Kpds ek okuma_akindil_sonbahar_2012

THE HUMAN MIND AND THINKING

The Cognitive Approach in psychology is a relatively modern So long as your own appraisals are pretty much in line with
approach to human behaviour that focuses on how we think, shared social consensus (e.g., so long as you see events
with the belief that such thought processes affect the way in pretty much as other people around you see them), we can
which we behave (other approaches take other factors into say that your appraisals are pretty much accurate and
account, such as the biological approach, which acknowledges balanced. You are likely, for instance, to get mildly annoyed
the influences of genetics and chemical imbalances on our when you find yourself in a long line, and unlikely to throw a fit
behaviour). and scream and yell about it. The former response would be in
proportion to the magnitude of the problem, while the latter
There is some dispute as to who created the cognitive
would be an over-reaction.
approach, but some sources attribute the term to the 1950s
and 1960s, with Ulric Neisser's book Cognitive Psychology, Not everyone's appraisals are in line with shared social
which made allusions of the human mind working in a similar consensus, however. Some people develop appraisal habits
fashion to computers. The approach came about in part due to or biases, and the presence of these habits color or bias the
the dissatisfaction with the behavioural approach, which way that these people make appraisals. Two popular ingrained
focused on our visible behaviour without understanding the thinking biases are known as optimism and pessimism
internal processes that create it. The approach is based on the Optimists are "glass half full" people; they are biased to see
principle that our behaviour is generated by a series of stimuli the world as a more positive place than it really is. Pessimists
and responses to these by thought processes. are "glass half empty" people who are biased to see things
more negatively than they are. The proverbial glass is actually
neither half full or empty, (neither cause for celebration or for
despair), but instead, simply takes on the meaning assigned to
Family and Friendships. it by the person doing the judging.
People are social creatures who usually need the comfort and
support of healthy relationships with other people before they Methods for Changing Behavior and Thoughts
can feel truly good about themselves. Forming and maintaining
It may help to start this section on methods you can use to
healthy relationships is easy for some people to accomplish,
change behaviors by offering a definition of behavior. A
but other people find it a perilously difficult task. Some people
behavior is something that you do; some action that you take.
have specific difficulties forming particular kinds of
Conventionally, a behavior is something that you act out
relationships. They may have good friendships, but be
physically, such as taking a walk, or smoking a cigarette, or
uncomfortable in a dating or romantic setting. They may have
rolling your eyes when your spouse is complaining. However,
had a difficult family life while growing up, but have been able
behaviors can be subtle, non-physical things too. Thinking can
to marry well. Other people have a difficult social time all
be considered a behavior, for instance.
around, with a difficult family life, few friends and no prospects
for satisfying adult relationships. Consider the following A very few behaviors are directly instinctual and designed into
questions to determine if your issues have something to do the human condition. An infant's rooting reflex (how it knows to
with your social life: orient its mouth to the breast) is one, and human being's
preparedness as infants to learn languages when exposed to
Jobs, Careers and Meaningful Activities.
them is another. Most other behaviors are learned. Non-
instinctual behaviors become established according to the
In addition to having a healthy social life, most people feel the regular principles described in learning theory, that most
need to engage themselves in productive and meaningful scientific of all psychological theories.
work. Sometimes this work is performed in exchange for
money (as when someone writes a book, cooks a meal, cuts
The principles of learning theory apply equally well to both
grass or performs other labor or services to benefit someone),
human beings and animals, because all animals (human
sometimes it is performed for love (as when a mother or father
beings included) share a common basic design. All animals,
spends time parenting their children), and sometimes it is
from the highest and most complex to the lowest and simplest,
performed simply as a means of doing something useful to
have basic needs they need to meet and are designed in such
benefit their community (such as when a retiree volunteers at
a way so that they know how to meet them. All animals get
the library). Though work may be performed for money, there
"hungry" in some fashion and search for food, and all animals
are often other important payoffs that people engaged in such
know to avoid extremes of temperature, predators or other
work get in addition to money (such as a teacher's satisfaction
environmental threats to their continuing existence Another
at seeing a child learn). Some people are lucky to find work
way of saying this is that all animals have in common that their
and meaningful activities that fit their personality and interests,
behavior is motivated. Any animal that can be motivated, can
while others end up feeling trapped in careers that don't seem
be manipulated according to the principles of learning theory,
to suit them. Still others would like to work, but can't find any
so as to shape the animal's behavior.
that lasts. Most everyone has to deal with intense work
pressure to perform. Consider the following questions to help
you determine whether your work or committed activity life is
part of your problem:

