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![Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives
> Bilabial ∫ Bilabial ’ Examples:
˘ Dental Î Dental/alveolar p’ Bilabial
! (Post)alveolar ˙ Palatal t’ Dental/alveolar
¯ Palatoalveolar ƒ Velar k’ Velar
≤ Alveolar lateral Ï Uvular s’ Alveolar fricative
" Primary stress
Æ Secondary stress
ÆfoUn´"tIS´n
… Long e…
Ú Half-long eÚ
* Extra-short e*
˘ Minor (foot) group
≤ Major (intonation) group
. Syllable break ®i.œkt
≈ Linking (absence of a break)
TONES AND WORD ACCENTS
LEVEL CONTOUR
e _or â Extrahigh e
ˆ
or ä Rising
e! ê High e$ ë Falling
[email protected] î Mid e% ü Highrising
e~ ô Low efi ï Lowrising
e— û Extralow e& ñ$ Rising-falling
Õ Downstep ã Global rise](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/languageinsocietycoms320sp15ch7sectionslanguag-221031054956-e78fa3f4/75/Language-in-SocietyCOMS-320-Sp15Ch-7-SectionsLanguag-docx-22-2048.jpg)
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Language in SocietyCOMS 320 Sp15Ch 7 SectionsLanguag.docx
- 1. Language in Society COMS320 Sp15 Ch 7 Sections Language Levels Idiolect Dialect Language Contact Language in use Lingua Francas Pidgins & Creoles Multilingualism Idiolect Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279) Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects 450 to 850 million English idiolects Unique language use in groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein) Restricted codes Shared set of assumptions Predictable language, less expression needed Elaborated codes Unshared perspectives Less predictable language, more elaboration needed
- 2. Research Moment: Data Gathering Onyour own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend. What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN? What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why? Research Moment: Data Analysis Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings How is the language similar? How is the language different? For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning What language makes the meaning clear? What language needs further explanation? Results In a restricted code situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language? In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect interfere with language comprehension?
- 3. Dialect Mutually intelligible formsof a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279) All speakers speak at least one dialect Language – collection of dialects Max Weber – language is a dialect with an army and a navy Language vs. dialect? Dialect continuum Dialect area – concentration of differences Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area Regional dialects often have geographical boundaries Ethnic identity Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence Dialect Characteristics How can we tell dialects apart? Phonology: Accents r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh (New England) Ask vs. aks (AAVE) r-final – idea vs. idear (Chinese, near Beijing) Syntax: Verbs, usually Then she come a-runnin’ (Appalachian) He been married vs. He Been married! (which one is still married?) (AAVE) Lexicon: Nouns What would you call the food on the right? How far away is San Diego from LA? Social Dialects
- 4. Dialects can alsoresult from social boundaries Gender Male and female language characteristics Male and female dialects/languages Social class Vernacular Prestige dialects Diglossia – different languages for different purposes English social dialects AAE & ChE Korean English? Armenian English? Language in society Styles/Registers “Situational dialects” Language use that depends on interactants and context Can be competent in several styles X – Formality/informality, high/low status Slang Creative, playful language that marks informal speech Can become outdated quickly or adopted by society X – groovy vs. cool vs. freshman Language in society Jargon and Argot Jargon – specialized vocabulary of group, often technical Can add to the common language X – computer, law, medical terms Argot – specialized vocabulary of group, often idiomatic X – teenage slang, nerd speech, debate jargon Both forms can result in exclusion of the uninitiated Jargon – can become speaker’s everyday language
- 5. May need translating! Argot– often created specifically for definite inclusion/exclusion boundaries Cardiac arrest, respiratory system, digestive tract, colon, anus Litigation, fraud, embezzlement Input, output, memory, software, hardware 11 Language in society Taboo words Words considered inappropriate for use in “polite society” Euphemisms Language that replaces taboo words or avoids unpleasant or unmentionable subjects. X – heck, darn, shoot Most cultures have euphemisms for death X – belly up, six feet under, kicked the bucket, laid to rest, bought the farm, one last curtain call Language creativity at work: Bucket list Speech Communities Groups of people who have developed a social dialect Interaction rules Language norms Example Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories Full medical names for diseases and disorders Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus & for “and” in all words, like st&
