Alexander II implemented several important reforms during his reign from 1855 to 1881, though the motivations and consequences of the reforms were complex. The most significant reform was ending serfdom in 1861, which freed millions of serfs but failed to satisfy many as the former serfs struggled economically and had to pay redemption dues for years. Other reforms included military reorganization, local governments, law codes, education, and limited freedoms for religious minorities and nationalities. However, the reforms failed to create a coherent political system, left the former serfs in a poor economic state, and dissatisfied many groups including liberals who wanted more change and radicals who sought a complete overhaul. Alexander's assassination in 1881 reflected the ongoing tensions and opposition to

1. Alexander II
Reformer?

2. starter activity
On 13 March 1881, after a succession of attempts on his life, Tsar Alexander
II’s (1855-81) luck finally ran out. We are going to discuss the achievements
and failures of his reign.
Before we start, why do you think we was assassinated?
Who do you think did the assassinating?

3. Crimean War
• Russia had expanded greatly by the
mid-1850s but had very few
coastlines for naval bases.
• The Crimean Peninsula on the Black
Sea gave them access to trade with
Europe via the Mediterranean.
• However, their ships could only leave
the Black Sea via Constantinople
(Istanbul), capital of weak Ottoman
Empire.
• Britain, France and Russia all had
concerns over the weakness of the
Turks and thus maintaining their
access to the Bosporus.
• They were concerned about Russian
expansion into Constantinople.
• Russia also had long seen it as their
duty to protect the many Orthodox
Christians living in the Ottoman
Empire

4. Crimean War continued…
• The Russian army rarely
came up against the Imperial
powers of Western Europe.
• Russia showed great
courage, comradeship and
the capacity to improvise.
• However, they relied heavily
on outdated technologies
and placed great importance
on cavalry on the battlefield.
The defeat of the Russians to the
British/French alliance has been
attributed to a number of factors;
• Poorly trained armed forces
• Disorganisation
• Inadequate communication
links ensured instructions
could not be relayed
effectively
• Industry could not support
the war effort
• Russia was unable to mobilize her obvious
numerical strength
• No real rail network to speak of prevented forces
from crossing the huge distances of the Russian
Empire to provide support.
• Did not have an army of trained reserves –
government did not want to train the serfs as they
believed they would expect freedom in return for
service.

5. More Crimean War…
• An estimated 220,000 of the 700,000
Russian troops died.
• The catastrophic defeat of the
Russian armed forces confirmed
Russia were socially and
economically backward compared
to Western Europe
• Their society was still largely feudal
in nature and heavily reliant on
serfdom
• Many people in
government, including the Tsar were
resistant to change as they feared
losing their power and status.
• As you can see, many of the problems
discussed the last lesson led Russia to
be defeated in the Crimean War

6. Think-Discuss
What issues areas did the Tsar need to reform to
ensure they never see a repeat of the embarrassment
in the Crimea?

7. Alexander II, Tsar of all the Russians!
• Alexander came to the throne in
1855 as the Crimean War was
drawing to an end.
• As we are aware, he faced many
problems; Russia was still a feudal
state whose economy depended
heavily on agriculture
• Two very different groups sought
change in Russia. They were
known as SLAVOPHILS and
WESTERNISERS. Both sides
included artists, writers, politicians
and military men.
• Later in the lesson, you must
decide if Alexander’s reforms
would have pleased
Slavophils, Westernisers or both…

9. Slavophils
• Slavophils wanted to maintain traditional
Russian values.
• They were conservative in nature and
extremely proud nationalists, shunning
liberalism and democracy.
• They believed that change was only possible
by using Russia’s own resources and her
inner strength as a nation

10. Westernisers
• Wished to copy the democratic reforms
taken place in Western Europe
• Pushed for democracy and capitalism to
come to the fore.
• Despised the Slavophils obsession with
tradition.
• Attacked the ancient privileges of the
aristocracy and defended the rule of law

11. Alexander II - Profile
• Alexander II had received a liberal education
unlike his predecessors.
• He was certainly more receptive to new ideas and
understood the need for change.
• However, he has been accused by historians as
being prone to apathy and indecision.
• By appointing both reformist and reactionary
ministers he prevented a consistent reform policy
being put in place.
• There is evidence to suggest he did believe in
change but did not intend to reduce powers, he
simply wanted to make autocracy more efficient.
• His father, Nicholas I had said to Alexander on his
deathbed “Hold on to everything!”
What does it mean to be REFORMIST and/or
REACTIONARY?
When we discuss his reforms – do you think he was
doing it out of self-interest or for the good of the
people?
Is this an
individual causing
change or war
causing change?