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THE HUMAN MIND AND THINKING
There are two types of animal motivation: the motivation to In the jargon of learning theory, the things that animals either
approach something, and the motivation to avoid something. want to approach or avoid are known as stimuli. A stimulus is
These two opposed orientations are caused by ancient brain something that stimulates an animal, motivating a reaction.
systems that most all animals share in common. In learning
theory, approach motivations are described as "reinforcing",
and avoidance motivations are described as "punishing".
Something that an animal desires to approach can be There are two kinds of stimuli in the world: Those that are
considered to be a reinforcer for that animal, while something instinctually motivating to a given animal, and those which are
the animal desires to avoid can be considered a punishment. not instinctually motivating but which can become motivating
when they become associated (through a process of classical
conditioning) with an instinctually motivating stimulus. A good
hings don't innately have reinforcing or punishing properties; example of an instinctually motivating stimulus (what is called
rather these properties are ones that animals assign to things, an "unconditioned" stimulus) for most animals (people
each according to its own needs. What is reinforcing to one included) is food. Animals don't need to learn that food is good;
animal, then, may not be reinforcing to the next. Similarly, what they simply know it when they taste it. An animal may initially
punishes one animal, may not punish another. Animals are ignore a range of other potential stimuli, but come to pay a lot
born with different temperaments (genetically determined basic of attention to them after they are paired with food, so that they
personalities and dispositions), and each individual animal's come to indicate that food is on its way. This is what happens
temperament helps determine what they will respond to. when a dog learns to salivate upon hearing a bell ring
(because that bell suggests that mealtime is soon), and when
To make things more complicated, there are two kinds of fish in a tank rise to the surface in anticipating of feeding when
reinforcements, and two kinds of punishments. Unfortunately, you lift the lid.
the terms used to clarify the type of reinforcement or
punishment sometimes confuse people. It's useful to start by
thinking of the terms this way: reinforcement increases the
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
likelihood that someone will act the same way in the future. In
other words, a person's behavior will increase due to a Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that
reinforcer. Punishments, on the other hand, decrease the attempts to explain the development of humans over time, both
likelihood that someone will act a particular way in the future. in the micro sense, as they develop from babies to mature
In other words, the behavior decreases. Now the clarifiers: the adults, and in the macro sense, as the culture itself evolves
term "positive," when used to describe a reinforcer or a through the years and decades.
punishment, simply means that something was presented to
the person. You can mentally substitute a "+" sign for the term,
It should be noted that it's difficult to make broad claims about
and remember that something was added to the situation. In
developmental psychology because it is effectively an umbrella
contrast, "negative" means that something was taken away.
term used to describe a number of disciplines all focused on
This time, mentally substitute a "-" sign for this term to help you
the same goal. These disciplines, however, are often quite
remember what it means. Combining all of these terms results
diverse, and can seem rather dissimilar from one another in all
in the following learning situations: positive reinforcement
respects except their shared purpose.
(presenting something to the person that increases their
behavior), positive punishment (presenting something that
decreases their behavior), negative reinforcement (taking This being the case, a good understanding of developmental
something away increases behavior), and negative psychology should take into account an overview of the
punishment (taking something away decreases behavior). various unique disciplines that make up the branch as a whole.
Again, this is a bit confusing to most people, so some real-
world examples should help.

Positive reinforcement is what most people think of when they
hear the word "reward". This type of situation occurs when you
provide a desired thing. Your child gets straight "A"s on her
report card, and as a reward, you take her out for ice cream.
Positive punishment is the classical kind of punishment that
occurs when an aversive event follows the behavior. If you
irritate a dog by yanking on his ears, and it bites you, you will
be less likely to yank on the dog's ears in the future. Similarly,
if you drive faster than the speed limit and get a hefty ticket,
you will be less likely (in theory) to speed in the future.
Negative reinforcement occurs when you take away an
aversive thing. A great example is built into our cars: the
annoying buzzer or chime stops when you fasten your seat
belt.
Negative punishment occurs when you take away a desired
thing. Your child acts up while watching a favorite TV show,

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and as punishment, you turn the TV off.


DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Social Influence: Conforming in Groups
(Asch experiments)
Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that
attempts to explain the development of humans over time, The Asch conformity experiments were a series of studies
both in the micro sense, as they develop from babies to that simply demonstrated the power of conformity in groups.
mature adults, and in the macro sense, as the culture itself Experimenters led by Solomon Asch asked students to
evolves through the years and decades. participate in a "vision test." In reality, all but one of the
It should be noted that it's difficult to make broad claims about participants were tests subjects of the experimenter, and the
developmental psychology because it is effectively an study was really about how the remaining student would react
so-called term used to describe a number of disciplines all to the confederates' behavior.
focused on the same goal. These disciplines, however, are The participants -- the real subjects and the confederates --
often quite diverse, and can seem rather dissimilar from were all seated in a classroom where they were told to
one another in all respects, except their shared purpose. announce their judgment of the length of several lines drawn
This being the case, a good understanding of developmental on a series of displays. They were asked which line was longer
psychology should take into account an overview of the than the other, which were the same length, etc. The
various unique disciplines that make up the branch as a confederates had been prearranged to all give an incorrect
whole. answer to the tests.
Some subjects showed extreme discomfort, but most
conformed to the majority view of the others in the room,
Piaget’s Stage Theory
even when the majority said that two lines different in length
One of the foremost figures in developmental psychology is by several inches were the same length. Control subjects with
Jean Piaget. He is credited with being the first to elaborate no exposure to a majority view had no trouble giving the
a "stage theory" and to argue that all humans develop correct answer.
through a similar path, progressing through recognizable
"stages", each with definable characteristics and psycho-social
goals that must be met if one is to progress to the next.
One of the most appealing facets of the stage theory is its
proposition that children learn by constructing knowledge
through experience, as opposed to it being directly imparted
by environment, or being innate and instinctual. Because of
this, Piaget's theory has found a lot of support from those who
feel it makes for a successful pedagogical approach. Indeed,
many elementary schools and pre-schools around the country
subscribe to Piaget's theory and put it into practice in their
respective curricula.

The Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive Approach in psychology is a relatively modern
approach to human behaviour that focuses on how we think,
with the belief that such thought processes affect the way in
which we behave.
There is some dispute as to who created the cognitive
approach, but some sources attribute the term to the 1950s
and 1960s, with Ulric Neisser's book Cognitive Psychology,
which made references of the human mind working in a similar
fashion to computers. The approach came about in part due
to the dissatisfaction with the behavioural approach, which
focused on our visible behaviour without understanding the
internal processes that create it. The approach is based on
the principle that our behaviour is generated by a series of
stimuli and responses to these by thought processes.

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VOCABULARY IN SENTENCES KPDS KAMP EK METİNLER

PARAGRAF 01The islands, water and resources of the South China PARAGRAPH 03
Sea have been increasingly contested in recent decades, especially
in the wake of important energy discoveries. Several countries with China’s lack of political freedoms
rapidly rising energy needs, including China, have staked claims to
parts of the sea. he South China Sea, which has an area estimated at Since the Communist Party gained power in China and established
3,500,000 square kilometers (1,200,000 square miles), is one of the the People’s Republic of China in 1949, authoritarian rule has been
world's most important shipping transit areas. According to the norm.
GlobalSecurity.org, the South China Sea has 7.5 billion barrels of
proven oil reserves and 145.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. Around the late 1970s, as the first generation of Communist Party
leaders were replaced by a second, some reforms provided a
However, undiscovered oil reserves could be as high as 213 billion foundation of rapid economic development (it is now an economic
barrels, according to a U.S. Energy Information Administration superpower). The political reforms away from authoritarian rule has
report in 2008. Presently, Brunei, China, Malaysia, Taiwan, the remained elusive.
Philippines and Vietnam claim maritime rights over this area. Since
China is the dominant country in the region, it is inevitable that For example, the government continues to exert its absolute control
conflicts arise with the other countries involved. These conflicts will over politics, and is often looks to eradicate domestic “threats” to
only tend to increase, as China's energy demands increase. (The stability of the country through excessive use of force and authority.
country's energy consumption is projected to double by 2030.) In
addition, China considers the South China Sea an obvious extension Imprisonment of political opponents and journalists critical of the
of her regional power. Among all the countries involved, the government has been common. The press is tightly regulated as is
greatest potential for conflict exists between China and the religion. Suppression of independence/secessionist movements is
Philippines and between China and Vietnam. The tension between often heavy-handed, to say the least.
China and the Philippines arises over which country has the
authority to allow local and foreign companies to exploit valuable oil For example, months of campaigning by students and others for
and gas reserves in a disputed zone of the South China Sea. The more democratic rights and freedom of speech culminated in the
dispute was recently triggered when Manila stated that it was Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, a violent crackdown by the
preparing to issue exploration licenses for 15 petroleum blocks, Chinese military with 15 days of martial law. The after-effects also
three of which are in the South China Sea. Beijing protested, resulted in government crackdown of sympathizers. For example,
claiming that two of the auctioned blocks were under its foreign media were banned for a while, local media were strictly
jurisdiction, and are part of the disputed Spratly Islands. Philippine monitored and controlled, and Communist Party members who
officials insist that the two blocks do not belong to China. sympathized with the protesters were placed under house arrest.

PARAGRAF 02 Opinion towards China brings mixed agendas

A hallmark of human nature is the ability to share information and Interestingly, around the time of that massacre, Western opinion
to comprehend the thoughts and intentions of others. This turned against China and has had an effect to this day when it
capability involves social cognition (the cognitive processes involved comes to discussions of China’s human rights situation. In summary,
in social interaction) and makes a significant contribution to the up to the end of the 1980s, China was seen as a reforming country
foundations for language development, as well as social moving towards market economics and an ally of the West to
competence. It also sets us apart from other primates. However, counter the then-Soviet Union, which China also feared despite
before infants have developed social cognition and language, they being Communist as well. The collapse of the Soviet Union around
communicate and learn new information by following the gaze of the same time, as well as this Tiananmen massacre, changed that
others and by using their own eye contact and gestures to show or view; China’s political value to the West lessened due to the demise
direct the attention of the people around them. Scientists refer to of the Soviet Union and political critique of China could therefore
this skill as “joint attention.” Joint attention is vital to social become more pronounced.
competence at all ages: Children and adults that are unable to
There is tremendous commercial interest by outsiders with China,
follow engage and react to joint attention may forever be impaired
and some of that may explain the economic-friendly-but-politically-
in their capacity for relatedness and relationships. In fact, clinical
neutral-or-weak front that many Western countries and their
research indicates that autism is characterized by chronic,
businesses have with China.
pronounced impairments in initiating joint attention. In other
words, autistics show a lack of spontaneous sharing experiences
To this day, many raise concerns in the political, commercial, social,
with others. Mundy also points out that individual differences in
and environmental concerns. Some are happy to point out problems
joint attention are related to the intensity of social symptoms,
in China, while overlooking problems in their own countries (or not
responsiveness to interventions, and long-term social outcomes in
realizing how large their own may be), for example.
children with autism. The concept of joint attention is a bit more
complicated than just following others’ gaze; it requires the
Others may be afraid of the rise of China and see it as a threat to
integration of several networks in the brain. Even though it is a vital
their jobs. Leaders of some nations such as the US, UK and Australia,
skill, scientists know surprisingly little about the development of
also hint that populous countries such as China and India may be
joint attention.
more to blame for climate change than themselves, even though
that is often spin or diverting attention from their own contributions
that have gone on for much longer. These things can all combine in