- 6. Language in Contact COMS320 Sp15 Communication Accommodation Communication Accommodation Theory Interactants will adapt their speaking style to each other to either reduce or increase social distance. Relationship-based Convergence – Emphasize group membership Divergence – Reinforce social identity Linguistic characteristics not yet researched Language and accommodation Convergence starts with comprehension Divergence is developed through prestige Exercise: Languages in Contact +Ls, come up front, choose a slip of paper, read it, and put it back face down, then choose a partner from the 1Ls. 1Ls, you work at a local travel agency. +Ls, you are important visitors trying to purchase something to help you get around the city or country. You must communicate your needs to the 1Ls without losing your dignity. +Ls may not purchase the item until 1Ls can understand your request and construct a sentence that confirms the item and tells you the price in your language, or after 10 minutes of struggling. Write down the final form of L1’s sentences. No English or common language should be spoken during this exercise. Cheating will result in no extra credit. Language in Contact
- 7. Lingua franca Language thatallows diverse language groups to understand each other Set by common agreement between groups If not native, will be spoken by most group members with an adequate level of competence Often a trade language for conducting business Roman Empire: Latin Africa: Swahili China: Putonghua English: “Lingua franca of the whole world” Pidgins Language arising from limited contact between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages Lexifier – source for lexicon, usually superstrate Superstrate – dominant language Substrate – native language Conditions Multilingual community (or interaction) Relative isolation of substrate from superstrate Proper forms of superstrate not learned by substrate speaker L1 already acquired by both speakers pigeon Pidgin Characteristics Characterized by impoverished language structures
- 8. Most common vowels a(ah), i (ee), u (oo) Telegraphic syntax No articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions Few function words Pela – plural marker, adjective marker Yu = you, yupela = you all Circumlocution Grass bilong het, Grass bilong fes Mak bilong fet, Makmak Irregular, non-rule-based usage – lots of idiolects! Creoles Pidgin that becomes a native language of at least one generation of speakers Children develop pidgin into language with rules and uniformity among speakers, but with own characteristics Syntax Simplified grammar No auxiliary verbs such as “will,” no tense inflection on verbs “A gon full Angela bucket” Lexicon Sophisticated pronoun systems Different pronouns for number in group, inclusion-exclusion Compounding “Sweat.” Pidgin: wara bilong skin, Creole: skinwara TOK Pisin One of New Guinea’s national languages Superstrate - Indo-European, esp. English Substrate - several Melanesian dialects Status is debated
- 9. Creole – nativespeakers Pidgin – 90% of speakers have other native languages TRANSLITERAtion Work at street all car must stop if you see red (adj) mark Language prestige The assignment of relative status or importance to languages Standard dialect Socially chosen ideal dialect among dialect varieties Unrealistic: no one actually speaks it US: Standard American English AKA Broadcast Standard Where did it originate? What might be some consequences of having no standard dialect? Who has to overcome the challenges? 23
- 10. Impacts of Standard dialect Officiallanguage(s) Language used by administration X – Uganda: Swahili, English. US – state-level decision Language planning Purposeful, often administrative attempts to control language use and change X – French Academie, British “received pronunciation,” revival of Hebrew in Israel, feminist movements against sexist language Strongly impacts education Language banning Restriction or prohibition of unacceptable dialects or language forms X – Language reform in Turkey in the 1930’s Perpetuation of prestige Prestige is often perpetuated (consciously or unconsciously) by the attitudes of dominant and non-dominant language speakers toward the relative status of languages. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSvp-5JLKdQ 1. How is language contact being encouraged? 2. What kind of language would develop between the two groups of speakers if contact were continued? 3. How is language prestige being perpetuated? Language Change COMS 320 Sp15
- 11. Language Change Language isdynamic Constantly in flux Left to itself, changes relatively slowly Living generations can communicate Most noticeable when past language has been preserved What words can you recognize in the following sentence? �Wolde guman findan þ�one �þe him on sweofote sare geteode� Chronology! Divide into groups of two to three people. Set the stack of papers in the middle. Take the top paper, read it aloud, and set it where everyone can see it. Taking turns, each person takes the next paper, reads it aloud, and tries to decide whether it belongs before, after, or in between two papers. The goal is to arrange all papers in correct chronological order based on their linguistic features. Take notes on the features which distinguish the era of each sample. The Study of Change Historical: change in particular language over time Comparative: change between and across languages Language contact Language inheritance Does communication studies study language change?
