way.
Conclusion and Recommendations
A number of the sources of learning described are not always
directly applied to leadership development in the literature. Some, such
as sabbaticals, are simply "breaks" in the education world.
Others, such as service learning, are used most frequently in higher
education with students, not by multi-million dollar corporations.
However, each has potential if viewed through a leadership lens. For
instance, a developmental job assignment could be just that: a
developmental assignment. However, if viewed with a leadership lens it
quickly becomes a leadership development opportunity. Please note that
it could be viewed with others lenses as well--for instance, personal
development or skill development. However, what makes all of these
sources of learning unique is that when the leadership lens is added,
they become tools for developing leadership capacity.
In addition, sources of learning must be linked to one another as
well as the human resources systems within the organization. Doing so
will create a system or culture of leadership development rather than a

23. leadership development program. There is a difference in these two
options and they are supported in the literature. For the purpose of
this work, we will only highlight a few:
* "Training should not be conceived of as a discrete program,
but rather as an organizational intervention supported by other
interventions over time. Training must have a clear, central purpose
that will affect how people perform their roles, ideally, the best
training programs create a sense of identification with the core values
and beliefs they are attempting to transfer to participants"
(Avolio, 1999).
* "Link development processes with human resource practices.
To leverage the impact of leadership development efforts, they must be
tightly linked to the organization's human resource management
infrastructure, including performance management and reward systems,
recruitment and selection procedures, and succession and executives
resource platting processes. This final step ensures that a learning
orientation becomes ingrained within the organization's culture and
operating philosophy" (Vicere and Fulmer, 1996).
* "Other organizational systems must support the leadership
development process. To be fully effective, development systems must be
integrated with the organization's other processes: management
planning, performance management, job selection, reward and recognition
systems and even mistake systems. The confluence of these processes

24. determines the relative effectiveness of any one development
activity." (McCauley, Moxley, Van Velsor, 1998).
Unless the approach to leadership development and the sources of
learning are viewed as part of the fabric of the organization, they will
not receive the support and attention needed to maximize effect on
participants. In fact, we believe the program will be set up to fail,
not to produce the desired results. What if departments within
organizations had a choice to keep their finances in order? What if they
could participate when they felt it was convenient? What if they never
told the finance department where the money was going? This concept is
ridiculous because a dominant paradigm of business is the finance
system--it weaves throughout the organization and it cannot be avoided.
A systemic approach to leadership development will create a culture
where continuous development is the norm rather than the exception.
Finally, leadership development takes time. To this point, Conger
(1992) suggests, "Most would agree that to seriously train
individuals in the arts of leadership takes enormous time and
resources--perhaps more than societies or organizations possess, and
certainly more than they are willing to expend." Organizations
should take a long-term approach to leadership development and create a
supportive environment. Making explicit the approach to leadership
development and linking appropriate sources of learning (given time,
resources, organizational culture, etc.) is likely one part of the
equation.

25. REFERENCES
Avolio, B. (1999). Full leadership development. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Avolio, B. (2005). Leadership development in balance. Mahwah, New
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Scott J. Allen, John Carroll University
Nathan S. Hartman, John Carroll University
Dr. Allen founded the Center for Leader Development, dedicated to
advancing the theory and practice of leadership. He has co-authored two
books and has been a presidential Fellow at Case Western Reserve
University. Dr. Hartman's research interests include leader
development, organizational citizenship behaviors, and employee
selection. He teaches management.
Figure 1. Four Approaches to Leadership Development, Adapted from
Conger's (1992)
Personal Growth Conceptual Understanding
Programs that induce Programs that foster a conceptual
participants to reflect understanding of leadership ... theory
on their behaviors (such oriented by nature ... focused on the issue
as their orientation of leadership development through a

32. toward risk or personal cognitive understanding of the
intimacy), values, phenomenon.
and desires.
Feedback Skill Building
Programs where Program designers identify what they
feedback constitutes a perceive to be the key leadership skills
large portion of the that can be taught. These are formulated
time and emphasis is into modules and introduced to participants
placed on measuring who practice or model specific behaviors.
the participant's skill Participant performance is critiqued, and
in a wide range of feedback directs them to strengths and
leader behaviors. weaknesses. Participants then practice and
refine their skills.
Figure 2. Conger's Four Approaches Paired with 27 Sources of Learning
Personal Growth Conceptual Understanding
Group Reflection Degree Programs
Individual Reflection Self Paced Learning
Service Learning Classroom Based Learning
Outdoor Management E-Learning
Development
Low Ropes Course

33. Teambuilding
Fellowships
Sabbaticals
Developmental
Relationships
Networking with
Senior Executives
Feedback Skill Building
Executive Coaching Just in Time Training
Instruments Developmental Assignments
Assessment Centers Simulations
Games
Personal Development Plans
Action Learning
Job Enrichment
Job Enlargement
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