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various ways. In economic downturns, these factors can sometimes in turn paid a lot less and forced to work a lot more. Also, there is no
combine and result in racist attitudes towards Chinese (and other risk of these young laborers coming up against the factory owners
ethnic minorities). by forming unions, and hence this practice flourishes on a large
scale.
This is certainly an oversimplification as there are issues ranging
from the economic, to political to environmental and social that all •Even though countries have laws in place to deal with child labor,
attract differing views from outsiders towards China from China- these are not being implemented, leading to further exploitation of
bashing to China-supporting, and is not in the scope of this innocent children. Apathy by the government and the society has
particular article here. seen an increase in child workers in developing and under-
developed countries.
Tibet crackdown, 2008
•In some countries, women are denied the right to a formal
Tibet, which China considers part of its territory, has also seen education and are brought up only to perform household chores
problems. since a very young age. Such a society believes that an educated
woman will not fit into the traditional role of a home maker and
Demonstrations marking the anniversary of the failed 1959 Tibetan bear children. This notion fuels child labor and young girls thus get
uprising against Chinese rule resulted in the killing of numerous pushed into doing manual house work from an early age.
demonstrators. Chinese authorities claimed a low number of deaths,
while Tibetans and international media, a higher number. •Families migrating from rural to urban areas in search of better
prospects often end up pushing their children to take up odd,
The Chinese government crackdown has included closing off the menial jobs. This happens due to lack of proper educational
country to the outside world and shutting out or controlling most resources in the rural areas, as a result of which these people do not
media, including Internet media and sites used to show video find jobs in cities. So to make ends meet, children bear the brunt
footage of what happened. The military and police presence has while the adults are left unemployed.
also swelled.
•In villages, people who have no money or are under heavy debt
There have been protests in the past in Tibet, such as in 1987 and "sell off" their children for a small amount of money or to repay the
1989, but these were only in the capital, Lhasa, and involved mostly outstanding amount. This has given rise to the practice of bonded
monks, intellectuals, and students. In contrast, the 2008 riots have child labor. As a result, children are thrust into doing very hard work
spread to other parts of Tibet and included peasants and workers. for long durations of time, that could well extend into their
adulthood, till their family is free from the debt.

Effects of Child Labor •Child laborers often face serious health
CHILD LABOR problems because of working incessantly in perilous conditions.
Often the employers do not care at all about underage children who
The history of child labor can be traced back to the Industrial are almost always malnourished, and continue to work for long
Revolution, when very young children were forced to work in coal hours with little or no respite.
mines, factories, sweatshops, and even as domestic servants. Even
today, as per UNICEF, a whopping 150 million children all over the •Their mental health also takes a beating owing to this severe form
globe are engaged in child labor. of exploitation. These children often face severe mental trauma
when they attain adulthood, owing to the constant threats and ill
treatment they received toiling away as laborers.

Causes of Child Labor •The major reasons for child labor are poverty •Children who cannot find work to feed large families resort to
and overpopulation. These two go hand in hand. Poor families tend begging on the streets, and in many cases, also fall prey to
to have more children, and when earnings of a sole person do not prostitution. At other times, they even turn into thieves just to make
suffice, young children are forced to take up jobs wherever they can. a quick buck on which the family's survival depends.
Having too many members puts a financial burden on poverty-
stricken families, and parents are compelled to send their children •Child labor also has a negative impact on the welfare of a nation.
to work to get extra income. Since these children do not receive any education, it increases
illiteracy, hampering the overall economic growth of the country,
•Lack of education among the poorer sections of society is also a reflecting poor human development.
leading cause for child labor. Ignorant and illiterate people do not
think twice about engaging their children in manual labor, since they •Lack of education as children also means that when they turn into
are not aware of the harmful physical and mental trauma it can adults, finding jobs becomes tough since these children do not
inflict on the child. Being poor, they cannot afford a decent possess the necessary skills and training. This leads to a sharp hike in
education for the children, nor do they understand the importance unemployment.
of primary education in children's lives.
•Child laborers are always underpaid, and that lowers the country's
•In many developing nations, textile and garment manufacturers per capita income, putting long-term economic development in
use child labor to make garments. Factory owners cut back peril.
production costs by employing children rather than adults, who are