- 12. Phonological Change Regular soundcorrespondence Systematic replacement of one sound for another Rule-based change – will happen in all instances X – Northern ah for er, as in cah for car X – Southern aah for ai, as in paah for pie Sound shift “Historical phonological change” Phonological restructuring where phoneme production moves systematically around the places of articulation Great Vowel Shift – 1400 AD California Accent California Vowel Placement IPA Vowel Placement Lexical Changes: Class, Names, Blends Lexical change: Addition of new words into language Word category Words that change meaning by changing word class Walk, run, email, text, message, input, Names Proper nouns that become part of the lexicon Sandwich, lazy susan, gargantuan Blends (aka portmanteau words)
- 13. Words made fromparts of at least two words Smog, brunch, motel, neither, electrocute, infomercial, podcast, carmageddon, bit Lexical Changes: Coinage Coinage Construction or invention of new words that then become part of the lexicon Advertising – Kleenex, Bandaid Science & technology – television, computer A healthy language is able to adapt to new input Lexical gaps – google, bling Borrowed roots – -ology, -phobia Lexical Changes: Reduction Reduction Clippings Abbreviation of longer words into shorter words that may or may not retain the same meaning Cami, fax, phone, flu, porn, droid, phone, fridge, pro, memo, phenom, fan Acronyms Words made from the initial sounds of several words and pronounced as a word May be pronounced phonetically or spelled out Lexical Change: Acronyms
- 14. Phonetically pronounced NASA –National Aeronautics & Space Association Laser – Lightwave amplification stimulated by radiation Radar – Radio detecting and ranging Sonar – Sound navigation and ranging CSUN – California State University, Northridge Spelled US, LAX, UCLA, NFL, MRI Lexical Change: Borrowings/Loan Words Word or morpheme added to the lexicon from another language Native word – traceable back to earliest stages of language Direct borrowing – borrowed word is native in loaner language Feast, lieutenant, ensemble, fry, boil, stew, menage a trois Usually altered to fit new language’s phonological rules Indirect borrowing – word was initially borrowed from another language Algebra: Arabic – Spanish - English Semantic Change Change in semantic representation Broadening Original meaning plus new meaning Dog – specific breed to class noun; Manage – “handle a horse” to “take charge of” Narrowing Broad meaning reduced to specific meaning Deer – all beasts to specific type of animal; Skyline – horizon to city outline at sunset
- 15. Meaning shift Original meaningis lost in favor of different meaning Nice – ignorant to pleasant Morphological Change Changes in the rules that govern word formation Rules can be adopted, lost, or changed Over time, English dropped Latin case endings in favor of word order and prepositions -em – canem quidem esurit (The dog is hungry) -is – pavi canis (I fed the dog) Only kept possessives and 3P singular present Jane’s dog runs away. AAVE African American Vernacular English Dialect in development Origins during slavery unclear; current theories propose creole W African substrate, English lexifier => Pidgin Isolation from English learning => Creole Isolation produced rich dialect! Still have lots of regional and individual variation Unique AAVE Characteristics Syntax/morphology = leveling of inflection, aux verbs I don't care what he say, you gon laugh! Meaning shifts in auxiliary verbs = habitual “be” Pragmatics = discourse & narrative conventions, probably from Africa Call-response – active listening style Interactive, not backchanneling! Talk-singing – rhetorical, layers of meaning Ritualized greetings
- 16. Sample of EarlyAAVE “One day atter Brer Rabbit fool 'im wid dat calamus root, Brer Fox went ter wuk en got 'im some tar, en mix it wid some turkentime, en fix up a contrapshun w'at he call a Tar-Baby, en he tuck dish yer Tar-Baby en he sot 'er in de big road, en den he lay off in de bushes fer to see what de news wuz gwine ter be. En he didn't hatter wait long, nudder, kaze bimeby here come Brer Rabbit pacin’ down de road--lippity-clippity, clippity - lippity--dez ez sassy ez a jay-bird. Brer Fox, he lay low. Brer Rabbit come prancin' 'long twel he spy de Tar-Baby, en den he fotch up on his behime legs like he wuz 'stonished. De Tar Baby, she sot dar, she did, en Brer Fox, he lay low. - Joel Chandler Harris Syntactic Change Change can takes centuries - affects deep language structure English - word order replaced Latin case endings Native English speakers have to learn grammar when trying to learn other languages! Language Families Proto-languages Ancestral languages English and German come from Proto-Indo-European Language & Writing COMS 320 Sp15