12. Task
• Create an A3 mind-map of Alexander’s reforms.
• Create one mind-map for The End of Serfdom
and one for Other Reforms (p. 25-33)
• For each reform you must include;
- reasons for reform
- details of the reform (what was reformed?)
- consequences (did it satisfy everyone?)

13. Areas of Reform
Use these headings and page numbers to organise your
mind-maps
1. End of Serfdom (p. 25-29)
2. Army (p.29)
3. Local government (p.30)
4. Law (p.30-1)
5. Censorship and the press (p.31)
6. Education (p.31-2)
7. Economy (p.32)
8. Nationalities (p.32)

14. Reforms – Let’s Take Notes
Emancipation
• Serfdom had for so long been a cornerstone of Russian life and the
bedrock of the economy. Like slavery in America, removing it was
problematic.
• Liberal minded nobles wanted to grant full personal liberty whilst
conservatives were looking to maintain control of their assets and
therefore the serfs/peasantry.
• The government wanted to create a reserve army of peasants that
could be mobilised at speed. This was a prime motivation for the
emancipation of the serfs.
• The Great Emancipation Statute was issued in 1861.
• Despite the reforms, the ex-serfs were in no way equal with peasant
farmers in Western Europe. The process of emancipation took several
years and in exchange for their freedom, they still had to pay the
government for their own land over a period of 49 years.
• These redemption dues varied from area to area and more than 1.5
million ex-serfs had no land at all.
• By 1881 less than 60 % of peasants had enough land to sustain life.
• It is difficult to blame Tsar completely when looking at issues faced
throughout Russian history in terms of agriculture (over dependence).
READ PAGE 26-27-28 FOR MORE ON EMANCIPATION

15. Other Reforms (in brief)
• MILITARY - The length of military service was reduced and
the Military Conscription Act (1874) saw professionally
trained officers replace those who had gained their position
via hereditary privileges.
• Between 1874-1894 – 2-3 million men learned to read and
write in the armed forces.
• CENSORSHIP – (1865) - Censorship in the press was
relaxed. New set of guidelines issued to editors.
• LOCAL GOVT – (1864) - Local government assemblies called
Zemstva gave more say to people in the localities.
• LAW – (1864) - Justice system became more independent
and fairer with juries and lawyers representing the accused.
• EDUCATION – (1863) - Universities were given more
autonomy and education was theoretically opened to all
social classes.
READ P. 30-33 FOR MORE ON THE OTHER REFORMS

16. ECONOMIC REFORM
• Industrial development was noticeable but slow
under Alexander II.
• Increase in the industrial workforce.
• New investment mostly came from abroad.
• Did little to reform govt. finances.
• Railways built with imported materials
• Grew from 2,200 to 14,200 miles.
THE NATIONALITIES
• Reawakened interest in folk traditions and
native languages amongst non-Russians
• Alex II relaxed controls in Poland – gave them
their own archbishop
• Polish rebellion against Russian appointed PM in
Poland crushed in 1864.
• Finland given their own currency and
parliament.
• Jews allowed into higher education and
government service and to move freely around
Empire.
END GAME
• Reforms ground
to halt by late
1860s
• Alex II appointed
more
Conservative
ministers
• First
assassination
attempt in 1866

17. Consequences
Positive Consequences
• Communications began to steadily improve with the Trans-Siberian railway
being completed in 1903.
• Heavy industry and consumer manufacturing increased however many
businesses were owned by foreign investors.
• New class of professional people emerged as a readership for the liberal minded
newspapers and books. These were known as the Bourgeoisie or the
Intelligentsia.
• Alexander II was actually looking to step up his program of reform prior to his
assassination in 1881
Negative Consequences –
• The Zemstvos had no links with other areas of government so the political
system was even more incoherent.
• The reforms did not generally satisfy many Russians;
• Ex-serfs were little better off. They had little or no interest in increasing crop
yields or improving efficiency due to the limitations of private enterprise.
• The nobility resented loss of land and influence.
• Liberals wanted greater say in the governance of the country
• Radicals a wanted complete overhaul of system.
• Much of population illiterate so reform of the press made little real difference.

18. Think-Discuss
• What was Alexander II’s most important
reform?
Return to the question below:
1. Do you think he was reforming out of self-
interest or for the good of the people?
2. Does Alexander II deserve the title of ‘Tsar
Liberator?’

19. Historiography
Historiography can mean either;
‘The study of historical writing’
or
‘The writing of history’
We need to consider the historiography for your A2
Historical Enquiry by analysing, comparing and evaluating
the different opinions of writers past and present.
So… what do historians have to say about Alexander II?
Answer the questions in groups, you do not need to
produce written answers.

20. Key Terms
• Emancipation
• Reformer
• Reactionary
• Slavophil
• Westerniser
• Zemstvos
• Intelligentsia
• Bourgeoisie