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To put an end to this socio-economic problem, the government including World War II and even now they are largely mistreated or
must target the root causes of child labor, namely poverty, ignored.
unemployment among adults, and take measures to control
population growth. Steps must be taken to educate ignorant people And while the World Wide Web is a great proponent for the ideals
from poorer sections about the benefits of education so that of free speech, it can also be a breeding ground harboring hatred.
children are not deprived of their right to go to school, and they can
turn into civilized adults, get decent jobs, and contribute to the The rise of emerging powers like China, Brazil, Turkey and India will
economic growth of the nation. Child labor is a social evil that needs bring an eventual end to the era of Western dominance. But
to be abolished. We as a society must work together so children are because these nations all have competing interests and strategic
freed from the evil clutches of this malpractice and lead a happy, visions. if the world's emerging powers enjoyed a consensus among
healthy life. themselves about the nature of the post-Western world, they could
drive the debate about the shape of the coming era. But rising
------- powers are far from arriving at a shared view of the rules of the next
order.
Soil pollution is closely associated with water pollution and in
conjunction they form a deadly combination China may eventually become a democracy — but, if so, it will surely
do so well after its emergence as a country of the top rank.
There are different kinds of mental illnesses that can creep up on us
without warning, with many people not aware of how these Parallel to its economic development, China is facing the challenge
happen. A mental illness can come about due to factors like of a rapidly aging population. The country's rapid urbanization and
genetics, environmental influences and events that take place in our industrialization over the past few decades have also weakened
lives. Some people tend to go through very emotional and mental traditional family support networks, particularly for the elderly. New
testing times, that put them through a period where they aren't policies are necessary if China is to successfully confront this
stable or in control of their thoughts and actions. Upon close situation.
evaluation after a series of tests have been made, a person suffering
from a mental illness is either given medication to help control the In 1979, China adopted a one-child policy to limit population growth
effects of the illness, or put through other ways of helping them and ensure economic stability. As a result, with fewer children and
handle their conditions. better living standards, the proportion of the elderly in the
population has grown substantially and will continue to do so in the
Men and women are structured differently, and so are the ways in coming years. According to one study, within 20 years China will
which their brains function. have 350 million citizens over the age of 60 — more than the
current U.S. population.
Women have a more developed limbic system. The limbic system
deals with such human aspects as behavior, emotions and memory. In this regard, the IMF reported last year that China's economy
should surpass the U.S. economy in real terms in 2016. In spite of
Self-expression is one of the main reasons why someone chooses to this, one of China's greatest fears is that the country will grow old
write poetry before it grows rich. Professor Jiang Xiangqun, a gerontologist at
Renmin University in Beijing, has argued that when developed
While the indoor sources include loud music and the noise created countries initially entered periods of significant population aging,
by various electrical appliances and tools, the outdoor sources they did so at much higher levels of per capita income.
predominantly include the noise created by vehicles and industrial
machinery The situation of older people was also affected when China's state-
owned enterprises trimmed their ranks of tens of millions of older
Just like prejudice and racism, one can be biased in terms of thinking workers, letting them go with small pensions and replacing them
positively or negatively with younger ones. The vast majority of retired workers now have
extremely low pensions that, in many cases, leave them unable to
In Zimbabwe, there has been increasing racism against the white meet some basic needs.
farmers, due to poverty and lack of land ownership by Africans.
As a result, the vast majority of older Chinese live with their families,
In a number of countries in the Middle East, discriminatory practice a situation that conforms not only with the Confucian tradition of
has been commonplace, mostly against foreign workers who work in respect for age and experience but also with a law that was passed
low wage conditions, such as domestic workers. in 1996 creating a legal obligation to take care of family elders.

Since the horrific terrorist attacks on the United States on According to some estimates, 98% of old people in China remain in
September 11, 2001, Security concerns have understandably their homes, or try to do so. Many remain mostly by themselves in
increased, but so too has racial profiling, discrimination "empty nests," as their children migrate to cities for work or to start
their own families in single-generation homes. Some researchers
have called this phenomenon the 1-2-4 problem: one child taking
care of two parents and four grandparents.
One group of people that often go unnoticed when it comes to
racism and discrimination are Gypsies. In Europe they have been However, as China's population ages rapidly, the young workforce
persecuted to a similar extent as the Jews throughout history,

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available for economic growth will diminish. This may hinder not



only the development of the country but also the quality of life for Institutions of higher education, and the system of which they are a
its senior citizens, since the young will be less able to support their part, face a host of unprecedented challenges from forces in society
elders. This is happening while the ratio of elderly dependants to that affect and are influenced by these very institutions and their
people of working age will rise sharply. It is estimated that over the communities of learners and educators. Among these forces are
next few decades this ratio will rise from 10% in 2012 to 40% by sweeping demographic changes, shrinking state budgets,
2050. revolutionary advances in information and telecommunication
technologies, globalization, competition from new educational
Global crude oil reserves - having reached a plateau in 2005 - are providers, market pressures to shape educational and scholarly
now in serious decline, causing havoc on the financial markets. Food practices toward profit-driven ends, and increasing demands and
and energy prices have soared, creating the biggest financial crisis pressures for fundamental changes in public policy and public
the world has ever seen. With most of the remaining oil located in accountability relative to higher education’s role in addressing
the Middle East, further conflict looms in this troubled region. pressing issues of communities and the society at large. Anyone of
these challenges would be significant on their own, but collectively
they increase the complexity and difficulty for higher education to
sustain or advance the fundamental work of serving the public good.
One of the challenges that educators face at present is on how to
address the students’ diversity in the classroom. Dr. Silver
emphasized on the students’ diversity that encompass readiness,
gender, culture, home environment, learning styles, intelligence Through a forum on higher education, we can agree to:
preferences and interest (Laureate,2007). These factors are very
important for the student to feel accepted and safe in a learning •Strengthening the relationship between higher education and
environment. Ensuring a positive and conducive classroom is a society will require a broad-based effort that encompasses all of
teacher’s responsibility to motivate the students to rise above high higher education, not just individual institutions, departments and
expectations on them. associations.