- 17. Written Language Visual systemfor representing language Allows spoken language to be recorded and preserved Replaces memory as a means of retaining important information History of Writing Origins of writing Practical uses Uncertain whether commerce or proper names came first Development of writing sytems Pictogram –1-to-1 representation between image & object Ideogram – picture represents concept Logogram – picture represents linguistic word, becomes writing system b/c working with language system Writing Systems Based on characteristics of spoken language Logographic – symbols represent words For languages with little to no inflection, like Chinese Syllabic – symbols represent syllables For languages with standard syllable structures, like Japanese Consonental – symbols represent consonants For languages where vowels aren’t vital to meaning, like Arabic Phonemic or alphabetic – symbols represent phonemes For languages where each element matters, like English Most languages use an alphabetic system Writing & Language Slows language change Language can be repeated with fewer individual changes
- 18. Motivates language preservation Prescriptivegrammar – language standard Descriptive grammar – language in use Prescriptive grammar becomes only acceptable version Language & Communication Rhetoricians hold that writing influenced early Greek society in ways that spoken language couldn’t because spoken language is dependent on memory Room for manipulation of concepts Lessening of human interaction Distancing of language from self Move from event-driven narratives to permanent condition of being Phonological Change 343 diagramming the reat owel hift on a vowel hart igure we an see that the high vowels i and u be ame the diphthongs aɪ and aʊ while the long vowels underwent an in rease in tongue height as if to fill in the spa eva ated b the high vowels n addition a was fronted to be ome e hese hanges are among the most dramati e amples of regular sound shift he phonemi representation of man thousands of words hanged oda some refle tion of this vowel shift is seen in the alternating forms of morphemes in
- 19. nglish please pleasantserene serenity sane sanity crime criminal sign signal and so on efore the reat owel hift the vowels in ea h pair were pronoun ed the same hen the vowels in the se ond word of ea h pair were shortened b the Early Middle English owel Shortening rule s a result the reat owel hift whi h o urred later and applied onl to long vowels affe ted onl the first word in ea h pair his is wh the vowels in the morphologi all related words are pronoun ed differentl toda as shown in able he reat owel hift is a primar sour e of man spelling in onsisten ies of nglish be ause our spelling s stem still refle ts the wa words were pro noun ed before it o urred n general the written language is more onserva tive that is slower to hange than the spoken language FIGURE 8.1 | The Great Vowel Shift. TABLE 8.1 | Effect of Vowel Shift on Modern English Middle English Shifted Short Word with Word with Vowel Vowel Vowel Shifted Vowel Short Vowel aɪ ɪ divine divinity aʊ ʌ abound abundant i ɛ serene serenity u a fool folly e æ sane sanity
- 20. 10686_ 08_ptg01_p337-393.indd 34308/11/12 11:42 M Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005) CONSONANTS (PULMONIC) ´ A Å i y È Ë ¨ u Pe e∏ Ø o E { ‰ ø O a ” å I Y U Front Central Back Close
- 21. Close-mid Open-mid Open Where symbols appearin pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. œ ò Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Plosive p b t d Ê ∂ c Ô k g q G / Nasal m µ n = ≠ N – Trill ı r R Tap or Flap v | « Fricative F B f v T D s z S Z ß Ω ç J x V X  © ? h H Lateral fricative Ò L Approximant √ ® ’ j ˜ Lateral Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC) SUPRASEGMENTALS VOWELS OTHER SYMBOLS
- 22. Clicks Voiced implosivesEjectives > Bilabial ∫ Bilabial ’ Examples: ˘ Dental Î Dental/alveolar p’ Bilabial ! (Post)alveolar ˙ Palatal t’ Dental/alveolar ¯ Palatoalveolar ƒ Velar k’ Velar ≤ Alveolar lateral Ï Uvular s’ Alveolar fricative " Primary stress Æ Secondary stress ÆfoUn´"tIS´n … Long e… Ú Half-long eÚ * Extra-short e* ˘ Minor (foot) group ≤ Major (intonation) group . Syllable break ®i.œkt ≈ Linking (absence of a break) TONES AND WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR e _or â Extrahigh e ˆ or ä Rising e! ê High e$ ë Falling [email protected] î Mid e% ü Highrising e~ ô Low efi ï Lowrising e— û Extralow e& ñ$ Rising-falling Õ Downstep ã Global rise
- 23. õ Upstep ÃGlobal fall © 2005 IPA DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g. N( 9 Voiceless n9 d9 ª Breathy voiced bª aª 1 Dental t 1 d1 3 Voiced s3 t 3 0 Creaky voiced b0 a0 ¡ Apical t ¡ d¡ Ó Aspirated tÓ dÓ £ Linguolabial t £ d£ 4 Laminal t 4 d4 7 More rounded O7 W Labialized tW dW ) Nasalized e) ¶ Less rounded O¶ ∆ Palatalized t∆ d∆ ˆ Nasal release dˆ ™ Advanced u™ ◊ Velarized t◊ d◊ ¬ Lateral release d¬ 2 Retracted e2 ≥ Pharyngealized t≥ d≥ } No audible release d} · Centralized e· ù Velarized or pharyngealized : + Mid-centralized e+ 6 Raised e6 ( ®6 = voiced alveolar fricative) ` Syllabic n` § Lowered e§ ( B§ = voiced bilabial approximant) 8 Non-syllabic e8 5 Advanced Tongue Root e5 ± Rhoticity ´± a± ∞ Retracted Tongue Root e∞ ∑ Voiceless labial-velar fricative Ç Û Alveolo-palatal fricatives w Voiced labial-velar approximant » Voiced alveolar lateral flap Á Voiced labial-palatal approximant Í Simultaneous S and x Ì Voiceless epiglottal fricative ¿ Voiced epiglottal fricative Affricates and double
- 24. articulationscan be representedby two symbols ÷ Epiglottal plosive joined by a tie bar if necessary. kp ts ( ( Language in Society COMS 320 Sp15 Ch 7 Sections Language Levels Idiolect Dialect Language Contact Language in use Lingua Francas Pidgins & Creoles Multilingualism Idiolect Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279) Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects 450 to 850 million English idiolects
- 25. Unique language usein groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein) Restricted codes Shared set of assumptions Predictable language, less expression needed Elaborated codes Unshared perspectives Less predictable language, more elaboration needed Research Moment: Data Gathering On your own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend. What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN? What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why? Research Moment: Data Analysis Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings How is the language similar? How is the language different? For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning What language makes the meaning clear? What language needs further explanation?
- 26. Results In a restrictedcode situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language? In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect control linguistic expression? Dialect Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279) All speakers speak at least one dialect Language – collection of dialects Language vs. dialect Dialect continuum Dialect area – concentration of differences Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area Ethnic identity Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence Dialect Characteristics How can you tell that someone speaks a different dialect? Phonology Accents – tomato r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh Syntax Verbs Then he come a-runnin’ round the corner and there she was! Lexicon Nouns What do you call shoes for sports?
- 27. Social Dialects Dialects thatresult from social boundaries Gender Male and female language characteristics Male and female dialects/languages Social class Prestige English dialects AAE ChE Speech Communities Groups of people who have developed a social dialect Interaction rules Language norms Example Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories Full medical names for diseases and disorders Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus & for “and” in all words, like s&d Language in Contact Lingua franca Language for between-group communication Set by common agreement Trade language X – Aramaic, French, English
- 28. Exercise: L inContact Pidgins Pidgin Contact between two languages Superstrate – dominant language Substrate – speaker’s native language Usually temporary and/or fleeting Characterized by impoverished language forms Very little syntax Overextension of meaning Creole Pidgin that becomes a native language for the children Eventually develops into full-fledged language