“Each learner is unique and yet each is expected to achieve the •Piecemeal solutions can only go so far; strategies for change must
same high learning goal” this is a statement of Dr. Silver (Laureate, be informed by a shared vision and a set of common objectives.
2007) that serves as a challenge to the teachers on how to help each
individual learner to become successful and keep the student’s •A “movement” approach for change holds greater promise for
confidence to move on and continue conquering the skills that they transforming academic culture than the prevailing “organizational”
need to master to become the best learner that they can be. In approach.
order to lead the learners in reaching their optimum learning
capacity, the educator needs to master first how to incorporate •Mobilizing change will require strategic alliances, networks, and
curriculum, instruction and assessment in delivering a lesson to the partnerships with a broad range of stakeholders within and beyond
class. According to Dr. Pickering, curriculum, instruction and higher education.
assessment is a design process that is intertwined. The linear
relationship of these three factors is a thing of the past and never
has been effective in meeting the individual needs of the students.
The Common Agenda is specifically designed to support a
The interplay of curriculum, instruction, and assessment is really “movement” approach to change by encouraging the emergence of
the life-line of teaching. The foundation of a good and effective strategic alliances among individuals and organizations who care
lesson plan lies on how the teacher manages design process of about higher education’s role in advancing the ideals of a diverse
curriculum, instruction and assessment. As an educator, it is democracy through higher education’s practices, relationships and
imperative to use the curriculum standards in creating and planning service to society.
a lesson using research-based instructions that will work best to suit
the students’ diversity to meet the goals and objectives of each
lesson. A rubric that can serve as both instruction and assessment
should be handed out to the students to serve as guidelines on how
the students can best perform in accordance to their abilities. This
way, the teacher is giving each individual student a fair chance in
accomplishing the given high expectations using their own
capabilities. A teacher’s reflection at the end of the day is very
important in assessing the effectiveness of the instruction. Through
sensitive monitoring of the class’ performance, the teacher can
readily adjust the instructional strategies that will best fit the
learners’ need. Ensuring the student’s success is the very goal of
every teacher with a vision that children are the future of the
country.

4


Causes of deaths among children under 5 years by
percentage
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international
development goals that all 193 United Nations member states and •The number of children in developing countries who died before
at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the they reached the age of five dropped from 100 to 72 deaths per
year 2015. The goals are: 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2008.

eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, •Almost nine million children still die each year before they reach
their fifth birthday.
achieving universal primary education,
•The highest rates of child mortality continue to be found in sub-
promoting gender equality and empowering women Saharan Africa, where, in 2008, one in seven children died before
their fifth birthday.
reducing child mortality rates,
•Of the 67 countries defined as having high child mortality rates,
improving maternal health, only 10 are currently on track to meet the MDG target.

combating HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases,

ensuring environmental sustainability, and

developing a global partnership for development.[1]

Each of the eight goals have specific stated targets and dates for
achieving those targets. To accelerate progress, the G8 Finance
Ministers agreed in June 2005 to provide enough funds to the World
Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the African
Development Bank (ADB) to cancel an additional $40–55 billion debt
owed by members of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) to
allow impoverished countries to re-channel the resources saved
from the forgiven debt to social programs for improving health and
education and for alleviating poverty.

Debate has surrounded adoption of the MDGs, focusing on lack of
analysis and justification behind the chosen objectives, the difficulty
or lack of measurements for some of the goals, and uneven progress
towards reaching the goals, among other criticisms. Although
developed countries' aid for achieving the MDGs have been rising
over recent years, more than half the aid is towards debt relief
owed by poor countries, with remaining aid money going towards
natural disaster relief and military aid which does not further
development.

Progress towards reaching the goals has been uneven. Some
countries have achieved many of the goals, while others are not on
track to realize any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed
progress to date and concluded with the adoption of a global action
plan to achieve the eight anti-poverty goals by their 2015 target
date. There were also new commitments on women's and children's
health, and new initiatives in the worldwide battle against poverty,
hunger and disease.

5


FEWER CHILD DEATHS believe that to set the bar any lower than this would be morally
unacceptable. Individual Goals have already been achieved by many
Little progress in sub-Saharan Africa countries in the space of only 10-15 years.

Since 1990, child mortality rates have been more than halved in Consumption of all ozone-depleting substances (ODSs)
Northern Africa, Eastern Asia, Western Asia, Latin America and the between 1986-2008
Caribbean. By contrast, many countries with unacceptably high rates
of child mortality, most notably in sub-Saharan Africa, have made IMPROVED ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER
little or no progress in recent years.
The world will meet or even exceed the drinking water target by
While under-five mortality rates have declined by 22 per cent since 2015 if current trends continue. By that time, an estimated 86 per
1990 in sub-Saharan Africa, high fertility rates and the slow pace of cent of the population in developing regions will have gained access
reducing deaths mean that the absolute number of children who to improved sources of drinking water, up from 71 per cent in 1990.
have died has actually increased, from four million in 1990 to 4.4 Four regions — Northern Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean,
million in 2008. Sub-Saharan Africa has one fifth of the world’s Eastern Asia and South-Eastern Asia — have already met the target.
children under the age of five, and it accounted for half of their 8.8
million deaths in 2008. In Southern Asia too, child mortality rates Even though progress was made primarily in rural areas, those
remain high, with progress insufficient to meet the 2015 target. areas still remain at a disadvantage. Globally, eight out of 10 people
who are without access to an improved drinking water source live in
rural areas.

ACHIEVING THE GOALS Basic sanitation target hard to reach in time

What’s different this time? With half the population of developing regions lacking basic
sanitation, the 2015 target appears to be out of reach. At the
Given the proliferation of UN Conferences and commitments, it’s current rate of progress, the world will miss the target of halving the
important to understand why the Millennium Development Goals proportion of people without access to basic sanitation, such as
are unique in many powerful ways: toilets or latrines. In 2008, an estimated 2.6 billion people around
the world lacked access to improved sanitation. If the trend
They represent a compact between all the world’s major economic continues, that number will grow to 2.7 billion by 2015. Wide
players. Poorer countries pledged to improve policies and disparities also exist by region, with sub-Saharan Africa and South
governance and increase accountability to their own citizens; Asia continuing to lag behind. Recent data show 69 per cent and 64
wealthy countries pledged to provide the resources. Since the per cent of their populations still lack access, respectively. And the
commitment to achieve the goals comes from the highest political gap between rural and urban areas remains huge, especially in
levels, for the first time, entire governments are committed to their Southern Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.
achievement—including the trade and finance ministers who hold
the world’s purse strings. And major international financial
institutions—the World Bank, the IMF, the regional development
banks, and increasingly, the membership of the World Trade Number of species threatened by extinction is growing
Organization—have made explicit that they will be accountable for
achieving the Goals too. The world has missed the 2010 target to slow the decline in
biodiversity. Nearly 17,000 species of plants and animals are
The world has never before seen so much prosperity. The hundreds currently at risk of extinction, and the number of species threatened
of billions that are being spent in Iraq have put things in perspective. by extinction is growing by the day. Despite increased investment,
We might not need more than about $50 billion of additional aid per the main causes of biodiversity loss — high rates of consumption,
year to meet the Goals. About $900 billion was invested in arms by habitat loss, invasive species, pollution and climate change — are
governments in 2003 alone; and rich countries grant large support not being sufficiently addressed. Biodiversity is vitally important;
to their domestic agricultural producers, totaling $300 billion each billions of people rely directly on diverse species for their livelihoods
year. Financially, in the grand scheme of things, we’re talking about and often survival.
relatively small change.

Performance against the goals is being monitored. These are not
just lofty statements of intent; precise monitoring mechanisms have Less loss of forest area
been put in place, in the form of national Millennium Goals reports
and the Secretary General’s reports to the General Assembly. Civil Deforestation rates have slowed, but remain fastest in some of the
society organizations around the world are creating their own set of world’s most biologically diverse regions. Tree-planting
reports as well, to ensure that governments are held to the highest programmes, combined with the natural expansion of forests in
possible standards of performance. Over 60 country reports have some regions, have added more than 7 million hectares of new
already been produced at the national level. forest annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area over the
period 2000-2010 was reduced to 5.2 million hectares per year,
The Goals are clearly achievable. Some have even argued that they down from 8.3 million hectares per year in 1990-2000. South
are not in fact millennium, but ‘minimum’ development goals. We

6


America and Africa continue to show the largest net losses of Happiness isn't about leading an obstacle-free life -- your life will
forests. always have obstacles -- instead, it's about learning how to change
what you focus on and how you react to circumstances, regardless
Great strives to improve lives of slum dwellers of whether they're good or bad. Happiness is a mental state of well-
being that comes from focusing more often on the behaviours,
The target of improving the lives of at least 100 million slum people, and things that will enrich and inspire your positive physical,
dwellers has already been achieved twice-over. In the last ten years, mental, and emotional growth.
more than 200 million slum dwellers have gained access to
improved water, sanitation or durable and less crowded housing, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
greatly enhancing their prospects of escaping poverty, disease and
illiteracy. Social movements are a type of group action. They are large
informal groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on
More urban poor specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out,
resist or undo a social change.
These improvements, however, are failing to keep pace with the
growing ranks of the urban poor. Even though the share of the Modern Western social movements became possible through
urban population living in slums has declined from 39 per cent to 33 education (the wider dissemination of literature), and increased
per cent over the last ten years, the absolute number of slum mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of
dwellers in the developing world is growing and will continue to 19th century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of
increase in the near future. The number of urban residents living in expression, education and relative economic independence
slum conditions in the developing world is now estimated at some prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the
828 million, compared to 657 million in 1990 and 767 million in unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social
2000.The target set in the year 2000 was set too low, based on too movements. However, others point out that many of the social
small an estimated number of people living in sub-standard movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in
conditions. For governments to set meaningful country-specific Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Either way, social
goals, make serious commitments and be held accountable for movements have been and continued to be closely connected with
continued progress, the target will require redefinition, such as, democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have
“Halve the proportion of slum dwellers by 2020. been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have
flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have
become part of a popular and global expression of dissent.

RUSSIA'S GRIP ON ITS FORMER SOVIET NEIGHBOURS There is no widespread agreement as to which written work should
be recognized as the earliest example of a time travel story, since a
The short but severe war in Georgia was Russia's effort to prevent number of early works feature elements ambiguously suggestive of
Georgia from retaking the Ossetia breakaway regions: South Ossetia time travel. Ancient folk tales and myths sometimes involved
and Abkhazia. Initially most western nations considered Russia's something akin to travelling forward in time; for example, in Hindu
actions during the Georgian conflict to be unduly harsh. Later mythology, the Mahabharata mentions the story of the King
reports from the Human Rights Watch and the BBC cited possible Revaita, who travels to heaven to meet the creator Brahma and is
war crimes committed by Georgia. In November, Amnesty shocked to learn that many ages have passed when he returns to
International released a 69 page report citing both Georgia and Earth.[2][3] Another one of the earliest known stories to involve
Russia for breaking serious international laws on the conduct of war. traveling forward in time to a distant future was the Japanese tale of
Since the conflict, only Russia and a handful of its close allies have "Urashima Tarō",[4] first described in the Nihongi (720).[5] It was
recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia while about a young fisherman named Urashima Taro who visits an
the United States, and most of the west, view the regions as crucial undersea palace and stays there for three days. After returning
for the territorial integrity of Georgia. home to his village, he finds himself 300 years in the future, when
he is long forgotten, his house in ruins, and his family long dead.
The European gas crisis came as a result of Russia raising the price it Another very old example of this type of story can be found in the
charges the Ukraine for 2009. The new price for Ukraine, $450 per Talmud with the story of Honi HaM'agel who went to sleep for 70
1,000 cubic meters, is about the same price that Russia charges the years and woke up to a world where his grandchildren were
rest of Europe. However, that price is more than double the $179.50 grandparents and where all his friends and family were dead.[6
Ukraine was paying last year. After Russia cut off supplies to the
Ukraine on the New Year, suspicion arose that Ukraine was
siphoning gas headed for Europe through their pipelines, resulting in
Russia cutting off all supplies running through Ukraine a week later.
As a result, at least 11 Europeans have died from the bitter cold.
After another week, an indignant Ukraine finally agreed to a
monitoring deal in order to make their pipeline systems transparent.

7


their workload and changed their role in the family, sometimes
putting a strain on their marriage. Moreover, in some cases
Sovereign nations have become unable to meet their financial husbands have used the loans, but expected the women to repay
obligations. Greece has defaulted, while Ireland and Portugal try to them. It is important to include gender training as part of the
make ends meet with bailout money received from the EU and the microfinance program to address these problems.
IMF.

The political institutions in Brussels and Washington are used to
dictating policy from the top-down — and they have increasingly
failed their people.

If we really are to understand the nature of the universe, then we
must accept two principles. First, everything is an alien to everything
else. And second, the experience of "being" something else can
never be verified or validated, but only speculated about, even if
rational deduction drives that speculation. In the 21st century, then,
to fully understand the world in which we live, we are going to need
poetry as well as science and philosophy.

Malnutrition is common in third world countries where
impoverished peoples rely on a single crop such as rice for the main
staple of their diet. However, rice does not contain adequate
amounts of all necessary nutrients to prevent malnutrition. If rice
could be genetically engineered to contain additional vitamins and
minerals, nutrient deficiencies could be alleviated. For example,
blindness due to vitamin A deficiency is a common problem in third
world countries. Researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology Institute for Plant Sciences have created a strain of
"golden" rice containing an unusually high content of beta-carotene
(vitamin A)13. Since this rice was funded by the Rockefeller
Foundation14, a non-profit organization, the Institute hopes to offer
the golden rice seed free to any third world country that requests it.
Plans were underway to develop a golden rice that also has
increased iron content. However, the grant that funded the creation
of these two rice strains was not renewed, perhaps because of the
vigorous anti-GM food protesting in Europe, and so this
nutritionally-enhanced rice may not come to market at all.

GM and non-GM crops. When they are not significantly different the
two are regarded as “substantially equivalent.

Currently, toxicity in food is tested by chemical analysis of
macro/micro nutrients and known toxins. To rely solely on this
method is at best inadequate and, at worst, dangerous.

Each year 1.8 million children die and many more are sick with
diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery because of unclean
water and poor sanitation

Maintaining a sustainable small loans program is costly, and the high
interest rates take their toll on borrowers.

Microfinance fosters self-employment, but the self-employed are
extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in the marketplace. Literacy
and numeracy education, business training and support can be
important so that loans can be effectively used.

While women have taken a high percentage of the loans and
invested in their households, improving the health and education of

8
their children, this has had a cost. Running a business has added to


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